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LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF 
CALIFORNIA 

SAN  DIEGO 


THE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  SAN  DIEGO 

LA  JOLU\,  CALIFORNIA 


Bp  Gustav  Kobbe 


All-of-a-Sudden  Carmen 
The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/completeoperabooOOkobbiala 


Copyright  1 


Mary  Garden  as  Sappho 


Copyright,    1919 

BY 

GUSTAV   KOBBE 


Ube  ftnicberbocfiec  pvess,  Hew  IQorft 


FOREWORD 

Through  the  thoughtfulness  of  William  J.  Henderson 
I  was  asked  to  supply  material  for  The  Complete  Opera 
Book,  which  was  missing  at  the  time  of  Mr.  Kobb^'s  death. 

In  performing  my  share  of  the  work  it  has  been  my 
endeavor  to  confine  myself  to  facts,  rather  than  to  intrude 
with  personal  opinions  upon  a  work  which  should  stand 
as  a  monument  to  Mr.  Kobbe's  musical  knowledge  and 
convictions. 

Katharine  Wright. 
New  York,  1919. 


ill 


Contents 

PAGE 

Schools  of  Opera      ......         i 

Opera  before  Gluck  .....         4 

Christoph  Willibald  Gluck,  1714-1787  8 

Orpheus  and  Eurydice 

Armide 

Iphigenia  in  Taiuis 

Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart,  1 756-1 791  21 

Marriage  of  Figaro 
Don  Giovanni 
Magic  Flute 

Ludwig  van  Beethoven,  1770-1827     ...       54 

Fidelio 

Cari  Maria  von  Weber,  1 786-1 826     ...       63 

Freischxitz 
Euryanthe 
Oberon 

Why  Some  Operas  are  rarely  given  -         -       77 

From  Weber  to  Wagner   .....       79 
Richard  Wagner,  1813-1883      ....       81 

Rienzi 

Flying  Dutchman 

TannhSuser 

Lohengrin 


vi  Contents 


Ring  of  the  Nibelung 

Rheingold — Walkiire — Siegfried — Gotterdammerung 
Tristan  and  Isolde 
Meistersinger 
Parsifal 

Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini,  1 792-1 868  .     293 

Barber  of  Seville 
Semiramide 
WiUiam  TeU 

Vincenzo  Bellini,  1802-1835       ....     318 

Sonnambula 

Norma 

Pimtani 

Gaetano  Donizetti,  1 797-1 848  ....     334 

Elisire  d'Amore 

Lucrezia  Borgia 

Lucia  di  Lammermoor 

Daughter  of  the  Regiment 

Favorita 

Linda  di  Chamounix 

Don  Pasquale 

Giuseppe  Verdi,  1813-1901        ....     376 

Emani 

Rigoletto 

Trovatore 

Traviata 

Ballo  in  Maschera 

Before  and  After  "Ballo  in  Maschera"  .  .  .     433 

Luisa  Miller 

SicUian  Vespers 

Force  of  Destiny 

Don  Carlos 

Aida 

Othello 

Falstaff 


Contents  yfi 

PACB 

Arrigo  Bolto,  1842-  ......     474 

Mephistopheles 
Nero 

Amilcare  Ponchielli,  1834-1886  481 

Gioconda 

French  Opera  ......     493 

Mehul  to  Meyerbeer        .....     495 

Etienne  Nicholas  Mehul,  1763-1817  495 

Joseph 

Francois  Adrien  Boildieu,  1775-1834  495 

Caliph  of  Bagdad 
Jean  de  Paris 
Dame  Blanche 

Daniel  Francois  Esprit  Auber,  1 782-1 871  496 

Masaniello 
Fra  Diavolo 

Louis  J.  F.  Herold,  1791-1833   ....     497 

Zampa 

Adolphe  Charles  Adam,  1 802-1 856    .  497 

Postilion  of  Longumeau 

Jacques  Francois  Fromental  Elie  Halevy,  1799- 

1862  .  498 

Juive 

Giacomo  Meyerbeer,  1791-1864  .     499 

Robert  le  Diable 

Huguenots 

Prophet 

L'  Africaine 

Star  of  the  North 

Dinorah 


viii  Contents 

PAGE 

Hector  Berlioz,  1 803-1 869         ....     535 

Benvenuto  Cellini 
Beatrice  and  Benedict 
Trojans 
Damnation  of  Faust 

Friedrich  von  Flotow,  181 2-1 883        .  546 

Martha 

Charles  Frangois  Gounod,  1818-1893  561 

Faust 

Romeo  and  Juliet 

Ambroise  Thomas,  1811-1896  ....     580 

Mignon 
Hamlet 

Georges  Bizet  ......     586 

Carmen 
Pearl  Fishers 
Djamileh 

ItaUan  Opera  since  Verdi  ....     607 

Pietro  Mascagni,  1863-  .         .         .         .610 

Cavalleria  Rusticana 

Maschere 

Friend  Fritz 

Iris 

Lodoletta 

Isabeau 

Ruggiero  Leoncavallo,  1858-  .         .  627 

Pagliacci 

Giacomo  Puccini,  1858-  ....     638 

Villi 

Manon  Lescaut 

Boheme 

Tosca 


Contents  fx 

PACK 

Madam  Butterfly  i       ■ ' 

Girl  of  the  Golden  West 

Rondlne 

Sister  Angelica 

Tabarro 

Gianni  Schicchi 

Riccardo  Zandonai  .....     680 

Francesca  da  Rimini 

Franco  Leoni,  1864-  .....     686 

L  'Oracolo 

Rip  Van  Winkle 

Raggio  di  Ltma 

lb  and  Little  Christina 

Italo  Montemezzi,  1875-  ....     690 

Love  of  Three  Elings 
Giovanni  Gallurese 
Hillera 

Ermanno  Wolf -Ferrari,  1876-   ....     698 

Jewels  of  the  Madonna 
Donne  Curiose 
Secret  of  Suzanne 
Doctor  Cupid 

Umberto  Giordano,  1867-  .         ...     707 

Madame  Sans  GSne 
Andre  Chenier 
Fedora 
Siberia 

Modem  Italian  Opera  .         .        .  715 

Luigi  Mancinelli       ......     715 

£ro  e  Leandro 

Riccardo  Zandonai  .         .         .         .  .716 

Conchita 
Alberto  Franchetti  .  .         .         .  7^7 

Cristoforo  Colombo 


Contents 


Luigi  and  Federigo  Ricci 

Crispino  e  la  Comare 

Alfred  Catalani 
Loreley 

Umberto  Giordano   . 

Fedora 
Alberto  Franchetti    . 

Germania 

Modem  French  Opera 

Jacques  Offenbach  . 
Tales  of  Hoffmann 

Delibes  . 

Lakme 

Saint-Saens 

Samson  et  Dalila 


Lalo 


Roi  d'Ys 


Massenet 


Griselidis 

Thais 

Manon 

Don  Quichotte 

Cinderella 

Navarraise 

Jongleur  de  Notre  Dame 

Werther 

Herodiade 

Sapho 

Cleopatre 


.  718 

•  719 
.  720 
.  721 

•  723 

•  723 

•  724 

•  725 

•  727 

.  727 


Contents  Hi 

PAGB 

Gustave  Charpentier        .....     750 

Loxiise 

Reyer 752 

Salammbo 

Debussy  752 

Pell6as  and  Melisande 

Pierre  Louys   .......     756 

Aphrodite 

Alfred  Bruneau        ......     758 

Attack  on  the  Mill 

Maurice  Maeterlinck        .....     759 

Ariadne  and  Blue-Beard 

Henri  Fevrier .......     761 

Monna  Vanna  , , 

Gismonda  ^i  i* 

Henri  Rabaud  ......     763 

Maroiif 

Sylvio  Lazzari  ......     764 

Grasshopper 

Xavier  Leroux .......     765 

Queen  Fianunette 
Wayfarer 

Raoul  Gunsbourg  .....     767 

Old  Eagle 

Modem  German  and  Bohemian  Opera  769 

St.  Elizabeth 

Peter  Cornelius       ......     770 

Barber  of  Bagdad 


y^i  Contents 


PAGE 


Herman  Goetz         ......     772 

Taming  of  the  Shrew 

Karl  Goldmark  773 

Queen  of  Sheba 
Cricket  on  the  Hearth 

Engelbert  Humperdinck    .....     776 

Konigskinder 
Hansel  and  Gretel 

Briill 779 

Golden  Cross 

Blech 781 

Sealed  In 

Viktor  E.  Nessler 784 

Trumpeter  of  SSkkingen 

Wilhelm  Kienzl 787 

Evangelist 
Kuhreigen 

Ludwig  Thuille        '. 791 

Lobetanz 

Hugo  Wolf 792 

Magistrate 

Richard  Strauss,  1864- 796 

Fire  Famine 

Guntram 

Salome 

Elektra 

Rosenkavalier 

Ariadne  on  Naxos 

Friedrich  Smetana  .         .         .         .  .815 

Bartered  Bride 


Contents 


nu 


Russian  Opera         .... 

PAGE 

.     8i8 

Michael  Ivanovich  Glinka 

.     8i8 

Russian  and  Ludmilla 

Borodin  ...... 

Prince  Igor 

.     819 

Moussorgsky 

Boris  Godounoff 

.     822 

Peter  Ilitsch  Tschaikowsky 

Eugen  Onegin 
Pique-Dame 

.     825 

Rimsky-Korsakoff    .... 

Coq  d'Or 

.     828 

Ignace  Jan  Paderewski 
Manru 

.     830 

American  Opera 

.     832 

Frederick  Shepherd  Converse 

Sacrifice 
Pipe  of  Desire 

.     832 

Charles  Wakefield  Cadman 

.     834 

Shanewis 

John  Adams  Hugo   .... 

Temple  Dancer 

.     834 

Joseph  Breil    ..... 

Legend 

.     836 

Victor  Herbert         .... 

•     837 

Natomah 

xiv  Contents 

PAGE 

Horatio  Parker         ......     840 

Mona 

Walter  Damrosch  .  .841 

C3rrano 

Reginald  de  Koven  ......     843 

Canterbury  Pilgrims 

Spanish  Opera         ......     849 

Enrique  Granados,  1867-1916   ....     849 

Goyescas 

Index      ........     851 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Mary  Garden  as  Sappho  .  .  Frontispiece 

Lomse  Homer  as  Orpheus  in  "Orpheus  and Eurydice"      lo 

Hempel  {Susanna),  Matzenauer  {The  Countess),  and 

Farrar  {Cheruhino)  in  "  Le  Nozze  di  Figaro  "  .       26 

Scotti  as  Don  Giovanni  .....       34 

Sembrich  as  Zerlina  in  "Don  Giovanni"  ...       35 

Scotti  as  Don  Giovanni   ......       42 

Alten  and  Goritz  as  Papagena  and  Papageno in  "The 

Magic  Flute" 43 

Matzenauer  as  Fidelio    ......       56 

Farrar  as  £/i2a6e/ A  in  "  Tannhauser  "        .  .  .108 

"  Tannhauser, "  Finale,  Act  II.  Tannhduser  (Mac- 
lennan),  Elizabeth  (Fornia),  Wolfram  (Dean),  The 
Landgrave  (Cranston)       .  .  .  .109 

Sembach  as  Lohengrin    .  .  .  .  .  .122 

Schumann-Heink  as  Or/rwd  in  "  Lohengrin "      .  .123 

Emma  Eames  as -E/5a  in  "  Lohengrin "      .  .  .     128 

Louise  Homer  as  Fricka  in  * '  The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung  "    1 29 

Lilli  Lehmann  as  Briinnhilde  in ' '  Die  Walkure  "  .     i66 

"The  Valkyr  "  Act  I.     Hunding  (Parker),  SiegUnde 

(Rennyson),  and  Siegmund  (Maclennan)  .     167 


Illustrations 


Fremstad  as  Briinnhilde  in  "Die  Walkiire" 

Fremstad  as  Sieglinde  in  "Die  Walkiire" 

Weil  as  Wotan  in  "Die  Walkiire"    , 

"Die  Walkiire  "  Act  III.     Briinnhilde  (Margaret 
Crawford)       ...... 

Edouard  de  Reszke  as  Hagen  in  "  Gotterdammerung ' 

Jean  de  Reszke  as  Siegfried  in  "Gotterdammerung' 

Nordic  a  as  Isolde  . 

Lilli  Lehmann  as  Isolde 

Jean  de  Reszke  as  Tristan 

Gadski  as  Isolde    . 

Ternina  as  Isolde 

Emil  Fischer  as  Hans  Sachs  in  ' '  Die  Meistersinger ' 

Weil  and  Goritz  as  Hans  Sachs  and  Beckmesser  in  "  Die 
Meistersinger"         ..... 

The  Grail-Bearer   ...... 

Winckelmann  and  Matema  as  Parsifal  and  Kundry 

Scaria  as  Gurnemanz       ..... 

Sammarco  as  Figaro  in  "The  Barber  of  Seville" 

Galli-Curci  as  Rosina  in  "The  Barber  of  Seville" 

Sembrich  as  Rosina  in  "The  Barber  of  Seville" 

Hempel  {Adina)  and  Caruso  (Nemorino)  in  "L'Elixir 
d'Amore" 

Caruso  as  Edgardo  in  "Lucia  di  Lammermoor" 

Galli-Curci  as  Lucia  in  "Lucia  di  Lammermoor" 

Galli-Curci  as  Gilda  in  ' '  Rigoletto  "  . 

Caruso  as  the  Duke  in  "Rigoletto". 


Illustrations 


XVll 


The  Quartet  in  "Rigoletto. "  The  Duke  (Sheehan), 
Maddalena  (Albright),  Gilda  (Easton).  Rigoletto 
(Goff) 

Riccardo  Martin  as  Manrico  in  "II  Trovatore" 

Schumann-Heink  as  Azucena  in  "II  Trovatore" 

Galli-Curci  as  Violetta  in  "La  Traviata" 

Farrar  as  Violetta  in  "La  Traviata" 

Scotti  as  Germont  in  "La  Traviata" 

Emma  Eames  as  A'ida    . 

SaXiza. d& Rhadames  in  " Kida.'' 

Louise  Homer  as  Amneris  in  "Aida" 

Rosina  Galli  in  the  Ballet  of  "Aida" 

Alda  as  Desdemona  in  "Otello" 

Amato  as  Barnaba  in  "La  Gioconda" 

Caruso  as  Enzo  in  "La  Gioconda"  . 

Louise  Homer  as  Laura  in  "La  Gioconda" 

Planjon  as  Saint  Bris  in  "The  Huguenots" 

Jean  de  Reszke  as  Raoul  in  "The  Huguenots" 

Ober  and  De  Luca;  Caruso  and  Hempel  in  "  Martha 

Plangon  as  Mephistopheles  in  "Faust" 

Galli-Curci  as  Juliette  ih  "Romeo  et  Juliette"  . 

Calv^  as  Carmen  with  Sparkes  as  Frasquita,  and  Bras 
lau  as  Mercedes 

Caruso  as  Don  Jose  in  "  Carmen" 

Caruso  as  Don  Jose  in  "Carmen" 

Calv^  as  Carmen    . 

Amato  as  Escamillo  in  "Carmen" 


400 
401 
410 
411 
420 
421 
442 

443 
448 

449 
460 

461 
488 
489 
508 

509 
548 
549 
578 

579 
590 
591 
594 
595 


XVlll 


Illustrations 


Gadski  as  Santuzza  in  "Cavalleria  Rusticana" 

Bori  as  Iris  ...... 

Caruso  as  Canio  in  "I  Pagliacci"    . 

Farrar  as  Nedda  in  "I  Pagliacci"    . 

Farrar  as  Mimi  in  "La  Boheme"    . 

Caf^  Momus  Scene,  "La  Boheme."  Act  IL     Mimi 
(Rennyson),  Musette  (Joel),  Randolph  (Sheehan) 

Cavalieri  as  Tosca. 

Scotti  as  Scarpia  . 

Emma  Eames  as  Tosca  . 

Caruso  as  Mario  in  "Tosca" 

Farrar  as  Tosca 

"Madama  Butterfly."  Act  L     (Francis  Maclennan, 
Ren^e  Vivienne,  and  Thomas  Richards) 

Farrar  as  Cio-Cio-San  in  "Madama  Butterfly" 

Destinn  as  Minnie,  Caruso  as  Johnson,  and  Amato  as 
Jack  Ranee  in  "The  Girl  of  the  Golden  West " 

Alda  as  Francesca,  and  Martinelli  as  Paolo  in  "Fran 
cesca  da  Rimini "     . 


Bori  and  Ferrari-Fontana  in  "The  Love  of 
Kings" 

Farrar  as  Catherine  in  "  Mme.  Sans  Gene  " 

Galli-Curci  as  Lakme      .... 

Caruso  as  Samson  in  "Samson  and  Dalila" 

Mary  Garden  as  Griselidis 

Mary  Garden  as  Thais  .... 

Farrar  and  Amato  as  Thais  and  A  thanael  . 


Three 


PAGE 
614 

644 

645 
656 

660 
661 
664 

665 

668 

669 

682 

683 
710 
711 
726 
727 
730 
731 


Illustrations  xix 


Farrar  as  Thais     ...... 

Farrar  and  Amato  as  Thais  and  A thana'el. 

Caruso  as  Des  Grieux  in  "  Manon"  . 

Mary  Garden  in  "  Le  Jongleur  de  N6tre  Dame  " . 

Mary  Garden  as  Louise  ..... 

Lucienne  Br^val  as  Salammbo 

Mary  Garden  as  Melisande  in  "  Pelleas  and  M61isande 

Farrar  as  the  Goose  Girl  in  ' '  Konigskinder ' ' 

Van  Dyck  and  Mattfelt  as  Hansel  and  Gretel 

Mary  Garden  as  Salome  .... 

Hempel  as  the  Princess  and  Ober  as  Octavian  in  "  Der 
Rosencavalier "        ..... 

Scene  from  the  Ballet  in  "Prince  Igor"  (with  Rosina 
Galli)     .      • 

Anna  Case  as  Fedor,  Didur  as  Boris,  and  Sparkes  as 
Xenia  in  "Boris  Godounov"     . 


734 
735 
738 
739 
750 
751 
754 
776 

777 
802 

803 
820 
821 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Schools  of  Opera 

THERE  are  three  great  schools  of  opera, — Italian, 
French,  and  German.  None  other  has  developed 
sufficiently  ^to  require  comment  in  this  brief  chapter. 

Of  the  three  standard  schools,  the  Italian  is  the  most 
frankly  melodious.  When  at  its  best,  Italian  vocal  melody 
ravishes  the  senses.  When  not  at  its  best,  it  merely  tickles 
the  ear  and  offends  common  sense.  "Aida"  was  a  turning 
point  in  Italian  music.  Before  Verdi  composed  "Aida," 
Italian  opera,  despite  its  many  beauties,  was  largely  a 
thing  of  temperament,  inspirationally,  but  often  also  care- 
lessly set  forth.  Now,  Italian  opera  composers  no  longer 
accept  any  libretto  thrust  at  them.  They  Ihink  out  their 
scores  more  carefully;  they  produce  works  in  which  due 
attention  is  paid  to  both  vocal  and  orchestral  effect.  The 
older  composers  still  represented  in  the  repertoire  are 
Rossini,  Bellini,  Donizetti,  and  Verdi.  The  last-named, 
however,  also  reaches  well  over  into  the  modern  school  of 
Italian  opera,  whose  foremost  living  exponent  is  Puccini. 

Although  Rameau  (i 683-1 764),  whose  "Castor  and 
Pollux"  held  the  stage  until  supplanted  by  Gluck's  works, 
was  a  native  of  France,  French  opera  had  for  its  founder 
the  Italian,  Lully;  and  one  of  its  chief  exponents  was  the 
German,  Meyerbeer.     Two  foreigners,  therefore,  have  had 


2  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

a  large  share  in  developing  the  school.  It  boasts,  however, 
many  distinguished  natives — Halevy,  Auber,  Gounod, 
Bizet,  Massenet, 

In  the  French  school  of  opera  the  instrumental  support 
of  the  voice  is  far  richer  and  the  combination  of  vocal  and 
instrumental  effect  more  discriminating  than  in  the  old 
school  of  Italian  opera.  A  first  cousin  of  Italian  opera,  the 
French,  nevertheless,  is  more  carefully  thought  out,  some- 
times even  too  calculated;  but,  in  general,  less  florid,  and 
never  indifferent  to  the  librettist  and  the  significance  of  the 
lines  he  has  written  and  the  situations  he  has  evoked. 
Massenet  is,  in  the  truest  sense,  the  most  recent  representa- 
tive of  the  school  of  Meyerbeer  and  Gounod,  for  Bizet's 
"Carmen"  is  unique,  and  Debussy's  " P611eas  et  M^lisande" 
a  wholly  separate  manifestation  of  French  art  for  the  l3Tic 
stage. 

The  German  school  of  opera  is  distinguished  by  a  serious- 
ness of  purpose  that  discards  all  effort  at  vocal  display  for 
itself  alone,  and  strives,  in  a  score,  well-balanced  as  between 
voice  and  orchestra,  to  express  more  forcibly  than  could  the 
spoken  work,  the  drama  that  has  been  set  to  music. 

An  opera  house  like  the  Metropolitan,  which  practically 
has  three  companies,  presents  Italian,  French,  and  German 
operas  in  the  language  in  which  they  were  written,  or  at 
least  usually  does  so.  Any  speaker  before  an  English- 
speaking  audience  can  always  elicit  prolonged  applause  by 
maintaining  that  in  English-speaking  countries  opera  should 
be  sung  in  English.  But,  in  point  of  fact,  and  even  dis- 
regarding the  atrocities  that  masquerade  as  translations  of 
opera  into  English,  opera  should  be  sung  in  the  language 
in  which  it  is  written.  For  language  unconsciously  af- 
fects, I  might  even  say  determines,  the  structure  of  the 
melody. 

Far  more  important  than  language,  however,  is  it  that 
opera  be  sung  by  great  artists.     For  these  assimilate  music 


Schools  of  Opera  3 

and  give  it  forth  in  all  its  essence  of  truth  and  beauty. 
Were  great  artists  to  sing  opera  in  Choctaw,  it  would  still 
be  welcome  as  compared  with  opera  rendered  by  inferior 
interpreters,  no  matter  in  what  language. 


opera  Before  Gluck 

G  LUCK'S  "  Orfeo  ed  Euridice"  (Orpheus  and  Eurydlce), 
produced  in  1762,  is  the  oldest  opera  in  the  repertoire 
of  the  modern  opera  house.  But  when  you  are  told  that 
the  Grand  Op^ra,  Paris,  was  founded  by  Lully,  an  Italian 
composer,  in  1672;  that  Italians  were  writing  operas  nearly 
a  century  earlier;  that  a  German,  Reinhard  Keiser  (1679- 
1739),  is  known  to  have  composed  at  least  116  operas;  and 
that  another  German,  Johann  Adolph  Hasse,  composed 
among  his  operas,  numbering  at  least  a  hundred,  one  entitled 
"  Artaxerxes, "  two  airs  from  which  were  sung  by  Carlo 
Broschi  every  evening  for  ten  years  to  soothe  King  Philip  V. 
of  Spain; — you  will  realize  that  opera  existed,  and  even  flour- 
ished before  Gluck  produced  his  "Orpheus  and  Eurydice." 
Opera  originated  in  Florence  toward  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  A  band  of  composers,  enthusiastic, 
intellectual,  aimed  at  reproducing  the  musical  declamation 
which  they  believed  to  have  been  characteristic  of  the 
representation  of  Greek  tragedy.  Their  scores  were  not 
melodious,  but  composed  in  a  style  of  declamatory  recitative 
highly  dramatic  for  its  day.  What  usually  is  classed  as  the 
first  opera,  Jacopo  Peri's  "  Dafne,  "  was  privately  performed 
in  the  Palazzo  Corsi,  Florence,  in  1597.  So  great  was  its 
success  that  Peri  was  commissioned,  in  1600,  to  write  a 
similar  work  for  the  festivities  incidental  to  the  marriage  of 
Henry  IV.  of  France  with  Maria  dc  Medici,  and  composed 
"Euridice, "  said  to  have  been  the  first  opera  ever  produced 
in  public. 

4 


opera  Before  Gluck  5 

The  new  art-form  received  great  stimulus  from  Claudio 
Monteverde,  the  Duke  of  Mantua's  director  of  music,  who 
composed  "Arianna"  (Ariadne)  in  honor  of  the  marriage  of 
Francesco  Gonzaga  with  Margherita,  Infanta  of  Savoy. 
The  scene  in  which  Ariadne  bewails  her  desertion  by  her 
lover  was  so  dramatically  written  (from  the  standpoint  of 
the  day,  of  course)  that  it  produced  a  sensation.  The 
permanency  of  opera  was  assured,  when  Monteverde 
brought  out,  with  even  greater  success,  his  opera  "Orfeo, " 
which  showed  a  further  advance  in  dramatic  expression,  as 
well  as  in  the  treatment  of  the  instrumental  score.  This 
composer  invented  the  tremolo  for  strings — marvellous 
then,  commonplace  now,  and  even  reprehensible,  unless 
employed  with  great  skill. 

Monteverde's  scores  contained,  besides  recitative,  sug- 
gestions of  melody.  The  Venetian  composer,  Cavalli, 
introduced  melody  more  conspicuously  into  the  vocal  score 
in  order  to  relieve  the  monotonous  effect  of  a  continuous 
recitative,  that  was  interrupted  only  by  brief  melodious 
phrases.  In  his  airs  for  voice  he  foreshadowed  the  aria 
form,  which  was  destined  to  be  freely  developed  by  Ales- 
sandro  Scarlatti  (1659- 17 25).  Scarlatti  was  the  first  to 
introduce  into  an  opera  score  the  ritornello — the  instrumen- 
tal introduction,  interlude,  or  postlude  to  a  composition  for 
voice.  Indeed,  Scarlatti  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  what 
we  call  Italian  opera,  the  chief  characteristic  of  which  is 
melody  for  the  voice  with  a  comparatively  simple  accom- 
paniment. 

By  developing  vocal  melody  to  a  point  at  which  it  ceased 
to  be  dramatically  expressive,  but  degenerated  into  mere 
voice  pyrotechnics,  composers  who  followed  Scarlatti  laid 
themselves  open  to  the  charge  of  being  too  subservient  to 
the  singers,  and  of  sacrificing  dramatic  truth  and  depth  of 
expression  to  the  vanity  of  those  upon  the  stage.  Opera 
became  too  much  a  series  of  showpieces  for  its  interpreters. 


6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  first  practical  and  effective  protest  against  this  came 
from  Lully,  who  already  has  been  mentioned.  He  banished 
all  meaningless  embellishment  from  his  scores.  But  in 
the  many  years  that  intervened  between  Lully's  career  and 
Gluck's,  the  abuse  set  in  again.  Then  Gluck,  from  copying 
the  florid  Italian  style  of  operatic  composition  early  in  his 
career,  changed  his  entire  method  as  late  as  1762,  when  he 
was  nearly  fifty  years  old,  and  produced  "Orfeo  ed  Euri- 
dice."  From  that  time  on  he  became  the  champion  for  the 
restoration  of  opera  to  its  proper  function  as  a  well-balanced 
score,  in  which  the  voice,  while  pre-eminent,  does  not ' '  run 
away  with  the  whole  show." 

Indeed,  throughout  the  history  of  opera,  there  have  been 
recurring  periods,  when  it  has  become  necessary  for  com- 
posers with  the  true  interest  of  the  lyric  stage  at  heart,  to 
restore  the  proper  balance  between  the  creator  of  a  work 
and  its  interpreters,  in  other  words  to  prevent  opera  from 
degenerating  from  a  musical  drama  of  truly  dramatic 
significance  to  a  mere  framework  for  the  display  of  vocal 
pyrotechnics.  Such  a  reformer  was  Wagner.  Verdi, 
born  the  same  year  as  Wagner  (181 3),  but  outliving  him 
nearly  twenty  years,  exemplified  both  the  faults  and  virtues 
of  opera.  In  his  earlier  works,  many  of  which  have  com- 
pletely disappeared  from  the  stage,  he  catered  almost 
entirely  to  his  singers.  But  in  "Aida"  he  produced  a 
masterpiece  full  of  melody  which,  while  offering  every 
opportunity  for  beautiful  singing,  never  degenerates  into 
mere  vocal  display.  What  is  here  said  of  Verdi  could  have 
been  said  of  Gluck.  His  earlier  operas  were  in  the  florid 
style.  Not  until  he  composed  "Orpheus  and  Eurydice" 
did  he  approach  opera  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  reformer. 
"Orpheus"  was  his  "Aida." 

Regarding  opera  Gluck  wrote  that  "the  true  mission  of 
music  is  to  second  the  poetry,  by  strengthening  the  expres- 
sion of  the  sentiments  and  increasing  the  interest  of  the 


opera  Before  Gluck  7 

situations,  without  interrupting  and  weakening  the  action 
by  superfluous  ornaments  in  order  to  tickle  the  ear  and 
display  the  agility  of  fine  voices." 

These  words  might  have  been  written  by  Richard  Wagner, 
they  express  so  well  what  he  accomplished  in  the  century 
following  that  in  which  Gluck  lived.  They  might  also 
have  been  penned  by  Verdi,  had  he  chosen  to  write  an 
introduction  to  his  "Aida,"  "Otello,"  or  "Falstaff";  and 
they  are  followed  by  every  successful  composer  of  grand 
opera  today — Mascagni,  Leoncavallo,  Puccini,  Massenet, 
Strauss. 

In  fact,  however  much  the  public  may  be  carried  away 
temporarily  by  astonishing  vocal  display  introduced  without 
reason  save  to  be  astonishing,  the  fate  of  every  work  for  the 
lyric  stage  eventually  has  been  decided  on  the  principle 
enunciated  above.  Without  being  aware  of  it,  the  public 
has  applied  it.  For  no  matter  how  sensationally  popular 
a  work  may  have  been  at  any  time,  it  has  not  survived 
imless,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  the  composer  has  been 
guided  by  the  cardinal  principle  of  true  dramatic  expression. 

Finally,  I  must  not  be  misunderstood  as  condemning, 
at  wholesale,  vocal  ntmibers  in  opera  that  require  extra- 
ordinary technique.  Scenes  in  opera  frequently  offer 
legitimate  occasion  for  brilliant  vocal  display.  Witness 
the  arias  of  the  Queen  of  the  Night  in  "The  Magic  Flute," 
"Una  voce  poco  fa"  in  "The  Barber  of  Seville,  "Ah!  non 
giimge"  in  " Sonnambula, "  the  mad  scene  in  "Lucia," 
"Caro  nome"  in  "Rigoletto, "  the  "Jewel  Song"  in  "Faust," 
and  even  Briinnhilde's  valkyr  shout  in  "Die  Walkure" — 
works  for  the  lyric  stage  that  have  escorted  thousands  of 
operatic  scores  to  the  grave,  with  Gluck's  gospel  on  the 
true  mission  of  opera  for  a  funeral  service. 


Christoph  Willibald  Gluck 

(1714-1787) 

GLUCK  is  the  earliest  opera  composer  represented  in  the 
repertoire  of  the  modern  opera  house.  In  this  coun- 
try three  of  his  works  survive.  These  are,  in  the  order  of 
their  production,  "Orfeo  ed  Euridice"  (Orpheus  and  Eury- 
dice),  "Armide,"  and  "  Iphigenie  en  Tauride  "  (Iphigenia  in 
Tauris).  "Orpheus  and  Eurydice, "  produced  in  1762,  is 
the  oldest  work  of  its  kind  on  the  stage.  It  is  the  great- 
great-grandfather  of  operas. 

Its  composer  was  a  musical  reformer  and  "Orpheus"  was 
the  first  product  of  his  musical  reform.  He  had  been  a  com- 
poser of  operas  in  the  florid  vocal  style,  which  sacrificed  the 
dramatic  verities  to  the  whims,  fancies,  and  ambitions  of 
the  singers,  who  sought  only  to  show  off  their  voices.  Gluck 
began,  with  his  "Orpheus, "  to  pay  due  regard  to  true  dra- 
matic expression.  His  great  merit  is  that  he  accomplished 
this  without  ignoring  the  beauty  and  importance  of  the 
voice,  but  by  striking  a  correct  balance  between  the  vocal 
and  instrimiental  portions  of  the  score. 

Simple  as  his  operas  appear  to  us  today,  they  aroused  a 
strife  comparable  only  with  that  which  convulsed  musical 
circles  during  the  progress  of  Wagner's  career.  The  op- 
position to  his  reforms  reached  its  height  in  Paris,  whither 
he  went  in  1772.  His  opponents  invited  Nicola  Piccini, 
at  that  time  famous  as  a  composer  of  operas  in  the  florid 
Italian  style,  to  compete  with  him.     So  fierce  was  the  wax 

8 


Christoph  Willibald  Gluck  9 

between  Gluckists  and  Piccinists,  that  duels  were  fought 
and  lives  sacrificed  over  the  respective  merits  of  the  two 
composers.  Finally  each  produced  an  opera  on  the  subject 
of  "Iphigenia  in  Tauris. "  Gluck's  triumphed,  Piccini's 
failed. 

Completely  victorious,  Gluck  retired  to  Vienna,  where  he 
died,  November  25,  1787. 

ORFEO  ED  EURIDICE 

ORPHEUS  AND  EURYDICE 

Opera  in  three  acts.  Music  by  Christoph  Willibald  Gluck;  book  by 
Raniero  di  Calzabigi.  Productions  and  revivals.  Vienna,  October  5, 
1762;  Paris,  as  "Orph^e  et  Eurydice,"  1774;  London,  Covent  Garden, 
June  26,  i860;  New  York,  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  1885  (in  German) ; 
Academy  of  Alusic,  American  Opera  Company,  in  English,  under  Theo- 
dore Thomas,  January  8,  1886,  with  Helene  Hastreiter,  Emma  Juch, 
and  Minnie  Dilthey;  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  1910  (with  Homer, 
Gadski,  and  Alma  Gluck). 

Characters 

Orpheus Contralto 

Eurydice Soprano 

Amor,  God  of  Love Soprano 

A  Happy  Shade Soprano 

Shepherds  and  Shepherdesses,   Furies 

and  Demons,  Heroes  and  Heroines  in 

Hades 

Time — Antiquity.  Place — Greece  and  the  Nether  Regions. 

Following  a  brief  and  solemn  prelude,  the  curtain  rises 
on  Act  I,  showing  a  grotto  with  the  tomb  of  Eurydice. 
The  beautiful  bride  of  Orpheus  has  died.  Her  husband  and 
friends  are  mourning  at  her  tomb.  During  an  affecting 
aria  and  chorus  ("Thou  whom  I  loved  ")  funeral  honours  are 
paid  to  the  dead  bride.  A  second  orchestra,  behind  the 
scenes,  echoes,  with  charming  effect,  the  distracted  hus- 
band's evocations  to  his  bride  and  the  mournful  measures  of 
the  chorus,  until,  in  answer  to  the  piercing  cries  of  Orpheus 


lo  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

and  the  exclamatory  recitative,  "Gods,  cruel  gods,"  Amor 
appears.  He  tells  the  bereaved  husband  that  Zeus  has 
taken  pity  on  him.  He  shall  have  permission  to  go  down  into 
Hades  and  endeavour  to  propitiate  Pluto  and  his  minions 
solely  through  the  power  of  his  music.  But,  should  he 
rescue  Eurydice,  he  must  on  no  account  look  back  at  her 
until  he  has  crossed  the  Styx. 

Upon  that  condition,  so  difficult  to  fulfil,  because  of  the 
love  of  Orpheus  for  his  bride,  turns  the  whole  story.  For 
should  he,  in  answer  to  her  pleading,  look  back,  or  explain 
to  her  why  he  cannot  do  so,  she  will  immediately  die.  But 
Orpheus,  confident  in  his  power  of  song  and  in  his  ability  to 
stand  the  test  imposed  by  Zeus  and  bring  his  beloved 
Eurydice  back  to  earth,  receives  the  message  with  great  joy. 

"Fulfil  with  joy  the  will  of  the  gods,"  sings  Amor,  and 
Orpheus,  having  implored  the  aid  of  the  deities,  departs  for 
the  Nether  World. 

Act  I.  Entrance  to  Hades.  When  Orpheus  appears,  he 
is  greeted  with  threats  by  the  Furies.  The  scene,  beginning 
with  the  chorus,  "Who  is  this  mortal?"  is  still  considered  a 
masterpiece  of  dramatic  music.  The  Furies  call  upon  Cer- 
berus, the  triple-headed  dog  m.onster  that  guards  the  en- 
trance to  the  Nether  World,  to  tear  in  pieces  the  mortal  who 
so  daringly  approaches.  The  bark  of  the  monster  is  repro- 
duced in  the  score.  This  effect,  however,  while  interesting, 
is  but  a  minor  incident.  What  lifts  the  scene  to  its  thrilling 
climax  is  the  infuriated  "No!"  which  is  hurled  at  Orpheus 
by  the  dwellers  at  the  entrance  to  Hades,  when,  having 
recourse  to  song,  he  tells  of  his  love  for  Eurydice  and  his 
grief  over  her  death  and  begs  to  be  allowed  to  seek  her.  He 
voices  his  plea  in  the  air,  "A  thousand  griefs,  threatening 
shades."  The  sweetness  of  his  music  wins  the  sympathy 
of  the  Furies.  They  allow  him  to  enter  the  Valley  of  the 
Blest,  a  beautiful  spot  where  the  good  spirits  in  Hades  find 
rest.     (Song  for  Eurydice  and  her  companions,   "In  this 


Copyright  Photo  by  Dupont 

Louise  Homer  as  Orpheus  in  "Orpheus  and  Eurydice' 


Chrlstoph  WllHbald  Gluck 


II 


tranquil  and  lovely  abode  of  the  blest.")  Orpheus  comes 
seeking  Eurydice.  His  recitative,  "What  pure  light!"  is 
answered  by  a  chorus  of  happy  shades,  "Sweet  singer,  you 
are  welcome."  To  him  they  bring  the  lovely  Eurydice. 
Otpheus,  beside  himself  with  joy,  but  remembering  the 
warning  of  Amor,  takes  his  bride  by  the  hand  and,  with 
averted  gaze,  leads  her  from  the  vale. 

She  cannot  understand  his  action.  He  seeks  to  soothe 
her  injured  feelings.  (Duet:  "On  my  faith  relying.") 
But  his  efforts  are  vain ;  nor  can  he  offer  her  any  explanation, 
for  he  has  also  been  forbidden  to  make  known  to  her  the 
reason  for  his  apparent  indifference. 

Act  III.  A  wood.  Orpheus  still  under  the  prohibition 
imposed  by  the  gods,  has  released  the  hand  of  his  bride  and 
is  hurrying  on  in  advance  of  her  urging  her  to  follow.  She, 
still  not  comprehending  why  he  does  not  even  cast  a  glance 
upon  her,  protests  that  without  his  love  she  prefers  to  die. 

Orpheus,  no  longer  able  to  resist  the  appeal  of  his  beloved 
bride,  forgets  the  warning  of  Amor.  He  turns  and  pas- 
sionately clasps  Eurydice  in  his  arms.'  Immediately  she 
dies. 

It  is  then  that  Orpheus  intones  the  lament,  "Che  faro 
senza  Euridice"  (I  have  lost  my  Eurydice),  that  air  in  the 
score  which  has  truly  become  immortal  and  by  which  Gluck, 
when  the  opera  as  a  whole  shall  have  disappeared  from  the 
stage,  will  still  be  remembered. 


"All  forms  of  language  have  been  exhausted  to  praise 
the  stupor  of  grief,  the  passion,  the  despair  expressed  in 
this  sublime  nimiber, "  says  a  writer  in  the  Clement  and 


12  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Larousse  Dictionnaire  des  Operas.     It  is  equalled  only  by 
the  lines  of  Virgil: 

Vox  ipsa  et  frigida  lingua, 
"Ah!  miseram  Eurydicen, "  anima  fugiente,  vocabat; 
"Eurydicen, "  toto  referabant  flumine  ripae. 

[E'en  then  his  trembling  tongue  invok'd  his  bride; 
With  his  last  voice,  "Eurydice,  "  he  cried, 
"Eurydice, "  the  rocks  and  river  banks  replied. 

Dryden.] 

In  fact  it  is  so  beautiful  that  Amor,  affected  by  the  grief 
of  Orpheus  appears  to  him,  touches  Eurydice  and  restores 
her  to  life  and  to  her  husband's  arms. 

The  legend  of  "Orpheus  and  Eurydice"  as  related  in 
Virgil's  Georgics,  from  which  are  the  lines  just  quoted  is  one 
of  the  classics  of  antiquit3^  In  "Orfeo  ed  Euridice"  Gluck 
has  preserved  the  chaste  classicism  of  the  original.  Or- 
pheus was  the  son  of  Apollo  and  the  muse  Calliope.  He 
plaj^ed  so  divinely  that  trees  uprooted  themselves  and 
rocks  were  loosened  from  their  fastnesses  in  order  to  follow 
him.  His  bride,  Eurydice,  was  the  daughter  of  a  Thracian 
shepherd. 

The  rdle  of  Orpheus  was  written  for  the  celebrated  male 
contralto  Guadagni.  For  the  Paris  production  the  composer 
added  three  bars  to  the  most  famous  number  of  the  score, 
the  "Che  faro  senza  Euridice,"  illustrated  above.  These 
prestmiably  were  the  three  last  bars,  the  concluding  phrases 
of  the  peroration  of  the  immortal  air.  He  also  was  obliged 
to  transpose  the  part  of  Orpheus  for  the  tenor  Legros,  for 
whom  he  introduced  a  vocal  number  not  only  entirely  out 
of  keeping  with  the  role,  but  not  even  of  his  own  composition 
— a  bravura  aria  from  "Tancred, "  an  opera  by  the  obscure 
Italian  composer  Fernandino  Bertoni.  It  is  believed  that 
the  tenor  importuned  Gluck  for  something  that  would  show 
off  his  voice,  whereupon  the  composer  handed  him  the 


Christoph  Willibald  Cluck  ^ 

Bertoni  air.  Legros  introduced  it  at  the  end  of  the  first 
act,  where  to  this  day  it  remains  in  the  printed  score. 

When  the  tenor  Nourrit  sang  the  role  many  years  later, 
he  substituted  the  far  more  appropriate  aria,  "  O  transport, 
6  desordre  extreme"  (O  transport,  O  ecstasy  extreme)  from 
Gluck's  own  "Echo  and  Narcissus. " 

But  that  the  opera,  as  it  came  from  Gluck's  pen,  required 
nothing  more,  appeared  in  the  notable  revival  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  Paris,  November,  1859,  under  Berlioz's  direction, 
when  that  distinguished  composer  restored  the  rdle  of 
Orpheus  to  its  original  form  and  for  a  hundred  and  fifty 
nights  the  celebrated  contralto,  Pauline  Viardot-Garcia, 
sang  it  to  enthusiastic  houses. 

The  best  production  of  the  work  in  this  country  was  that 
of  the  American  Opera  Company.  It  was  suited,  as  no 
other  opera  was,  to  the  exact  capacity  of  that  ill-starred 
organization.  The  representation  was  in  four  acts  instead 
of  three,  the  second  act  being  divided  into  two,  a  division  to 
which  it  easily  lends  itself. 

The  opera  has  been  the  object  of  unstinted  praise.  Of  the 
second  act  the  same  French  authority  quoted  above  says 
that  from  the  first  note  to  the  last,  it  is  "  a  complete  master- 
piece and  one  of  the  most  astonishing  productions  of  the 
human  mind.  The  chorus  of  demons, '  What  mortal  dares,' 
in  turn  questions,  becomes  wrathful,  bursts  into  a  turmoil  of 
threats,  gradually  becomes  tranquil  and  is  hushed,  as  if 
subdued  and  conquered  by  the  music  of  Orpheus's  lyre. 
What  is  more  moving  than  the  phrase '  Laissez-vous  toucher 
par  mes  pleurs '  ?  (A  thousand  griefs,  threatening  shades.) 
Seeing  a  large  audience  captivated  by  this  mythological 
subject;  an  audience  mixed,  frivolous  and  unthinking, 
transported  and  swayed  by  this  scene,  one  recognizes  the 
real  power  of  music.  The  composer  conquered  his  hearers 
as  his  Orpheus  succeeded  in  subduing  the  Furies.  Nowhere, 
in  no  work,  is  the  effect  more  gripping.     The  scene  in  the 


14  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Elysian  fields  also  has  its  beauties.  The  air  of  Eurydice,  the 
chorus  of  happy  shades,  have  the  breath  of  inalterable  calm, 
peace  and  serenity. " 

Gaetano  Guadagni,  who  created  the  r61e  of  Orpheus,  was 
one  of  the  most  famous  male  contralti  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Handel  assigned  to  him  contralto  parts  in  the 
"  Messiah"  and  "  Samson,"  and  it  was  Gluck  himself  who 
procured  his  engagement  at  Vienna.  The  French  produc- 
tion of  the  opera  was  preceded  by  an  act  of  homage,  which 
showed  the  interest  of  the  French  in  Gluck's  work.  For 
while  it  had  its  first  performance  in  Vienna,  the  score  was 
first  printed  in  Paris  and  at  the  expense  of  Count  Durazzo. 
The  success  of  the  Paris  production  was  so  great  that  Gluck's 
former  pupil,  Marie  Antoinette,  granted  him  a  pension  of 
6,000  francs  with  an  addition  of  the  same  sum  for  eyery  fresh 
work  he  should  produce  on  the  French  stage. 

The  libretto  of  Calzabigi  was,  for  its  day,  charged  with  a 
vast  amount  of  human  interest,  passion,  and  dramatic  in- 
tensity. In  these  particulars  it  was  as  novel  as  Gluck's 
score,  and  possibly  had  an  influence  upon  him  in  the  direc- 
tion of  his  operatic  reforms. 

ARMIDE 

Opera  in  five  acts  by  Gluck;  words  by  Frangois  Quinault,  founded 
on  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered. 

Produced,  Paris,  1777,  at  the  Academic  de  Musique;  New  York, 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  November  14,  1910,  with  Fremstad, 
Caruso,  Homer,  Gluck,  and  Amato. 

Characters 

Armide,  a  sorceress,  niece  of  Hidraot Soprano 

Phenice  )  ,                 ,  i  Soprano 

SiDONiE    per  attendants [so^ano 

Hate,  a  Fury Soprano 

LuciNDE  )  .  .  (  Soprano 

■Kf  r  apparitions i  c.  \ 

Melisse  J      ^  ( Soprano 


Christoph  Willibald  Gluck  f5 

Renaud  (Rinaldo),  a  Knight  of  the  Crusade  under  Godfrey 

of  Bouillon Tenor 

Artemidore,  captive  Knight  delivered  by  Renaud Tenor 

The  Danish  Knight  )  „        ,  f  Tenor 

-T  f  Crusaders i  „ 

Ubalde  )  ( Bas 

HiDRAOT,  King  of  Damascus Bass 

Arontes,  leader  of  the  Saracens Bass 

A  Naiad,  a  Love Apparitions 

Populace,  Apparitions  and  Furies. 

Time — First  Crusade,  1098.  Pkice — Damascus. 

Act  I.  Hall  of  Armide's  palace  at  Damascus.  Phenice 
and  Sidonie  are  praising  the  beauty  of  Armide.  But  she 
is  depressed  at  her  failure  to  vanquish  the  intrepid  knight, 
Renaud,  although  all  others  have  been  vanquished  by  her. 
Hidraot,  entering,  expresses  a  desire  to  see  Armide  married. 
The  princess  tells  him  that,  should  she  ever  yield  to  love, 
only  a  hero  shall  inspire  it.  People  of  Damascus  enter 
to  celebrate  the  victory  won  by  Armide's  sorcery  over  the 
knights  of  Godfrey.  In  the  midst  of  the  festivities  Arontes, 
who  has  had  charge  of  the  captive  knights,  appears  and 
announces  their  rescue  by  a  single  warrior,  none  other 
than  Renaud,  upon  whom  Armide  now  vows  vengeance. 

Act  II.  A  desert  spot.  Artemidore,  one  of  the  Christian 
knights,  thanks  Renaud  for  his  rescue.  Renaud  has  been 
banished  from  Godfrey's  camp  for  the  misdeed  of  another, 
whom  he  will  not  betray.  Artemidore  warns  him  to  be- 
ware the  blandishments  of  Armide,  then  departs.  Renaud 
falls  asleep  by  the  bank  of  a  stream.  Hidraot  and  Armide 
come  upon  the  scene.  He  urges  her  to  employ  her  super- 
natural powers  to  aid  in  the  pursuit  of  Renaud.  After 
the  king  has  departed,  she  discovers  Renaud.  At  her 
behest  apparitions,  in  the  disguise  of  charming  njinphs, 
shepherds  and  shepherdesses,  bind  him  with  garlands  of 
flowers.  Armide  now  approaches  to  slay  her  sleeping 
enemy  with  a  dagger,  but,  in  the  act  of  striking  him,  she 
is  overcome  with  love  for  him,  and  bids  the  apparitions 


i6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

transport  her  and  her  hero  to  some  "farthest  desert,  where 
she  may  hide  her  weakness  and  her  shame." 

Act  III.  Wild  and  rugged  landscape.  Armide,  alone, 
is  deploring  the  conquest  of  her  heart  by  Renaud.  Phenice 
and  Sidonie  come  to  her  and  urge  her  to  abandon  herself 
to  love.  They  assure  her  that  Renaud  cannot  fail  to  be 
enchanted  by  her  beauty.  Armide,  reluctant  to  yield, 
summons  Hate,  who  is  ready  to  do  her  bidding  and  expel 
love  from  her  bosom.  But  at  the  critical  moment  Armide 
cries  out  to  desist,  and  Hate  retires  with  the  threat  never 
to  return. 

Act  IV.  From  yawning  chasms  and  caves  wild  beasts 
and  monsters  emerge  in  order  to  frighten  Ubalde  and 
a  Danish  Knight,  who  have  come  in  quest  of  Renaud. 
Ubalde  carries  a  magic  shield  and  sceptre,  to  counteract 
the  enchantments  of  Armide,  and  to  deliver  Renaud.  The 
knights  attack  and  vanquish  the  monsters.  The  desert 
changes  into  a  beautiful  garden.  An  apparition,  disguised 
as  Lncinde,  a  girl  beloved  by  the  Danish  Knight,  is  here, 
accompanied  by  apparitions  in  various  pleasing  disguises. 
Lucinde  tries  to  detain  the  knight  from  continuing  upon 
his  errand,  but  upon  Ubalde  touching  her  with  the  golden 
sceptre,  she  vanishes.  The  two  then  resume  their  journey 
to  the  rescue  of  Renaud. 

Act  V.  Another  part  of  the  enchanted  garden.  Renaud 
bedecked  with  garlands,  endeavours  to  detain  Armide,  who, 
haunted  by  dark  presentiment,  wishes  to  consult  with 
the  powers  of  Hades.  She  leaves  Renaud  to  be  entertained 
by  a  company  of  happy  Lovers.  They,  however,  fail  to 
divert  the  lovelorn  warrior,  and  are  dismissed  by  him. 
Ubalde  and  the  Danish  Knight  appear.  By  holding  the 
magic  shield  before  Renaud's  eyes,  they  counteract  the 
passion  that  has  swayed  him.  He  is  following  the  two 
knights,  when  Armide  returns  and  vainly  tries  to  detain 
him.     Proof  against  her  blandishments,  he  leaves  her  to 


Christoph  Willibald  Gluck  17 

seek  glory.  Artnide  deserted,  siimmons  Hate  to  slay  him. 
But  Hate,  once  driven  away,  refuses  to  return.  Armide 
then  bids  the  Furies  destroy  the  enchanted  palace.  They 
obey.  She  perishes  in  the  ruins,  (Or,  according  to  the 
libretto,  "departs  in  a  flying  car" — an  early  instance  of 
aviation  in  opera!) 

There  are  more  than  fifty  operas  on  the  subject  of  A  rmide. 
Gluck's  has  sur\aved  them  all.  Nearly  a  century  before 
his  opera  was  produced  at  the  Academic,  Paris,  that  insti- 
tution was  the  scene  of  the  first  performance  of  "Armide 
et  Renaud,"  composed  by  Lully  to  the  same  libretto  used 
by  Gluck,  Quinault  having  been  Lully's  librettist  in  ordi- 
naxy. 

"Armide"  is  not  a  work  of  such  strong  human  appeal 
as  "Orpheus";  but  for  its  day  it  was  a  highly  dramatic 
production;  and  it  still  admits  of  elaborate  spectacle. 
The  air  for  Renaiid  in  the  second  act,  "Plus  j'observe  ces 
lieux,  et  plus  je  les  admire!"  (The  more  I  view  this  spot 
the  more  charmed  I  am);  the  shepherd's  song  almost 
immediately  following;  Armide' s  air  at  the  opening  of 
the  third  act,  "Ah!  si  la  liberty  me  doit  ^trc  ravie" 
(Ah!  if  liberty  is  lost  to  me);  the  exquisite  solo  and 
chorus  in  the  enchanted  garden,  "Les  plaisirs  ont 
choisi  po\ir  asile  (Pleasure  has  chosen  for  its  retreat) 
are  classics.  Several  of  the  ballet  numbers  long  were 
popular. 

In  assigning  to  a  singer  of  unusual  merit  the  ungrateful 
r61e  of  the  Danish  Knight,  Gluck  said:  "A  single  stanza 
will  compensate  you,  I  hope,  for  so  courteously  consenting 
to  take  the  part."  It  was  the  stanza,  "Notre  general 
vous  rappelle "  (Our  commander  summons  you),  with  which 
the  knight  in  Act  V  recalls  Renaud  to  his  duty.  "Never," 
says  the  relater  of  the  anecdote,  "was  a  prediction  more 
completely  fulfilled.  The  stanza  in  question  produced  a 
sensation." 


i8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

IPHIGENIE  EN  TAURIDE 

IPHIGENIA   IN  TAURIS 

Opera  in  four  acts  by  Gluck,  words  by  Frangois  Guillard. 

Produced  at  the  Acaddmie  de  Musique,  Paris,  May  i8,  1779;  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  New  York,  November  25,  1916,  with  Kurt, 
Weil,  Sembach,  Braun,  and  Rappold. 

Characters 

iPHiG^NiE,  Priestess  of  Diana Soprano 

Orestes,  her  Brother Baritone 

Pylades,  his  Friend Tenor 

Thoas,  King  of  Scythia Bass 

Diana Soprano 

Scythians,  Priestesses  of  Diana. 
Time — Antiquity,  after  the  Trojan  War.  Place — Tauris. 

Iphighnie  is  the  daughter  of  Agamemnon,  King  of 
Mycene.  Agamemnon  was  slain  hy  his  wife,  Clytem- 
nestra,  who,  in  turn,  was  killed  by  her  son,  Orestes.  Iplii- 
gtnie  is  ignorant  of  these  happenings.  She  has  been  a 
priestess  of  Diana  and  has  not  seen  Orestes  for  many  years. 

Act  I.  Before  the  atrium  of  the  temple  of  Diana.  To 
priestesses  and  Greek  maidens,  Iphigenie  tells  of  her  dream 
that  misfortune  has  come  to  her  family  in  the  distant 
country  of  her  birth.  Thoas,  entering,  calls  for  a  human 
sacrifice  to  ward  ofE  danger  that  has  been  foretold  to  him. 
Some  of  his  people,  hastily  coming  upon  the  scene,  bring 
with  them  as  captives  Orestes  and  Pylades,  Greek  youths 
who  have  landed  upon  the  coast.  They  report  that 
Orestes  constantly  speaks  of  having  committed  a  crime 
and  of  being  pursued  by  Furies. 

Act  II.  Temple  of  Diana.  Orestes  bewails  his  fate. 
Pylades  sings  of  his  undying  friendship  for  him.  Pylades 
is  separated  from  Orestes,  who  temporarily  loses  his  mind. 
Iphigenie  questions  him.  Orestes,  under  her  influence, 
becomes  calmer,  but  refrains  from  disclosing  his  identity. 


Christoph  Willibald  Gluck  19 

He  tells  her,  however,  that  he  is  from  Mycene,  that  Aga- 
memnon (their  father)  has  been  slain  by  his  wife,  that 
Clytemnestra's  son,  Orestes,  has  slain  her  in  revenge,  and 
is  himself  dead.  Of  the  once  great  family  only  a  daughter, 
Electra,  remains. 

Act  III.  Iphighnie  is  struck  with  the  resemblance  of 
the  stranger  to  her  brother  and,  in  order  to  save  him  from 
the  sacrifice  demanded  by  Thoas,  charges  him  to  deliver  a 
letter  to  Electra.  He  declines  to  leave  Pylades;  nor  until 
Orestes  affirms  that  he  will  commit  suicide,  rather  than 
accept  freedom  at  the  price  of  his  friend's  life,  does  Pylades 
agree  to  take  the  letter,  and  then  only  because  he  hopes 
to  bring  succour  to  Orestes. 

Act  IV.  All  is  ready  for  the  sacrifice.  Iphigbnie  has 
the  knife  poised  for  the  fatal  thrust,  when,  through  an 
exclamation  uttered  by  Orestes,  she  recognizes  him  as  her 
brother.  The  priestesses  offer  him  obeisance  as  King. 
Thoas,  however,  enters  and  demands  the  sacrifice.  Iphi- 
gtnie  declares  that  she  will  die  with  her  brother.  At  that 
moment  Pylades  at  the  head  of  a  rescue  party  enters  the 
temple.  A  combat  ensues  in  which  Thoas  is  killed. 
Diana  herself  appears,  pardons  Orestes  and  returns  to  the 
Greeks  her  likeness  which  the  Scythians  had  stolen  and 
over  which  they  had  built  the  temple. 

Gluck  was  sixty-five,  when  he  brought  out  "Iphig^nie 
en  Tauride."  A  contemporary  remarked  that  there 
were  many  fine  passages  in  the  opera.  *  *  There  is  only  one, ' ' 
said  the  Abb^  Arnaiid.     "  Which  ?"—"  The  entire  work." 

The  mad  scene  for  Orestes,  in  the  second  act,  has  been 
called  Gluck's  greatest  single  achievement.  Mention  should 
also  be  made  of  the  dream  of  Iphighnie,  the  dances  of  the 
Scythians,  the  air  of  Thoas,  "De  noirs  pressentiments  mon 
&me  intimidee"  (My  spirit  is  depressed  by  dark  forebod- 
ings); the  air  of  Pylades,  "Unis  d^s  la  plus  tendre  enfance" 
(United  since  our  earliest  infancy);  Iphiglnie's  "O  mal- 


^  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

heureuse  (unhappy)  Iphigenie,"  and  "Je  t 'implore  et  je 
tremble"  (I  pray  you  and  I  tremble);  and  the  hymn  to 
Diana,  "Chaste  fille  de  Latone"  (Chaste  daughter  of  the 
crescent  moon). 

Here  may  be  related  an  incident  at  the  rehearsal  of  the 
work,  which  proves  the  dramatic  significance  Gluck  sought 
to  impart  to  his  music.  In  the  second  act,  while  Orestes 
is  singing,  "Le  calme  rentre  dans  mon  coeur,"  (Once  more 
my  heart  is  calm) ,  the  orchestral  accompaniment  continues 
to  express  the  agitation  of  his  thoughts.  During  the 
rehearsal  the  members  of  the  orchestra,  not  understanding 
the  passage,  came  to  a  stop.  "Go  on  all  the  same,"  cried 
Gluck.     "He  lies.     He  has  killed  his  mother!" 

Gluck's  enemies  prevailed  upon  his  rival,  Piccini,  to 
write  an  "Iphigenie  en  Tauride"  in  opposition.  It  was 
produced  in  January,  1781,  met  with  failure,  and  put  a 
definite  stop  to  Piccini's  rivalry  with  Gluck.  At  the  per- 
formance the  prima  donna  was  intoxicated.  This  caused 
a  spectator  to  shout: 

"  'Iphigenie  en  Tauride!'  allons  done,  c'est  'Iphi- 
genie en  Champagne!'  "  (Iphigenia  in  Tauris!  Do  tell! 
Shouldn't  it  be  Iphigenia  in  Champagne?) 

The  laugh  that  followed  sealed  the  doom  of  the  work. 

The  Metropolitan  production  employs  the  version  of  the 
work  made  by  Richard  Strauss,  which  involves  changes 
in  the  finales  of  the  first  and  last  acts.  Ballet  music  from 
"Orfeo"  and  "Armide"  also  is  introduced. 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart 

(1756-1791) 

THE  operas  of  Gluck  supplanted  those  of  Lully  and 
Rameau.  Those  of  Mozart,  while  they  did  not 
supplant  Gluck's,  wTested  from  them  the  sceptre  of  supre- 
macy. In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that,  before  M  ozart  's 
time,  composers  of  grand  opera  reached  back  to  antiquity 
and  mythology,  or  to  the  early  Christian  era,  for  their 
subjects.  Their  works  moved  with  a  certain  restricted 
grandeur.     Their  characters  were  remote. 

Mozart's  subjects  were  more  modern,  even  contemporary. 
Moreover,  he  was  one  of  the  brightest  stars  in  the  musical 
firmament.  His  was  a  complete  and  easy  mastery  of  all 
forms  of  music.  "In  his  music  breathes  the  warm-hearted, 
laughter-loving  artist,"  writes  Theodore  Baker.  That  is 
a  correct  characterization.  "The  Marriage  of  Figaro" 
is  still  regarded  as  a  model  of  what  a  comic  grand  opera, 
if  so  I  may  call  it,  should  be.  "Don  Giovanni,"  despite 
its  tragic  denouement,  sparkles  with  hvmiour,  and  Don 
Giovanni  himself,  despite  the  evil  he  does,  is  a  jovial  char- 
acter. "The  Magic  Flute"  is  full  of  amusing  incidents 
and,  if  its  relationship  to  the  rites  of  freemasonry  has  been 
correctly  interpreted,  was  a  contemporary  subject  of  strong 
human  interest,  notwithstanding  its  story  being  laid  in 
ancient  Egypt.  In  fact  it  may  be  said  that,  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  opera,  Mozart  was  the  first  to  impart  to  it  a  strong 
himian  interest  with  humotur  playing  about  it  like  sunlight. 

21 


22  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  libretto  of  "The  Marriage  of  Figaro"  was  derived 
from  a  contemporary  French  comedy;  "Don  Giovanni," 
though  its  plot  is  taken  from  an  old  Spanish  story,  has  in 
its  principal  character  a  type  of  libertine,  whose  reckless 
daring  inspires  loyalty  not  only  in  his  servant,  but  even  in 
at  least  one  of  his  victims — a  type  as  familiar  to  Mozart's 
contemporaries  as  it  is  to  us;  the  probable  contemporary 
significance  of  "The  Magic  Flute"  I  have  already  men- 
tioned, and  the  point  is  further  considered  under  the  head 
of  that  opera. 

For  the  most  part  as  free  from  unnecessary  vocal  embel- 
lishments as  are  the  operas  of  Gluck,  Mozart,  being 
the  more  gifted  composer,  attained  an  even  higher  degree 
of  dramatic  expression  than  his  predecessor.  May  I  say 
that  he  even  gave  to  the  voice  a  human  clang  it  hitherto 
had  lacked,  and  in  this  respect  also  advanced  the  art  of 
opera?  By  this  I  mean  that,  full  of  dramatic  significance 
as  his  voice  parts  are,  they  have,  too,  an  ingratiating  human 
quality  which  the  music  of  his  predecessor  lacks.  In 
plasticity  of  orchestration  his  operas  also  mark  a  great 
advance. 

Excepting  a  few  works  by  Gluck,  every  opera  before 
Mozart  and  the  operas  of  every  composer  contemporary 
with  him,  and  for  a  considerable  period  after  him,  have 
disappeared  from  the  repertoire.  The  next  two  operas  to 
hold  the  stage,  Beethoven's  "Fidelio"  (in  its  final  form) 
and  Rossini's  "Barber  of  Seville"  were  not  produced  until 
1814  and  18 1 6 — respectively  twenty-three  and  twenty- 
five  years  after  Mozart's  death. 

That  Mozart  was  a  genius  by  the  grace  of  God  will 
appear  from  the  simple  statement  that  his  career  came  to 
an  end  at  the  age  of  thirty-five.  Compare  this  with  the 
long  careers  of  the  three  other  composers,  whose  influence 
upon  opera  was  supreme — Gluck,  Wagner,  and  Verdi. 
Gluck  died  in  his  seventy-third  year,  Wagner  in  his  seven- 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  s^ 

tieth,  and  Verdi  in  his  eighty-eighth.  Yet  the  composer 
who  laid  down  his  pen  and  went  to  a  pauper's  grave  at 
thirty-five,  contributed  as  much  as  any  of  these  to  the 
evolution  of  the  art  of  opera. 

LE  NOZZE  DI  FIGARO 

THE  MARRIAGE  OF  FIGARO 

Opera  in  four  acts  by  Mozart;  words  by  Lorenzo  da  Ponte,  after 
Beanmarchais.  Produced  at  the  National  Theatre,  Vienna,  May  i, 
1786,  Mozart  conducting.  Acad&nie  de  Musique,  Paris,  as  "Le 
Mariage  de  Figaro"  (with  Beaumarchais's  dialogue),  1793;  as  "Les 
Noces  de  Figaro"  (words  by  Barbier  and  Carr6),  1858.  London, 
in  Italian,  King's  Theatre,  June  18,  1812.  New  York,  1823,  with 
T.  Phillips,  of  Dublin,  as  Figaro;  May  10,  1824,  with  Pearman  as 
Figaro  and  Mrs.  Holman,  as  Susanna;  January  18,  1828,  with  Eliza- 
beth Alston,  as  Susanna;  all  these  were  in  EngUsh  and  at  the  Park 
Theatre.  (See  concluding  paragraph  of  this  article.)  Notable  re- 
vivals in  Italian,  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House:  1902,  with  Sem- 
brich,  Eames,  Fritzi  Scheff,  de  Reszke,  and  Campanari;  1909,  Sembrich, 
Eames,  Farrar,  and  Scotti;  19 16,  Hempel,  Matzenauer,  Farrar,  and 
Scotti. 

Characters 

Count  Almaviva Baritone 

Figaro,  his  valet Baritone 

Doctor  Bartolo,  a  Physician Bass 

Don  Basilio,  a  music-master Tenor 

Cherubino,  a  page Soprano 

Antonio,  a  gardener Bass 

Don  Curzio,  cotinsellor  at  law Tenor 

Countess  Almaviva Soprano 

Susanna,  her  personal  maid,  affianced  to  Figaro Soprano 

Marcellina,  a  duenna Soprano 

Barbarina,  Antonio's  daughter Soprano 

Time — 17th  Century  Place — The    Count's    chateau    of 

Aguas  Frescas,  near  Seville. 

"Le  Nozze  di  Figaro"  was  composed  by  Mozart  by 
command  of  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  of  Austria.    After  con- 


S4  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

gratulating  the  composer  at  the  end  of  the  first  performance, 
the  Emperor  said  to  him:  "You  must  admit,  however, 
my  dear  Mozart,  that  there  are  a  great  many  notes  in 
your  score."  "Not  one  too  many,  Sire,"  was  Mozart's 
reply, 

(The  anecdote,  it  should  be  noted,  also,  is  told  of  the 
first  performance  of  Mozart's  "Cosi  Fan  Tutti.") 

No  opera  composed  before  "Le  Nozze  di  Figaro"  can 
be  compared  with  it  for  development  of  ensemble,  charm 
and  novelty  of  melody,  richness  and  variety  of  orchestra- 
tion. Yet  Mozart  composed  this  score  in  a  month.  The 
finale  to  the  second  act  occupied  him  but  two  days.  In 
the  music  the  sparkle  of  high  comedy  alternates  with  the 
deeper  sentiment  of  the  affections. 

Michael  Kelly,  the  English  tenor,  who  was  the  Basilio 
and  Curzio  in  the  original  production,  tells  in  his  memoirs 
of  the  splendid  sonority  with  which  Benucci,  the  Figaro, 
sang  the  martial  "Non  piu  andrai"  at  the  first  orchestral 
rehearsal.  Mozart,  who  was  on  the  stage  in  a  crimson 
pelisse  and  cocked  hat  trimmed  with  gold  lace,  kept  re- 
peating sotto  voce,  "Bravo,  bravo,  Benucci!"  At  the 
conclusion  the  orchestra  and  all  on  the  stage  burst  into 
applause  and  vociferous  acclaim  of  Mozart: 

"Bravo,  bravo.  Maestro!     Viva,  viva,  grande  Mozart!" 

Further,  the  Reminiscences  of  Kelly  inform  us  of  the 
enthusiastic  reception  of  "Le  Nozze  di  Figaro"  upon  its 
production,  almost  everything  being  encored,  so  that  the 
time  required  for  its  performance  was  nearly  doubled. 
Notwithstanding  this  success,  it  was  withdrawn  after 
comparatively  few  representations,  owing  to  Italian  in- 
trigue at  the  court  and  opera,  led  by  Mozart's  rival,  the 
composer  Salieri — now  heard  of  only  because  of  that  rivalry. 
In  Prague,  where  the  opera  was  produced  in  January, 
1787,  its  success  was  so  great  that  Bondini,  the  manager 
of  the  company,  was  able  to  persuade  Mozart  to  compose 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  25 

an  opera  for  first  performance  in  Prague.  The  result  was 
"Don  Giovanni." 

The  story  of  "Le  Nozze  di  Figaro"  is  a  sequel  to  that  of 
"The  Barber  of  Seville,"  which  Rossini  set  to  music. 
Both  are  derived  from  "Figaro"  comedies  by  Beaumarchais. 
In  Rossini's  opera  it  is  Figaro,  at  the  time  a  barber  in 
Seville,  who  plays  the  go-between  for  Count  Almaviva 
and  his  beloved  Rosina,  Dr.  Bartolo's  pretty  ward.  Rosina 
is  now  the  wife  of  the  Count,  who  unfortunately,  is  pro- 
miscuous in  his  attentions  to  women,  including  Susanna, 
the  Countess's  vivacious  maid,  who  is  affianced  to  Figaro. 
The  latter  and  the  music-master  Basilio  who,  in  their  time 
helped  to  hoodwink  Bartolo,  are-  in  the  service  of  the  Count, 
Figaro  having  been  rewarded  with  the  position  of  valet 
and  major-domo.  Bartolo,  for  whom,  as  formerly,  Mar- 
cellina  is  keeping  house,  still  is  Figaro's  enemy,  because  of 
the  latter's  interference  with  his  plans  to  marry  Rosina 
and  so  secure  her  fortune  to  himself.  The  other  char- 
acters in  the  opera  also  belong  to  the  personnel  of  the 
Count's  household. 

Aside  from  the  difference  between  Rossini's  and  Mozart's 
scores,  which  are  alike  only  in  that  each  opera  is  a  master- 
piece of  the  comic  sentiment,  there  is  at  least  one  differ- 
ence between  the  stories.  In  Rossini's  "Barber"  Figaro, 
a  man,  is  the  mainspring  of  the  action.  In  Mozart's 
opera  it  is  Susanna,  a  woman;  and  a  clever  woman  may 
possess  in  the  role  of  protagonist  in  comedy  a  chicness  and 
sparkle  quite  impossible  to  a  man.  The  whole  plot  of 
"Le  Nozze  di  Figaro"  plays  around  Susanna's  efforts  to 
nip  in  the  bud  the  intrigue  in  which  the  Count  wishes  to 
engage  her.  She  is  aided  by  the  Countess  and  by  Figaro; 
but  she  still  must  appear  to  encourage  while  evading  the 
Count's  advances,  and  do  so  without  offending  him,  lest 
both  she  and  her  affianced  be  made  to  suffer  through  his 
disfavour.     In  the  libretto  there  is  much  that  is  risque, 


26  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

suggestive.  But  as  the  average  opera  goer  does  not  un- 
derstand the  subtleties  of  the  Italian  language,  and  the 
average  English  translation  is  too  clumsy  to  preserve  them, 
it  is  quite  possible — especially  in  this  advanced  age — to 
attend  a  performance  of  "Le  Nozze  di  Figaro"  without 
imperilling  one's  morals. 

There  is  a  romping  overture.  Then,  in  Act  I,  we  learn 
that  Figaro,  Count  Almaviva' s  valet,  v/ants  to  get  married. 
Susanna,  the  Countess's  maid,  is  the  chosen  one.  The 
Count  has  assigned  to  them  a  room  near  his,  ostensibly 
because  his  valet  will  be  able  to  respond  quickly  to  his 
summons.  The  room  is  the  scene  of  this  Act.  Susanna 
tells  her  lover  that  the  true  reason  for  the  Count's  choice 
of  their  room  is  the  fact  that  their  noble  master  is  running 
after  her.  Now  Figaro  is  willing  enough  to  "play  up" 
for  the  little  Count,  if  he  should  take  it  into  his  head  "to 
venture  on  a  little  dance"  once  too  often.  ("Si  vuol 
ballare,  Signor  Contino!") 


Unfortunately,  however,  Figaro  himself  is  in  a  fix.  He 
has  borrowed  money  from  Marcellina,  Bartolo's  house- 
keeper, and  he  has  promised  to  marry  her  in  case  of  his 
inability  to  repay  her.  vShe  now  appears,  to  demand  of 
Figaro  the  fulfilment  of  his  promise.  Bartolo  encourages 
her  in  this,  both  out  of  spite  against  Figaro  and  because 
he  wants  to  be  rid  of  the  old  woman,  who  has  been  his 
mistress  and  even  borne  him  a  son,  who,  however,  was 
kidnapped  soon  after  his  birth.  There  is  a  vengeance  aria 
for  Bartolo,  and  a  spiteful  duet  for  Marcellina  and  Susanna, 
beginning:  "Via  resti  vServita,  madama  brillante"  (Go  fii'st, 
I  entreat  you.  Miss,  model  of  beauty!). 

The  next  scene  opens  between  the  page,  Cherubino,  a 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  27 

boy  in  love  with  every  petticoat,  and  Susanna.  He  begs 
Susanna  to  intercede  for  him  with  the  Count,  who  has  dis- 
missed him.  Cherubino  desires  to  stay  around  the  Countess, 
for  whom  he  has  conceived  one  of  his  grand  passions. 
"Non  so  pivl  cosa  son,  cosa  faccio" — (Ah,  what  feelings 
now  possess  me!)  The  Count's  step  is  heard.  Cherubino 
hides  himself  behind  a  chair,  from  where  he  hears  the 
Count  paying  court  to  Susanna.  The  voice  of  the  music- 
master  then  is  heard  from  without.  The  Count  moves 
toward  the  door.  Cherubino,  taking  advantage  of  this, 
slips  out  from  behind  the  chair  and  conceals  himself  in  it 
under  a  dress  that  has  been  thrown  over  it.  The  Count, 
however,  instead  of  going  out,  hides  behind  the  chair,  in 
the  same  place  where  Cherubino  has  been.  Basilio,  who 
has  entered,  now  makes  all  kinds  of  malicious  remarks 
and  insinuations  about  the  flirtations  of  Cherubino  with 
Susanna  and  also  with  the  Countess.  The  Count,  enraged 
at  the  free  use  of  his  wife's  name,  emerges  from  behind  the 
chair.  Only  the  day  before,  he  says,  he  has  caught  that 
rascal,  Cherubino,  with  the  gardener's  daughter  Barbarina 
(with  whom  the  Count  also  is  flirting).  Cherubino,  he 
continues,  was  hidden  under  a  coverlet,  "just  as  if  under 
this  dress  here."  Then,  suiting  the  action  to  the  words, 
by  way  of  demonstration,  he  lifts  the  gown  from  the  chair, 
and  lo!  there  is  Cherubino.  The  Count  is  furious.  But 
as  the  page  has  overheard  him  making  love  to  Susanna, 
and  as  Figaro  and  others  have  come  in  to  beg  that  he  be 
forgiven,  the  Count,  while  no  longer  permitting  him  to 
remain  in  the  castle,  grants  him  an  officer's  commission  in 
his  own  regiment.  It  is  here  that  Figaro  addresses  Cheru- 
bino in  the  dashing  martial  air,  "Non  piii  andrai,  farfallone 
amoroso"  (Play  no  more,  the  part  of  a  lover). 

Act  II.  Still,  the  Count,  for  whom  the  claims  of  Mar- 
cellina  upon  Figaro  have  come  in  very  opportunely,  has 
not  given  consent  for  his  valet's  wedding.     He  wishes  to 


28-  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

carry  his  own  intrigue  with  Susanna,  the  genuineness  of 
whose  love  for  Figaro  he  underestimates,  to  a  successful 
issue.  Susanna  and  Figaro  meet  in  the  Countess's  room. 
The  Countess  has  been  soliloquizing  upon  love,  of  whose 
fickleness  the  Count  has  but  provided  too  man}''  examples. 
— "Porgi  amor,  qual  che  ristoro"  (Love,  thou  holy  , purest 
passion.)  Figaro  has  contrived  a  plan  to  gain  the  consent 
of  the  Count  to  his  wedding  with  Susanna.  The  valet's 
scheme  is  to  make  the  Count  ashamed  of  his  own  flirtations. 
Figaro  has  sent  a  letter  to  the  Count,  which  divulges  a  sup- 
posed rendezvous  of  the  Countess  in  the  garden.  At  the 
same  time  Susanna  is  to  make  an  appointment  to  meet 
the  Count  in  the  same  spot.  But,  in  place  of  Susanna, 
Cherubino,  dressed  in  Susanna's  clothes,  will  meet  the  Count. 
Both  will  be  caught  by  the  Countess  and  the  Count  thus 
be  confounded. 

Cherubino  is  then  brought  in  to  try  on  Susanna's  clothes. 
He  sings  to  the  Countess  an  air  of  sentiment,  one  of  the 
famous  vocal  numbers  of  the  opera,  the  exquisite:  "Voi 
che  sapete,  che  cosa  e  amor"  (What  is  this  feeling  makes 
me  so  sad). 


The  Countess,  examining  his  ofhcer's  commission,  finds 
that  the  seal  to  it  has  been  forgotten.  While  in  the 
midst  of  these  proceedings  someone  knocks.  It  is  the 
Count.  Consternation.  Cherubino  flees  into  the  Coun- 
tess's room  and  Susanna  hides  behind  a  curtain.  The 
evident  embarrassment  of  his  wife  arouses  the  suspicions 
of  her  husband,  who,  gay  himself,  is  very  jealous  of  her. 
He  tries  the  door  Cherubino  has  bolted  from  the  inside, 
then  goes  off  to  get  tools  to  break  it  down  with.  He  takes 
hi&  wife  with  him.  While  he  is  away,  Cherubino  slips  out 
and  leaps  out  of  a  window  into  the  garden.     In  his  place, 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  99 

Susanna  bolts  herself  in  the  room,  so  that,  when  the  Count 
breaks  open  the  door,  it  is  only  to  discover  that  Susanna 
is  in  his  wife's  room.  All  would  be  well,  but  unfortunately 
Antonio,  the  gardener,  enters.  A  man,  he  says,  has  jtunped 
out  of  the  Countess's  window  and  broken  a  flowerpot. 
Figaro,  who  has  come  in,  and  who  senses  that  something 
has  gone  wrong,  says  that  it  was  he  who  was  with  Susanna 
and  jumped  out  of  the  window.  But  the  gardener  has 
foimd  a  paper.  He  shows  it.  It  is  Cherubino's  commis- 
sion. How  did  Figaro  come  by  it  ?  The  Countess  whispers 
something  to  Figaro.  Ah,  yes ;  Cherubino  handed  it  to  him 
in  order  that  he  should  obtain  the  missing  seal. 

Everything  appears  to  be  cleared  up  when  Marcellina, 
accompanied  by  Bartolo,  comes  to  lodge  formal  complaint 
against  Figaro  for  breach  of  promise,  which  for  the  Count 
is  a  much  desired  pretext  to  refuse  again  his  consent  to 
Figaro's  wedding  with  Susanna.  These,  the  culminating 
episodes  of  this  act,  form  a  finale  which  is  justly  admired, 
a  finale  so  gradually  developed  and  so  skilfully  evolved  that, 
although  only  the  principals  participate  in  it,  it  is  as  effect- 
ive as  if  it  employed  a  full  ensemble  of  soloists,  chorus,  and 
orchestra  worked  up  in  the  most  elaborate  fashion.  Indeed, 
for  effectiveness  produced  by  simple  means,  the  operas  of 
Mozart  are  models. 

But  to  return  to  the  story.  At  the  trial  in  Act  III, 
between  Marcellina  and  Figaro,  it  develops  that  Figaro 
is  her  long-lost  natural  son.  Susanna  pays  the  costs  of 
the  trial  and  nothing  now  seems  to  stand  in  the  way  of  her 
imion  with  Figaro.  The  Count,  however,  is  not  yet  entirely 
cured  of  his  fickle  fancies.  So  the  Countess  and  Susanna 
hit  upon  still  another  scheme  in  this  play  of  complications. 
During  the  wedding  festivities  Susanna  is  to  contrive  to 
send  secretly  to  the  Count  a  note,  in  which  she  invites  him 
to  meet  her.  Then  the  Countess  dressed  in  Susanna's 
clothes,  is  to  meet  him  at  the  place  named.     Figaro  knows 


30  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

nothing  of  this  plan.  Chancing  to  find  out  about  the  note, 
he  too  becomes  jealous — another,  though  minor,  contribu- 
tion to  the  mixup  of  emotions.  In  this  act  the  concoction 
of  the  letter  by  the  Countess  and  Susanna  is  the  basis  of 
the  most  beautiful  vocal  niimber  in  the  opera,  the  "letter 
duet"  or  Canzonetta  sull'  aria  (the  "Canzonetta  of  the 
Zephyr") — "Che  soave  zeffiretto"  (Hither  gentle  zephyr); 
an  exquisite  melody,  in  which  the  lady  dictates,  the  maid 
writes  down,  and  the  voices  of  both  blend  in  comment. 

The  final  Act  brings  about  the  desired  result  after  a 
series  of  amusing  contretempts  in  the  garden.  The  Count 
sinks  on  his  knees  before  his  Countess  and,  as  the  curtain 
falls,  there  is  reason  to  hope  that  he  is  prepared  to  mend 
his  ways. 

Regarding  the  early  performances  of  "Figaro"  in  this 
country,  these  early  performances  were  given  "with 
Mozart's  music,  but  adapted  by  Henry  Rowley  Bishop." 
When  I  was  a  boy,  a  hrunorous  way  of  commenting  upon 
an  artistic  sacrilege  was  to  exclaim:  "Ah!  Mozart  im- 
proved by  Bishop ! "  I  presume  the  phrase  came  down  from 
these  early  representations  of  "The  Marriage  of  Figaro." 
Bishop  was  the  composer  of  "Home,  Sweet  Home."  In 
1839  his  wife  eloped  with  Bochsa,  the  harp  virtuoso, 
afterwards  settled  in  New  York,  and  for  many  years 
sang  in  concert  and  taught  under  the  name  of  Mme.  Anna 
Bishop. 

DON  GIOVANNI 

Opera  in  two  acts  by  Mozart;  text  by  Lorenzo  da  Ponte.  Produc- 
tions, Prague,  Oct.  29,  1787;  Vienna,  May  17,  1788;  London,  April 
12,  1817;  New  York,  Park  Theatre,  May  23,  1826. 

Original  title:  "II  Dissoluto  Punito,  ossia  il  Don  Giovanni"  (The 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  31 

Reprobate  Punished,  or  Don  Giovanni).  The  work  was  originally 
characterized  as  an  opera  huff  a,  or  dramma  giocoso,  but  Mozart's  noble 
setting  lifted  it  out  of  that  category . 

Characters 

Don  Pedro,  the  Commandant Bass 

Donna  Anna,  his  daughter Soprano 

Don  Ottavio,  her  betrothed Tenor 

Don  Giovanni Baritone 

Leporello,  his  servant Bass 

Donna  Elvira Soprano 

Zerlina Soprano 

Masetto,  betrothed  to  Zerlina Tenor 

"Don  Giovanni"  was  presented  for  the  first  time  in 
Prague,  because  Mozart,  satisfied  with  the  manner  in 
which  Bondini's  troupe  had  sung  his  "Marriage  of  Figaro" 
a  little  more  than  a  year  before,  had  agreed  to  write  another 
work  for  the  same  house. 

The  story  on  which  da  Ponte  based  his  libretto — the 
statue  of  a  murdered  man  accepting  an  insolent  invitation 
to  banquet  with  his  murderer,  appearing  at  the  feast  and 
dragging  him  down  to  hell — is  very  old.  It  goes  back  to 
the  Middle  Ages,  probably  further.  A  French  authority 
considers  that  da  Ponte  derived  his  libretto  from  "  Le  Festin 
de  Pierre,"  Moli^re's  version  of  the  old  tale.  Da  Ponte, 
however,  made  free  use  of  "II  Convitato  di  Pietra"  (The 
Stone-Guest),  a  libretto  written  by  the  Italian  theatrical 
poet  Bertati  for  the  composer  Giuseppe  Gazzaniga.  Who- 
ever desires  to  follow  up  this  interesting  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject will  find  the  entire  libretto  of  Bertati's  "Convitato" 
reprinted,  with  a  learned  commentary  by  Chrysander, 
in  volume  iv  of  the  Vierteljahrheft  fiir  Musikwissenschaft 
(Music  Science  Quarterly),  a  copy  of  which  is  in  the  New 
York  Public  Library. 

Mozart  agreed  to  hand  over  the  finished  score  in  time 
for  the  autumn  season  of  1787,  for  the  stun  of  one  hundred 


32  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

ducats  ($240).  Richard  Strauss  receives  for  a  new  opera 
a  guarantee  of  ten  performances  at  a  thousand  dollars — 
$10,000  in  all — and,  of  course,  his  royalties  thereafter. 
There  is  quite  a  distinction  in  these  matters  between  the 
eighteenth  century  and  the  present.  And  what  a  lot  of 
good  a  few  thousand  dollars  would  have  done  the  impecu- 
nious composer  of  the  immortal  "Don  Giovanni!"  Also, 
one  is  tempted  to  ask  oneself  if  any  modern  ten  thousand 
dollar  opera  will  live  as  long  as  the  two  hundred  and  forty 
dollar  one  which  already  is  130  years  old. 

Bondini's  company,  for  which  Mozart  wrote  his  master- 
piece of  dramatic  music,  furnished  the  following  cast: 
Don  Giovanni,  Signor  Bassi,  twenty-two  years  old,  a  fine 
baritone,  an  excellent  singer  and  actor;  Donna  Anna, 
Signora  Teresa  Saporiti;  Donna  Elvira,  Signora  Catarina 
Micelli,  who  had  great  talent  for  dramatic  expression; 
Zerlina,  Signora  Teresa  Bondini,  wife  of  the  manager; 
Don  Ottavio,  Signor  Antonio  Baglioni,  with  a  sweet,  flexible 
tenor  voice;  Leporcllo,  Signor  Felice  Ponziani,  an  excellent 
basso  comico;  Don  Pedro  (the  Commandant),  and  Masetto, 
Signor  Giuseppe  Lolli. 

Mozart  directed  the  rehearsals,  had  the  singers  come  to 
his  house  to  study,  gave  them  advice  how  some  of  the 
difficult  passages  should  be  executed,  explained  the  char- 
acters they  represented,  and  exacted  finish,  detail,  and 
accuracy.  Sometimes  he  even  chided  the  artists  for  an 
Italian  impetuosity,  which  might  be  out  of  keeping  with 
the  charm  of  his  melodies.  At  the  first  rehearsal,  however, 
not  being  satisfied  with  the  way  in  which  Signora  Bondini 
gave  Zerlina' s  cry  of  terror  from  behind  the  scenes,  when 
the  Don  is  supposed  to  attempt  her  ruin,  Mozart  left  the 
orchestra  and  went  upon  the  stage.  Ordering  the  first 
act  finale  to  be  repeated  from  the  minuet  on,  he  concealed 
himself  in  the  wings.  There,  in  the  peasant  dress  of 
Zerlina,  with  its  short  skirt,  stood  Signora  Bondini,  waiting 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozao-t  ^ 

for  her  cue.  When  it  came,  Mozart  quickly  reached  out 
a  hand  from  his  place  of  concealment  and  pinched  her  leg. 
She  gave  a  piercing  shriek.  "There!  That  is  how  I 
want  it,"  he  said,  emerging  from  the  wings,  while  the 
Bondini,  not  knowing  whether  to  laugh  or  blush,  did  both. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  score,  the  warn- 
ing words  which  the  statue  of  the  Commandant,  in  the  plaza 
before  the  cathedral  of  Seville,  utters  within  the  hearing 
of  Don  Giovanni  and  Leporello,  was  originally  accompanied 
by  the  trombones  only.  At  rehearsal  in  Prague,  Mozart 
not  satisfied  with  the  way  the  passage  was  played,  stepped 
over  toward  the  desks  at  which  the  trombonists  sat. 

One  of  them  spoke  up:  "It  can't  be  played  any  better. 
Even  you  couldn't  teach  us  how." 

Mozart  smiled.  "Heaven  forbid,"  he  said,  "that  I 
should  attempt  to  teach  you  how  to  play  the  trombone. 
But  let  me  have  the  parts." 

Looking  them  over  he  immediately  made  up  his  mind 
what  to  do.  With  a  few  quick  strokes  of  the  pen,  he  added 
the  wood-wind  instruments  as  they  are  now  found  in  the 
score. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  overture  of  "Don  Giovanni" 
was  written  almost  on  the  eve  of  the  first  performance. 
Mozart  passed  a  gay  evening  with  some  friends.  One  of 
them  said  to  him:  "Tomorrow  the  first  performance  of 
'Don  Giovanni'  will  take  place,  and  you  have  not  yet 
composed  the  overture!"  Mozart  pretended  to  get  ner- 
vous about  it  and  withdrew  to  his  room,  where  he  found 
music-paper,  pens,  and  ink.  He  began  to  compose  about 
midnight.  Whenever  he  grew  sleepy,  his  wife,  who  was 
by  his  side,  entertained  him  with  stories  to  keep  him 
awake.  It  is  said  that  it  took  him  but  three  hours  to 
produce  this  overture. 

The  next  evening,  a  little  before  the  curtain  rose,  the 
copyists  finished  transcribing  the  parts  for  the  orchestra. 


34  The  CoiTiplete  Opera  Book 

Hardly  had  they  brought  the  sheets,  still  wet,  to  the 
theatre,  when  Mozart,  greeted  by  enthusiastic  applause, 
entered  the  orchestra  and  took  his  seat  at  the  piano. 
Although  the  musicians  had  not  had  time  to  rehearse  the 
overture,  they  played  it  with  such  precision  that  the  audi- 
ence broke  out  into  fresh  applause.  As  the  curtain  rose 
and  Leporello  came  forward  to  sing  his  solo,  Mozart  laugh- 
ingly whispered  to  the  musicians  near  him:  "Some  notes 
fell  under  the  stands.     But  it  went  well." 

The  overture  consists  of  an  introduction  v/hich  repro- 
duces the  scene  of  the  banquet  at  which  the  statue  appears. 
It  is  followed  by  an  allegro  which  characterizes  the  impetu- 
ous, pleasure-seeking  Don,  oblivious  to  consequences.  It 
reproduces  the  dominant  character  of  the  opera. 

Without  pause,  Mozart  links  up  the  overture  with  the 
song  of  Leporello.  The  four  principal  personages  of  the 
opera  appear  early  in  the  proceedings.  The  tragedy 
which  brings  tliem  together  so  soon  and  starts  the  action, 
gives  an  effective  touch  of  fore-ordained  retribution  to 
the  misdeeds  upon  which  Don  Giovanni  so  gaily  enters. 
This  early  part  of  the  opera  divides  itself  into  four  episodes. 
Wrapped  in  his  cloak  and  seated  in  the  garden  of  a  house 
in  Seville,  Spain,  which  Don  Giovanni,  on  amorous  adven- 
ture bent,  has  entered  secretly  during  the  night — it  is  the 
residence  of  the  Commandant — Leporello  is  complaining 
of  the  fate  which  makes  him  a  serv^ant  to  such  a  restless 
and  dangerous  master.  "Notte  e  giorno  faticar"  (Never 
rest  by  day  or  night),  runs  his  song. 

Don  Giovanni  hurriedly  issues  from  the  house,  pursued  by 
Donna  Anna.  There  follows  a  trio  in  which  the  wrath 
of  the  insulted  woman,  the  annoyance  of  the  libertine,  and 
the  cowardice  of  Leporello  are  expressed  simultaneously 
and  in  turn  in  manner  most  admirable.  The  Commandant 
attracted  by  the  disturbance,  arrives,  draws  his  sword, 
and  a  duel  ensues.     In  the  unequal  combat  between  the 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 


Scotti  as  Don  Giovanni 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Sembrich  as  Zerlina  in  "Don  Giovanni' 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  35 

aged  Commandant  and  the  agile  Don,  the  Commandant 
receives  a  fatal  wound.  The  trio  which  follows  between 
Don  Giovanni,  the  dying  Commandant,  and  Leporello  is  a 
unique  passage  in  the  history  of  musical  art.  The  genius 
of  Mozart,  tender,  profound,  pathetic,  religious,  is  revealed 
in  its  entirety.  Written  in  a  solemn  rhythm  and  in  the 
key  of  F  minor,  so  appropriate  to  dispose  the  mind  to  a 
gentle  sadness,  this  trio,  which  fills  only  eighteen  measures, 
contains  in  a  restricted  outline,  but  in  master-strokes,  the 
fundamental  idea  of  this  mysterious  drama  of  crime  and 
retribution.  While  the  Commandant  is  breathing  his 
last,  emitting  notes  broken  by  long  pauses.  Donna  Anna, 
who,  during  the  duel  between  her  father  and  Don  Giovanni, 
has  hurried  off  for  help,  returns  accompanied  by  her 
servants  and  by  Don  Ottavio,  her  affianced.  She  utters  a 
cry  of  terror  at  seeing  the  dead  body  of  her  father.  The 
recitative  which  expresses  her  despair  is  intensely  dramatic. 
The  duet  which  she  sings  with  Don  Ottavio  is  both  impas- 
sioned and  solicitous,  impetuous  on  her  part,  solicitous 
on  his ;  for  the  rdle  of  Don  Ottavio  is  stamped  with  the  deli- 
cacy of  sentiment,  the  respectful  reserve  of  a  well -bom 
youth  who  is  consoling  the  woman  who  is  to  be  his  wife. 
The  passage,  "Lascia,  O  cara,  la  rimembrenza  amore!" 
(Through  love's  devotion,  dear  one)  is  of  peculiar  beauty 
in  musical  expression. 

After  Donna  Anna  and  Don  Ottavio  have  left,  there  enters 
Donna  Elvira.  The  air  she  sings  expresses  a  complicated 
nuance  of  passion.  Donna  Elvira  is  another  of  Don  Gio- 
vanni's deserted  ones.  There  are  in  the  tears  of  this  woman 
not  only  the  grief  of  one  who  has  been  loved  and  now 
implores  heaven  for  comfort,  but  also  the  indignation  of 
one  who  has  been  deserted  and  betrayed.  When  she  cries 
with  emotion:  "Ah!  qui  mi  dice  mai  quel  barbaro  dov'd?" 
(In  memory  still  lingers  his  love's  delusive  sway)  one  feels 
that,  in  spite  of  her  outburst?  of  anger,  she  is  ready  to  for- 


36  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

give,  if  only  a  regretful  smile  shall  recall  to  her  the  man 
who  was  able  to  charm  her. 

Don  Giovanni  hears  from  afar  the  voice  of  a  woman  in 
tears.  He  approaches,  saying:  "Cerchiam  di  consolare 
il  suo  tormento"  (I  must  seek  to  console  her  sorrow). 
"Ah!  yes,"  murmurs  Leporello,  under  his  breath:  "Cosi 
ne  consold  mille  e  otto  cento"  (He  has  consoled  fully  eigh- 
teen hundred).  Leporello  is  charged  by  Don  Giovanni, 
who,  recognizing  Donna  Elvira,  hurries  away,  to  explain 
to  her  the  reasons  why  he  deserted  her.  The  servant 
fulfils  his  mission  as  a  complaisant  valet.  For  it  is  here 
that  he  sings  the  "Madamina"  air,  which  is  so  famous, 
and  in  which  he  relates  with  the  skill  of  a  historian  the 
numerous  amours  of  his  master  in  the  different  parts  of 
the  world. 

The  "Air  of  Madamina,"  "Madamina!  il  catalogo" 
— (Dear  lady,  the  catalogue)  is  a  perfect  passage  of  its  kind; 
an  exquisite  mixture  of  grace  and  finish,  of  irony  and 
sentiment,  of  comic  declamation  and  melody,  the  whole 
enhanced  by  the  poetry  and  skill  of  the  accessories.  There 
is  nothing  too  much,  nothing  too  little;  no  excess  of  detail 
to  mar  the  whole.  Every  word  is  illustrated  by  the  com- 
poser's imagination  without  his  many  brilliant  sallies 
injuring  the  general  effect.  According  to  Leporello's 
catalogue  his  master's  adventures  in  love  have  numbered 
2065.  To  these  Italy  has  contributed  245,  Germany  231, 
France  100,  Turkey  91,  and  Spain,  his  native  land,  1003. 
The  recital  enrages  Donna  Elvira.  She  vows  vengeance 
upon  her  betrayer. 

The  scene  changes  to  the  countryside  of  Don  Giovanni's 
palace  near  Seville.  A  troop  of  gay  peasants  is  seen 
arriving.  The  young  and  pretty  Zerlina  with  Masetto, 
her  affianced,  and  their  friends  are  singing  and  dancing 
in  honour  of  their  approaching  marriage.  Don  Giovanni 
and  Leporello  join  this  gathering  of  light-hearted  and  simple 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  37 

young  people.  Having  cast  covetous  eyes  upon  Zerlina, 
and  having  aroused  her  vanity  and  her  spirit  of  coquetry 
by  polished  words  of  gallantry,  the  Don  orders  Leporello 
to  get  rid  of  the  jealous  Maseito  by  taking  the  entire  gather- 
ing— excepting,  of  coiu*se,  Zerlina — to  his  chdteau.  Lepo- 
rello grumbles,  but  carries  out  his  master's  order.  The 
latter,  left  alone  with  Zerlina,  sings  a  duet  with  her  which 
is  one  of  the  gems,  not  alone  of  this  opera,  but  of  opera  in 
general:  "L^  ci  darem  la  mano!"  (Your  hand  in  mine,  my 
dearest).  Donna  Elvira  appears  and  by  her  denunciation 
of  Don  Giovanni,  "Ah!  fuggi  il  traditore,"  makes  clear  to 
Zerlina  the  character  of  her  fascinating  admirer.  Donna 
Anna  and  Don  Ottavio  come  upon  the  stage  and  sing  a 
quartette  which  begins:  "Non  ti  fidar,  o  misera,  di  quel 
ribaldo  cor"  (Place  not  thy  trust,  0  mourning  one,  in  this 
polluted  soul),  at  the  end  of  which  Donna  Anna,  as  Don 
Giovanni  departs,  recognizes  in  his  accents  the  voice  of  her 
father's  assassin.  Her  narrative  of  the  events  of  that 
terrible  night  is  a  declamatory  recitative  "in  style  as  bold 
and  as  tragic  as  the  finest  recitatives  of  Gluck." 

Don  Giovanni  orders  preparations  for  the  festival  in 
his  palace.  He  gives  his  commands  to  Leporello  in  the 
"Champagne  aria,"  "Fin,  ch'  han  dal  vino"  (Wine,  flow 
a  fountain),  which  is  almost  breathless  with  exuberance  of 
anticipated  revel.  Then  there  is  the  ingratiating  air  of  Zer- 
lina  begging  Masetto's  forgiveness  for  having  flirted  with 
the  Don,  "Batti,  batti,  o  bel  Masetto"  (Chide  me,  chide 
me,  dear  Masetto),  a  number  of  enchanting  grace,  followed 


by  a  brilliantly  triumphant  allegro,  "Pace,  pace  o  vita  mia" 
(Love,  I  see  you're  now  relenting). 

The  finale  to  the  first  act  of  "Don  Giovanni"  rightly 
passes  for  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  dramatic  music.   Lepo- 


38 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


rello,  having  opened  a  window  to  let  the  fresh  evening  air 
enter  the  palace  hall,  the  violins  of  a  small  orchestra  within 
are  heard  in  the  first  measures  of  the  graceful  minuet. 
Leporello  sees  three  maskers,  two  women  and  a  man,  out- 
side. In  accordance  with  custom  they  are  bidden  to  enter. 
Don  Giovanni  does  not  know  that  they  are  Donna  Anna, 
Donna  Elvira,  and  Don  Ottavio,  bent  upon  seeking  the 
murderer  of  the  Commandant  and  bringing  him  to  justice. 
But  even  had  he  been  aware  of  their  purpose  it  probably 
would  have  made  no  difference,  for  courage  this  dissolute 
character  certainly  had. 

After  a  moment  of  hesitation,  after  having  taken  council 
together,  and  repressing  a  movement  of  horror  which 
they  feel  at  the  sight  of  the  man  whose  crimes  have  dark- 
ened their  lives,  Donna  Elvira,  Donna  Anna,  and  Don 
Ottavio  decide  to  carry  out  their  undertaking  at  all  cost 
and  to  whatever  end.  Before  entering  the  chateau,  they 
pause  on  the  threshold  and,  their  souls  moved  by  a  holy 
fear,  they  address  Heaven  in  one  of  the  most  touching 
prayers  written  by  the  hand  of  man.  It  is  the  number 
known  throughout  the  world  of  music  as  the  "Trio  of  the 
Masks,"  "Protegga,  il  giusto  cielo" — (Just  Heaven,  now 
defend  us) — one  of  those  rare  passages  which,  by  its  clearness 
of  form,  its  elegance  of  musical  diction,  and  its  profundity 
of  sentiment,  moves  the  layman  and  charms  the  connoisseur. 


The   festivities    begin    with    the   familiar    minuet.     Its 
graceful  rhythm  is  prolonged  indefinitely  as  a  fundamental 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  99 

idea,  while  in  succession,  two  small  orchestras  on  the 
stage,  take  up,  one  a  rustic  quadrille  in  double  time,  the 
other  a  waltz.  Notwithstanding  the  differences  in  rhythm, 
the  three  dances  are  combined  with  a  skill  that  piques  the 
ear  and  excites  admiration.  The  scene  would  be  even 
more  natural  and  entertaining  than  it  usually  is,  if  the 
orchestras  on  the  stage  always  followed  the  direction 
accordano  (tune  up)  which  occurs  in  the  score  eight  bars 
before  each  begins  to  play  its  dance,  and  if  the  dances 
themselves  were  carried  out  according  to  directions.  Only 
the  ladies  and  gentlemen  should  engage  in  the  minuet, 
the  peasants  in  the  quadrille;  and  before  Don  Giovanni 
leads  off  Zerlina  into  an  adjoining  room  he  should  have 
taken  part  with  her  in  this  dance,  while  Leporello  seeks  to 
divert  the  jealous  Masetto's  attention  by  seizing  him  in 
an  apparent  exuberance  of  spirits  and  insisting  on  dancing 
the  waltz  with  him.  Masetto's  suspicions,  however,  are 
not  to  be  allayed.  He  breaks  awa^?^  from  Leporello.  The 
latter  hurries  to  warn  his  master.  But  just  as  he  has  passed 
through  the  door,  Zerlina' s  piercing  shriek  for  help  is  heard 
from  within.  Don  Giovanni  rushes  out,  sword  in  hand, 
dragging  out  with  him  none  other  than  poor  Leporello, 
whom  he  has  opportunely  seized  in  the  entrance,  and 
whom,  under  pretence  that  he  is  the  guilty  party,  he  threat- 
ens to  kill  in  order  to  turn  upon  him  the  suspicion  that 
rests  upon  himself.  But  this  ruse  fails  to  deceive  any  one. 
Donna  Anna,  Donna  Elvira,  and  Don  Ottavio  unmask  and 
accuse  Don  Giovanni  of  the  murder  of  the  Commandant, 
"Tutto  gi^  si  s^"  (Everything  is  known  and  you  are 
recognized).  Taken  aback,  at  first,  Don  Giovanni  soon  re- 
covers himself.  Turning,  at  bay,  he  defies  the  enraged 
crowd.  A  storm  is  rising  without.  A  storm  sweeps  over 
the  orchestra.  Thunder  growls  in  the  basses,  lightning 
plays  on  the  fiddles.  Don  Giovanni,  cool,  intrepid,  cuts 
a  passage  through  the  crowd  upon  which,  at  the  same  time. 


40  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

he  hurls  his  contempt.  (In  a  performance  at  the  Academy 
of  Music,  New  York,  about  1872,  I  saw  Don  Giovanni 
stand  off  the  crowd  with  a  pistol.) 

The  second  act  opens  with  a  brief  duet  between  Don 
Giovanni  and  Leporello.  The  trio  which  follows:  "Ah! 
taci,  ingiusto  core"  (Ah,  silence,  heart  rebellious),  for 
Donna  Elvira,  Leporello,  and  Don  Giovanni,  is  an  exquisite 
passage.  Donna  Elvira,  leaning  sadly  on  a  balcony, 
allows  her  melancholy  regrets  to  wander  in  the  pale 
moonlight  which  envelops  her  figure  in  a  semi-transparent 
gloom.  In  spite  of  the  scene  which  she  has  recently  wit- 
nessed, in  spite  of  wrongs  she  herself  has  endured,  she 
cannot  hate  Don  Giovanni  or  efface  his  image  from  her 
heart.  Her  reward  is  that  her  recreant  lover  in  the  dark- 
ness below,  changes  costtmie  with  his  servant  and  while 
Leporello,  disguised  as  the  Don,  attracts  Donna  Elvira  into 
the  garden,  the  cavalier  himself  addresses  to  Zerlina,  who 
has  been  taken  under  Donna  Elvira's  protection,  the  charm- 
ing serenade:  "Deh!  vieni  alia  finestra"  (Appear,  love  at 
thy  window),  which  he  accompanies  on  the  mandolin,  or 
should  so  accompany,  for  usually  the  accompaniment  is 
played  pizzicato  by  the  orchestra. 

As  the  result  of  complications,  which  I  shall  not  attempt 
to  follow,  Masetto,  who  is  seeking  to  administer  physical 
chastisement  to  Don  Giovanni,  receives  instead  a  drubbing 
from  the  latter. 

Zerlina,  while  by  no  means  indifferent  to  the  attentions 
of  the  dashing  Don,  is  at  heart  faithful  to  Masetto  and, 
while  I  fancy  she  is  by  no  means  obtuse  to  the  humorous 
aspect  of  his  chastisement  by  Don  Giovanni,  she  comes 
trippingly  out  of  the  house  and  consoles  the  poor  fellow 
with  the  graceful  measures  of  "  Vedrai  carino,  se  sei  buonino" 
(List,  and  I'll  find  love,  if  you  are  kind  love). 

Shortly  after  this  episode  comes  Don  Ottavio's  famous 
air,  the  solo  number  which  makes  the  role  worth  while, 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  41 

"II  mio  tesoro  intanti"  (Fly  then,  my  love,  entreating). 
Upon  this  air  praise  has  been  exhausted.  It  has  been 
called  the  "  pietra  di  paragone"  of  tenors — the  touchstone, 
the  supreme  test  of  classic  song. 


Retribution  upon  Don  Giovanni  is  not  to  be  too  long 
deferred.  After  the  escapade  of  the  serenade  and  the 
drubbing  of  Masetto,  the  Don,  who  has  made  off,  chances 
to  meet  in  the  churchyard  (or  in  the  public  square)  with 
Leporello,  who  meanwhile  has  gotten  rid  of  Donna  Elvira. 
It  is  about  two  in  the  morning.  They  see  the  newly 
erected  statue  to  the  murdered  Commandant.  Don  Giovanni 
bids  it,  through  Leporello,  to  supper  with  him  in  his  palace. 
Will  it  accept?  The  statue  answers,  "Yea!"  Leporello  is 
terrified.     And_Don  Giovanni  ? 

"In  truth  the  scene  is  bizarre.  The  old  boy  comes  to 
supper.  Now  hasten  and  bestir  yourself  to  spread  a  royal 
feast." 

Such  is  the  sole  reflection  that  the  fateful  miracle,  to 
which  he  has  just  been  a  witness,  draws  from  this  miscreant, 
who,  whatever  else  he  may  be,  is  brave. 

Back  in  his  palace,  Don  Giovanni  seats  himself  at  table 
and  sings  of  the  pleasures  of  life.  An  orchestra  on  the 
stage  plays  airs  from  Vincente  Martino's  "Una  Cosa  Rara" 
(A  Rare  Thing);  Sarti's  "Fra  Due  Litiganti"  (Between 
Two  Litigants),  and  Mozart's  own  "Nozze  di  Figaro," 
Leporello  announcing  the  selections.  The  "Figaro"  air  is 
"Non  piu  andrai"  (Play  no  more,  boy,  the  part  of  a  lover). 

Donna  Elvira  enters.  On  her  knees  she  begs  the  man 
who  has  betrayed  her  to  mend  his  ways.  Her  plea  falls 
on  deaf  ears.  She  leaves.  Her  shriek  is  heard  from  the 
corridor.  She  re-enters  and  flees  the  palace  by  another 
door. 


42  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"Va,  veder  che  cos'  h  stato"  (Go,  and  see  what  it  is) 
Don  Giovanni  commands  Leporello. 

The  latter  returns  trembling  with  fright.  He  has  seen 
in  the  corridor  "I'uom  di  sasso,  Tuomo  bianco" — the  man 
of  stone,  the  big  white  man. 

Seizing  a  candle,  drawing  his  sword,  Don  Giovanni  boldly 
goes  into  the  corridor.  A  few  moments  later  he  backs 
into  the  room,  receding  before  the  statue  of  the  Comman- 
dant. The  lights  go  out.  All  is  dark  save  for  the  flame 
of  the  candle  in  Don  Giovanni's  hand.  Slowly,  with  heavy 
footsteps  that  re-echo,  the  statue  enters.     It  speaks. 

"  Don  Giovanni,  you  have  invited  me  to  sit  at  table  with 
you.     Lo!     I  am  here." 

Well  knowing  the  fate  in  store  for  him,  yet,  with  unebb- 
ing  courage,  Don  Giovanni  nonchalantly  commands  Leporello 
to  serve  supper. 

"Desist!"  exclaims  the  statue.  "He  who  has  sat  at  a 
heavenly  banquet,  does  not  break  the  bread  of  mortals. 
.  .  .  Don  Giovanni,  will  you  come  to  sup  with  me?" 

"I  will,"  fearlessly  answers  the  Don. 

"Give  me  your  hand  in  gage  thereof." 

"Here  it  is." 

Don  Giovanni  extends  his  hand.  The  statue's  huge 
hand  of  stone  closes  upon  it. 

"Huh!  what  an  icy  grasp!" — "Repent!  Change  your 
course  at  your  last  hour." — "No,  far  from  me  such  a 
thought."— "Repent,  O  miscreant!"— "No,  you  old  fool." 
—"Repent!"— "No!" 

Nothing  daunts  him.  A  fiery  pit  opens.  Demons 
seize  him — unrepentant  to  the  end — and  drag  him  down. 

The  music  of  the  scene  is  gripping,  yet  accomplished 
without  an  addition  to  the  ordinary  orchestra  of  Mozart's 
day,  without  straining  after  effect,  without  any  means 
save  those  commonly  to  his  hand. 

In  the  modem  opera  house  the  final  curtain  falls  upon 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 


Scotti  as  Don  Giovanni 


Photo  by  White 
Alten  and  Goritz  as  Papagena  and  Papageno  in  "The  Magic  Flute" 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  4^ 

this  scene.  In  the  work,  however,  there  is  another  scene 
in  which  the  other  characters  moralize  upon  Don  Giovanni's 
end.  There  is  one  accusation,  however,  none  can  urge 
against  him.  He  was  not  a  coward.  Therein  lies  the 
appeal  of  the  character.  His  is  a  brilliant,  impetuous 
figure,  with  a  dash  of  philosophy,  which  is  that,  sometime, 
somewhere,  in  the  course  of  his  amours,  he  will  discover 
the  perfect  woman  from  whose  lips  he  will  be  able  to  draw 
the  sweetness  of  all  women.  Moreover  he  is  a  villain  with  a 
keen  sense  of  humour.  Inexcusable  in  real  life,  he  is  a  de- 
bonair, fascinating  figure  on  the  stage,  whereas  Donna 
Anna,  Donna  Elvira,  and  Don  Ottavio  are  mere  hinges  in 
the  drama  and  as  creations  purely  musical.  Zerlina,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  one  of  Mozart's  most  delectable  characters. 
Leporello,  too,  is  clearly  drawn,  dramatically  and  musically; 
a  coward,  yet  loyal  to  the  master  who  appeals  to  a  strain  of 
the  humorous  in  him  and  whose  courage  he  admires. 

For  the  Vienna  production  Mozart  wrote  three  new 
vocal  numbers,  which  are  printed  in  the  score  as  additions. 
Caterina  Cavalieri,  the  Elvira,  had  complained  to  Mozart, 
that  the  Viennese  public  did  not  appreciate  her  as  did 
audiences  of  other  cities  and  begged  him  for  something 
that  would  give  her  voice  full  scope.  The  result  was  the 
fine  aria:  "Mi  tradi  quell'  alma  ingrata."  The  Ottavio, 
Signor  Morello,  was  considered^unequal  to  "II  mio  tesoro," 
so  Mozart  wrote  the  less  exacting  "Delia  sua  pace,"  for 
him.  To  amuse  the  public  he  inserted  a  comic  duet, 
"Per  queste  tue  manine,"  for  Zerlina  and  Leporello.  This 
usually  is  omitted.  The  other  two  inserts  were  inter- 
polated in  the  second  act  of  the  opera  before  the  finale. 
In  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  version,  however,  Donna 
Elvira  sings  "Mi  tradi"  to  express  her  rage  after  the 
"Madamina"  of  Leporello;  and  Don  Ottavio  sings  "Delia 
sua  pace"  before  the  scene  in  Don  Giovanni's  chateau. 

The  first  performance  of  "Don  Giovanni"  in  America 


44  The  Connplete  Opera  Book 

took  place  in  the  Park  Theatre,  New  York,  on  Tuesday 
evening.  May  23,  1826.  I  have  verified  the  date  in  the 
file  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post.  "This  evening  for  the 
first  time  in  America,  the  semi-serious  opera  of  'II  Don 
Giovanni,'"  reads  the  advertisement  of  that  date.  Then 
follows  the  cast.  Manuel  Garcia  played  the  title  role; 
Manuel  Garcia,  Jr.,  afterwards  inventor  of  the  laryngoscope, 
who  reached  the  age  of  loi,  dying  in  London  in  1906,  was 
Leporello;  Mme.  Barbieri,  Donna  inna;  Mme.  Garcia, 
Donna  Elvira;  Signorina  Maria  Garcia  (afterwards  famous 
under  her  married  name  of  Malibran),  Zerlina;  Milon, 
whom  Mr.  Krehbiel  identifies  as  a  violoncellist  later  with 
the  Philharmonic  Society,  Don  Ottavio;  and  Carlo  Angri- 
sani,  Maseito,  a  role  he  had  sung  at  the  first  London  per- 
formance of  the  work. 

Da  Ponte,  the  librettist  of  the  work,  who  had  become 
Professor  of  Italian  at  Columbia  College,  had  induced 
Garcia  to  put  on  the  opera.  At  the  first  performance 
during  the  finale  of  the  first  act  everything  went  at  sixes 
and  sevens,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  Garcia,  in  the  title 
role,  to  keep  things  together.  Finally,  sword  in  hand,  he 
stepped  to  the  front  of  the  stage,  ordered  the  performance 
stopped,  and,  exhorting  the  singers  not  to  commit  the  crime 
of  ruining  a  masterwork,  started  the  finale  over  again, 
which  now  went  all  right. 

It  is  related  by  da  Ponte  that  "my  'Don  Giovanni,'  " 
as  he  called  it,  made  such  a  success  that  a  friend  of  his 
who  always  fell  asleep  at  operatic  performances,  not  only 
remained  awake  during  the  whole  of  "Don  Giovanni,"  but 
told  him  he  couldn't  sleep  a  wink  the  rest  of  the  night  for 
excitement. 

Pauline  Viardot-Garcia,  sister  of  Signorina  Garcia  (after- 
wards Mme.  Malibran),  the  Zerlina  of  the  first  New  York 
performance,  owned  the  original  autograph  score  of  "Don 
Giovanni."     She  bequeathed  it  to  the  Paris  Conservatoire. 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  45 

The  opera  has  engaged  the  services  of  famous  artists. 
Faure  and  Maurel  were  great  Don  Giovannis,  Jean  de 
Reszke  sang  the  rdle,  while  he  was  still  a  baritone;  Scotti 
made  his  dehut  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  Decem- 
ber 27,  1899,  in  the  r61e,  with  Nordica  as  Donna  Anna, 
Suzanne  Adams,  as  Donna  Elvira,  Sembrich  as  Zerlina,  and 
Edouard  de  Reszke  as  Leporello.  Renaud  appeared  as 
Don  Giovanni  at  the  Manhattan  Opera  House.  Lablache 
was  accounted  the  greatest  of  Leporellos.  The  r61e  of  Don 
Ottavio  has  been  sung  by  Rubini  and  Mario.  At  the 
Mozart  Festival,  Salzburg,  1914,  the  opera  was  given  with 
Lilli  Lehmann,  Farrar,  and  McCormack  in  the  cast. 

A  curious  aside  in  the  history  of  the  work  was  an  "adapta- 
tion," produced  by  Kalkbrenner  in  Paris,  1805.  How 
greatly  this  differed  from  the  original  may  be  judged  from 
the  fact  that  the  trio  of  the  masks  was  sung,  not  by 
Donna  Anna,  Donna  Elvira,  and  Don  Ottavio,  but  by  three 
policemen ! 

THE  MAGIC  FLUTE 

DIE  ZAUBERFLOtE 

Opera  in  two  acts  by  Mozart;  words  by  Emanuel  Schikaneder 
and  Gieseke.  Produced,  September  30,  1 791,  in  Vienna,  in  the  Theatre 
auf  der  Wieden;  Paris,  1801,  as  "Les  Mystferes  d'Isis";  London, 
King's  Theatre,  June  6,  181 1  (Italian);  Covent  Garden,  May  27, 
1833  (German);  Drury  Lane,  March  10,  1838  (English);  New  York, 
Park  Theatre,  April  17,  1833  (English).  The  r61e  of  Astrofiammante, 
Queen  of  the  Night,  has  been  sung  here  by  Carlotta  Patti,  lima  di 
Murska,  Gerster,  Sembrich,  and  Hempel. 

Characters 

Sarastro,  High  Priest  of  Isis Bass 

Taming,  an  Egyptian  Prince Tenor 

Papageno,  a  bird-catcher Baritone 

Astrofiammante,  Queen  of  the  Night Soprano 

Pamina,  her  daughter Soprano 


4^  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

MoNOSTATOS,  a  Moor,  chief  slave  of  the  Temple Baritone 

Papagena Soprano 

Three  Ladies-in- Waiting  to  the  Queen;  Three  Youths  of  the  Temple; 
Priests,  Priestesses,  Slaves,  etc. 

Time — Egypt,  about  the  reign  of  Rameses  I. 

Place — Near  and  at  the  Temple  of  Isis,  Memphis. 

The  libretto  to  "The  Magic  Flute"  is  considered  such  a 
jtunble  of  nonsense  that  it  is  as  well  to  endeavour  to  extract 
some  sense  from  it. 

Emanuel  Johann  Schikaneder,  who  wrote  it  with  the 
aid  of  a  chorister  named  Gieseke,  was  a  friend  of  Mozart 
and  a  member  of  the  same  Masonic  Lodge.  He  also  was 
the  manager  of  a  theatrical  company  and  had  persuaded 
Mozart  to  compose  the  music  to  a  puppet  show  for  him. 
He  had  selected  for  this  show  the  story  of  "Lulu"  by 
Liebeskind,  which  had  appeared  in  a  volume  of  Oriental 
tales  brought  out  by  Wieland  under  the  title  of  "Dschin- 
nistan."  In  the  original  tale  a  wicked  sorcerer  has  stolen 
the  daughter  of  the  Queen  of  Night,  who  is  restored  by  a 
Prince  by  means  of  magic.  While  Schikaneder  was  busy 
on  his  libretto,  a  fairy  story  by  Perinet,  music  by  Wenzel 
Muller,  and  treating  of  the  same  subject,  was  given ^ at 
another  Viennese  theatre.  Its  great  success  interfered 
with  Schikaneder's  original  plan. 

At  that  time,  however,  freemasonr}''  was  a  much  dis- 
cussed subject.  It  had  been  interdicted  by  Maria  Theresa 
and  armed  forces  were  employed  to  break  up  the  lodges. 
As  a  practical  man  Schikaneder  saw  his  chance  to  exploit 
the  interdicted  rites  on  the  stage.  Out  of  the  wicked  sor- 
cerer he  made  Sarastro,  the  sage  priest  of  Isis.  The 
ordeals  of  Tamino  and  Pamina  became  copies  of  the  cere- 
monials of  freemasonry.  He  also  laid  the  scene  of  the 
opera  in  Egypt,  where  freemasonry  believes  its  rites  to 
have  originated.  In  addition  to  all  this  Mozart's  beautiful 
music  ennobled  the  libretto  even  in  its  dull  and  unpoetical 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  47 

passages,  and  lent  to  the  whole  a  touch  of  the  mysterious 
and  sacred.  "The  muse  of  Mozart  lightly  bears  her 
century  of  existence,"  writes  a  French  authority,  of  this 
score. 

Because  of  its  supposed  relation  to  freemasonr5%  commen- 
tators have  identified  the  vengeful  Queen  of  the  Night  with 
Maria  Theresa,  and  Tamino  with  the  Emperor.  Pamina, 
Papageno,  and  Papagena  are  set  down  as  types  of  the  people, 
and  Monostatos  as  the  fugleman  of  monasticism. 

Mozart  wrote  on  "The  Magic  Flute"  from  March  until 
July  and  in  September,  1791.  September  30,  two  months 
before  his  death,  the  first  performance  was  given. 

In  the  overture  to  "The  Magic  Flute"  the  heavy  reiter- 
ated chords  represent,  it  has  been  suggested,  the  knock- 
ing at  the  door  of  the  lodge  room,  especially  as  they  are 
heard  again  in  the  temple  scene,  when  the  novitiate  of 
Tamino  is  about  to  begin.  The  brilliancy  of  the  fugued 
allegro  often  has  been  commented  on  as  well  as  the  resem- 
blance of  its  theme  to  that  of  dementi's  sonata  in  B-flat. 

The  story  of  "The  Magic  Flute"  opens  Act,  I,  with 
Tamino  endeavouring  to  escape  from  a  huge  snake.  He 
trips  in  running  and  falls  unconscious.  Hearing  his  cries 
for  help,  three  black-garbed  Ladies-in-Waiting  of  the 
Queen  of  the  Night  appear  and  kill  the  snake  with  their 
spears.  Quite  unwillingly  they  leave  the  handsome  youth, 
who,  on  recovering  consciousness,  sees  dancing  toward 
him  an  odd-looking  man  entirely  covered  with  feathers. 
It  is  Papageno,  a  bird-catcher.  He  tells  the  astonished 
Tamino  that  this  is  the  realm  of  the  Queen  of  the  Night. 
Nor,  seeing  that  the  snake  is  dead,  does  he  hesitate  to 
boast  that  it  was  he  who  killed  the  monster.  For  this  lie 
he  is  immediately  punished.  The  three  Ladies-in-Waiting 
reappear  and  place  a  padlock  on  his  mouth.  Then  they 
show  Tamino  the  miniature  of  a  maiden,  whose  magical 
beauty  at  once  fills  his  heart  with  ardent  love.     Enter  the 


48  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Queen  of  the  Night.  She  tells  Tamino  the  portrait  is  that 
of  her  daughter,  Pamina,  who  has  been  taken  from  her  by 
a  wicked  sorcerer,  Sarastro.  She  has  chosen  Tamino  to 
deliver  the  maiden  and  as  a  reward  he  will  receive  her 
hand  in  marriage.  The  Queen  then  disappears  and  the 
three  Ladies-in-Waiting  come  back.  They  take  the  pad- 
lock from  Papageno's  mouth,  give  him  a  set  of  chimes  and 
Tamino  a  golden  flute.  By  the  aid  of  these  magical  instru- 
ments they  will  be  able  to  escape  the  perils  of  their  jour- 
ney, on  which  they  will  be  accompanied  by  three  youths 
or  genii. 

Change  of  •  scene.  A  richly  furnished  apartment  in 
Sarastro' s  palace  is  disclosed.  A  brutal  Moor,  Monastatos, 
is  pursuing  Pamina  with  unwelcome  attentions.  The 
appearance  of  Papageno  puts  him  to  flight.  The  bird- 
catcher  recognizes  Pamina  as  the  daughter  of  the  Queen 
of  the  Night,  and  assures  her  that  she  will  soon  be  rescued. 
In  the  meantime  the  Three  Youths  guide  Tamino  to  a  grove 
where  three  temples  stand.  He  is  driven  away  from  the 
doors  of  two,  but  at  the  third  there  appears  a  priest  who 
informs  him  that  Sarastro  is  no  tyrant,  no  wicked  sorcerer 
as  the  Queen  had  warned  him,  but  a  man  of  wisdom  and 
of  noble  character. 

The  sound  of  Papageno's  voice  arouses  Tamino  from  the 
meditations  inspired  by  the  words  of  the  priest.  He 
hastens  forth  and  seeks  to  call  his  companion  by  playing 
on  his  flute.  Papageno  is  not  alone.  He  is  trying  to  escape 
with  Pamina,  but  is  prevented  by  the  appearance  of 
Monostatos  and  some  slaves,  who  endeavour  to  seize  them. 
But  Papageno  sets  tlie  Moor  and  his  slaves  dancing  by 
playing  on  his  magic  chimes. 

Trumpet  blasts  announce  the  coming  of  Sarastro.  Pa- 
mina falls  at  the  feet  of  the  High  Priest  and  explains  that 
she  was  trying  to  escape  the  unwelcome  attentions  of  the 
Moor.     The  latter  now  drags  Tamino  in,  but  instead  of 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  i^ 

the  reward  he  expects,  receives  a  sound  flogging.  By  the 
command  of  Sarasiro,  Tamino  and  Pamina  are  brought 
into  the  Temple  of  Ordeals,  where  they  must  prove  that 
they  are  worthy  of  the  higher  happiness. 

Act  II.  In  the  Palm  Grove.  Sarastro  informs  the 
priests  of  the  plans  which  he  has  laid.  The  gods  have 
decided  that  Pamina  shall  become  the  wife  of  the  noble 
youth  Tamino.  Tamino,  however,  must  prove,  by  his 
own  power,  that  he  is  worthy  of  admission  to  the  Temple. 
Therefore  Sarastro  has  taken  under  his  protection  Pamina, 
daughter  of  the  Queen  oj  the  Night,  to  whom  is  due  all  darkness 
and  superstition.  Bat  the  couple  must  go  through  severe 
ordeals  in  order  to  be  worthy  of  entering  the  Temple  of 
Light,  and  thus  of  thwarting  the  sinister  machinations  of 
the  Queen. 

In  the  succeeding  scenes  we  see  these  fabulous  ordeals, 
w^hich  Tamino,  with  the  assistance  of  his  magic  flute  and 
his  own  purity  of  purpose,  finally  overcomes  in  company 
with  Pamina.  Darkness  is  banished  and  the  young  couple 
enter  into  the  light  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sim.  Papageno 
also  fares  well,  for  he  receives  Papagena  for  wife. 

There  is  much  nonsense  and  even  buffoonery  in  "The 
Magic  Flute";  and,  in  spite  of  real  nobility  in  the  r61e 
and  music  of  Sarastro,  Mr.  Krehbiel's  comment  that  the 
piece  should  be  regarded  as  somewhat  in  the  same  category 
as  a  Christmas  pantomime  is  by  no  means  far-fetched.  It 
lends  itself  to  elaborate  production,  and  spectacular 
performances  of  it  have  been  given  at  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House. 

Its  representation  requires  for  the  rdle  of  Astrofiammante, 
Queen  of  the  Night,  a  soprano  of  extraordinarily  high  range 
and  agility  of  voice,  as  each  of  the  two  great  airs  of  this 
vengeful  lady  extend  to  high  F  and  are  so  brilliant  in  style 
that  one  associates  with  them  almost  anything  but  the 
dire  outpoiuing  of  threats  their  text  is  intended  to  convey. 

4 


50  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

They  were  composed  because  Mozart's  sister-in-law, 
Josepha  Weber  (Mme.  Hofer)  was  in  the  cast  of  the  first 
performance  and  her  voice  was  such  as  has  been  described 
above.  The  Queen  has  an  air  in  Act  I  and  another  in 
Act  II.  A  quotation  from  the  second,  the  so-called  "Ven- 
geance aria,"  will  show  the  range  and  brilliancy  of  voice 
required  of  a  singer  in  the  r61e  of  Astrofiammante. 


One  is  surprised  to  learn  that  this  tour  deforce  of  brilliant 
vocalization  is  set  to  words  beginning:  "Vengeance  of  hell 
is  boiling  in  my  bosom";  for  by  no  means  does  it  boil  with 
a  vengeance. 

Papageno  in  his  dress  of  feathers  is  an  amusing  character. 
His  first  song,  "A  fowler  bold  in  me  you  see,"  with  inter- 
ludes on  his  pipes,  is  jovial;  and  after  his  mouth  has  been 
padlocked  his  inarticulate  and  oft-repeated  "Hm!  "  can 
always  be  made  provocative  of  laughter.  With  Pamina 
he  has  a  charming  dviet  "  The  manly  heart  that  love  desires." 
The  chimes  with  which  he  causes  Monostatos  and  his  slaves 
to  dance,  willy-nilly,  are  delightful  and  so  is  his  duet  with 
Papagena,  near  the  end  of  the  opera.  Tamino,  with  the 
magic  flute,  charms  the  wild  beasts.  They  come  forth 
from  their  lairs  and  lie  at  his  feet.  "Thy  magic  tones 
shall  speak  for  me,"  is  his  principal  air.  The  concerted 
number  for  Pamina  and  trio  of  female  voices  (the  Three 
Youths  or  genii)  is  of  exceeding  grace.  The  two  Men  in 
Armour,  who  in  one  of  the  scenes  of  the  ordeals  guard  the 
portal  to  a  subterranean  cavern  and  announce  to  Tamino 
the  awards  that  await  him,  do  so  to  the  vocal  strains  of  an 
old  German  sacred  melody  with  much  admired  coimter- 
point  in  the  orchestra. 

Next,  however,  in  significance  to  the  music  for  AstrO' 


Wolfgang  Atnadeus  Mozart  s[]^ 

fiammante  and,  indeed,  of  far  nobler  character  than  the  airs 
for  the  Queen  of  the  Night,  are  the  invocation  of  Isis  by 
Sarastro,  "O,  Isis  and  Osiris,"  with  its  interluding  chant 
of  the  priests,  and  his  air,  "Within  this  hallowed  dwelling." 
Not  only  the  solemnity  of  the  vocal  score  but  the  beauty 
of  the  orchestral  accompaniment,  so  rich,  yet  so  restrained, 
justly  cause  these  two  numbers  to  rank  with  Mozart's 
finest  achievements. 

"  Die  Zauberflote"  (The  Magic  Flute)  was  its  composer's 
swan-song  in  opera  and  perhaps  his  greatest  popular 
success.  Yet  he  is  said  to  have  made  little  or  nothing  out 
of  it,  having  reserved  as  his  compensation  the  right  to 
dispose  of  copies  of  the  score  to  other  theatres.  Copies, 
however,  were  procured  surreptitiously;  his  last  illness 
set  in;  and,  poor  business  man  that  he  was,  others  reaped 
the  rewards  of  his  genius. 

In  1801,  ten  years  after  Mozart's  death,  there  was  pro- 
duced in  Paris  an  extraordinary  version  of  "The  Magic 
Flute,"  entitled  "Les  Mj^steres  d'Isis"  (The  Mysteries  of 
Isis).  Underlying  this  was  a  considerable  portion  of  "The 
Magic  Flute"  score,  but  also  introduced  in  it  were  frag- 
ments from  other  works  of  the  composer  ("Don  Giovanni," 
"Figaro,"  "Clemenza  di  Tito")  and  even  bits  from 
Haydn  symphonies.  Yet  this  hodge-podge  not  only  had 
great  success — owing  to  the  magic  of  Mozart's  music — 
it  actually  was  revived  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century 
later,  and  the  real  "Zauberflote"  was  not  given  in  Paris 
until  1829. 

Besides  the  operas  discussed,  Mozart  produced  (1781) 
*'Idomoneo"  and  (1791)  "La  Clemenza  di  Tito."  In 
1768,  when  he  was  twelve  years  old,  a  one-act  "Singspiel" 
or  musical  comedy,  "Bastien  and  Bastienne,"  based  on  a 
French  vaudeville  by.  Mme.  Favart,  was  privately  played 
in  Vienna.  With  text  rearranged  by  Max  Kalbeck,  the 
graceful  little  piece  has  been  revived  with  success.     The 


52  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

story  is  of  the  simplest.  Two  lovers,  Bastien  (tenor)  and 
Bastienne  (soprano),  have  quarrelled.  Without  the  slight- 
est complication  in  the  plot,  they  are  brought  together  by 
the  third  character,  an  old  shepherd  named  Colas  (bass). 
"Der  Schauspiel -director"  (The  Impresario),  another 
little  comedy  opera,  produced  1786,  introduces  that  clever 
rogue,  Schikaneder,  at  whose  entreaty  "The  Magic  Flute" 
was  composed.  The  other  characters  include  Mozart 
himself,  and  Mme.  Hofer,  his  sister-in-law,  who  was  the 
Queen  of  the  Night  in  the  original  cast  of  "The  Magic 
Flute."  The  story  deals  with  the  troubles  of  an  impresario 
due  to  the  jealousy  of  prima  donnas.  "Before  they  are 
engaged,  opera  singers  are  very  engaging,  except  when  they 
are  engaged  in  singing."  This  line  is  from  H.  E.  Krehbiel's 
translation  of  the  libretto,  produced,  with  "Bastien  and 
Bastienne"  (translated  by  Alice  Matullah,  as  a  "l3rric 
pastoral"),  at  the  Empire  Theatre,  New  York,  October 
26,  191 6,  These  charming  productions  were  made  by  the 
Society  of  American  Singers  with  a  company  including 
David  Bispham  (Schikaneder  and  Colas),  Albert  Reiss 
(Mozart  and  Bastien),  Mabel  Garrison,  and  Lucy  Gates; 
the  direction  that  of  Mr.  Reiss. 

There  remain  to  be  mentioned  two  other  operatic  come- 
dies by  Mozart:  "The  Elopement  from  the  Serail" 
(Belmonte  und  Constance),  1782,  in  three  acts;  and 
"Cos!  fan  Tutte"  (They  All  Do  It),  1790,  in  two.  The 
music  of  "Cosi  fan  Tutte"  is  so  sparkling  that  various 
attempts  have  been  made  to  relieve  it  of  the  handicap 
imposed  by  the  banality  of  the  original  libretto  by  da  Ponte. 
Herman  Levi's  version  has  proven  the  most  successful 
of  the  various  rearrangements.  The  characters  are  two 
Andalusian  sisters,  Fiordiligi  (soprano),  Dorabella  (soprano); 
two  officers,  their  fiances,  Ferrando  (tenor),  and  Guglielmo 
(baritone);  Alfonso  (bass);  and  Despina  (soprano),  maid 
to  the  two  sisters. 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  53 

Alfonso  lays  a  wager  with  the  officers  that,  like  all  women, 
their  fiancees  will  prove  unfaithful,  if  opportunity  were 
offered.  The  men  pretend  their  regiment  has  been  ordered 
to  Havana,  then  return  in  disguise  and  lay  siege  to  the 
young  ladies.  In  various  ways,  including  a  threat  of  sui- 
cide, the  women's  sympathies  are  plaj'ed  upon.  In  the 
original  they  are  moved  to  pledge  their  hearts  and  hands 
to  the  supposed  new-comers.  A  reconciliation  follows  their 
simple  pronouncement  that  "they  all  do  it." 

In  the  revised  version,  they  become  cognizant  of  the 
intrigue,  play  their  parts  in  it  knowingly,  at  the  right 
moment  disclose  their  knowledge,  shame  their  lovers,  and 
forgive  them.  An  actual  wager  laid  in  Vienna  is  said  to 
have  furnished  the  basis  for  da  Ponte's  libretto. 


Ludwig  van  Beethoven 

FIDELIO 

"Fidelio,"  opera  in  two  acts,  by  Ludwig  van  Beethoven.  Produced 
in  three  acts,  as  "Fidelio,  oder,  die  eheliche  Liebe"  (Fidelio,  or  Conjugal 
Love),  at  the  Theatre  on  the  Wien,  November  20,  1805.  Revised  and 
given  at  the  Imperial  Private  Theatre,  March  29,  1806,  but  withdrawn 
after  a  few  performances.  Again  revised  and  successfully  brought 
out  May  23,  18 14,  at  the  Kamthnerthor  Theatre  (Theatre  at  the 
Carinthian  Gate),  Vienna.  Paris,  Theatre  Lyrique,  May  5,  i860. 
London,  King's  Theatre,  May  18,  1832;  Covent  Garden,  Jime  12, 
1835,  with  Malibran;  May  20,  1851,  in  Italian,  with  recitatives  by 
Balfe.  New  York,  Park  Theatre,  September  9,  1839.  (See  last  para- 
graph of  this  article.)  The  libretto  was  by  Sonnleithner  after  Bouilly; 
first  revision  by  Breuning;  second  by  Treitschke.  Four  overtures, 
"Leonore,"  Nos.  i,  2,  and  3;  and  "Fidelio." 

Characters 

Florestan,  a  Spanish  Nobleman Tenor 

Leonore,  his  wife,  in  male  attire  as  Fidelio Soprano 

Don  Fernando,  Prime  Minister  of  Spain Bass 

Pizarro,  Governor  of  the  prison  and  enemy,  to  Florestan..  .Bass 

Rocco,  chief  jailer Bass 

Marcellina,  daughter  of  Rocco Soprano 

Jacquino,  assistant  to  Rocco Tenor 

Soldiers,  prisoners,  people. 
Time — iSth  Century.       PUice — A  fortress,  near  Seville,  Spain,  used 

as  a  prison  for  political  oflFenders. 

LUDWIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN,  composer  of  "Fidelio," 
was  bom  at  Bonn,  December  16,  1770.  He  died 
at  Vienna,  March  26,  1827.  As  he  composed  but  this 
owe  opera,  and  as  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  great  achi^ve- 

54 


Ludwig  van  Beethoven  5^ 

merits  outside  the  domain  of  the  stage — symphonies, 
sonatas,  etc. — it  is  possible,  as  Storck  suggests  in  his 
Opernbuch,  to  dispense  with  biographical  data  and  confine 
ourselves  to  facts  relating  to  "Fidelio." 

The  libretto,  which  appealed  to  the  composer  by  reason 
of  its  pure  and  idealistic  motive,  was  not  written  for  Bee- 
thoven. It  was  a  French  book  by  Bouilly  and  had  been 
used  by  three  composers:  Pierre  Gabeaux  (1798);  Simon 
Mayr,  Donizetti's  teacher  at  Bergamo  and  the  composer 
of  more  than  seventy  operas  (1805);  and  Paer,  whose 
"Leonora,  ossia  I'Amore  Conjugale"  (Leonora,  or  Conju- 
gal Love)  was .  brought  out  at  Dresden  in  December, 
1804. 

It  was  Schikaneder,  the  librettist  and  producer  of 
Mozart's  "Magic  Fhite, "  who  commissioned  Beethoven  to 
compose  an  opera.  But  it  was  finally  executed  for  Baron 
von  Braun,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  management  of  the 
Theatre  on  the  Wien. 

Beethoven's  heart  was  bound  up  in  the  work.  Consci- 
entious to  the  last  detail  in  everything  he  did,  this  noble 
man,  inspired  by  a  noble  theme,  appears  to  have  put  even 
more  labour  into  his  opera  than  into  any  other  one  work. 
There  are  no  less  than  sixteen  sketches  for  the  opening  of 
Floreslan's  first  air  and  346  pages  of  sketches  for  the  opera. 
Nor  did  his  labour  in  it  cease  when  the  opera  was  completed 
and  performed. 

Bouilly's  libretto  was  translated  and  made  over  for 
Beethoven  by  Schubert's  friend  Joseph  Sonnleithner. 
The  opera  was  brought  out  November  20th  and  repeated 
November  21  and  22,  1805.  It  was  a  failure.  The  French 
were  in  occupation  of  Vienna,  which  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
and  the  cotirt  had  abandoned,  and  conditions  generally 
were  upset.  But  even  Beethoven's  friends  did  not  blame 
the  non-success  of  the  opera  upon  these  untoward  circum- 
stances.    It  had  inherent  defects,  as  was  apparent  even  a 


«^  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

century  later,  when  at  the  "Fidelio"  centennial  celebration 
in  Berlin,  the  original  version  was  restored  and  performed. 

To  remedy  these,  Beethoven's  friend,  Stephan  von  Breun- 
ing,  condensed  the  three  acts  to  two  and  the  composer 
made  changes  in  the  score.  This  second  version  was  brought 
forward  April  29,  1806,  with  better  success,  but  a  quarrel 
with  von  Braun  led  Beethoven  to  withdraw  it.  It  seems 
to  have  required  seven  years  for  the  entente  cordiale 
between  composer  and  manager  to  become  re-established. 
Then  Baron  von  Braun  had  the  book  taken  in  hand  by  a 
practical  librettist,  Georg  Friedrich  Treitschke.  Upon 
receiving  the  revision,  which  greatly  pleased  him,  Bee- 
thoven in  his  turn  jre-revised  the  score.  In  this  form  "Fi- 
delio" was  brought  out  May  23,  1814,  in  the  Theatre  am 
Karnthnerthor.  There  was  no  question  of  failure  this  time. 
The  opera  took  its  place  in  the  repertoire  and  when,  eight 
years  later,  Mme.  Schroder-Devrient  sang  the  title  role, 
her  success  in  it  was  sensational. 

There  are  four  overtures  to  the  work,  three  entitled 
"Leonore"  (Nos.  i,  2,  and  3)  and  one  "Fidelio."  The 
"Leonore"  overtures  are  incorrectly  numbered.  The 
No.  2  was  given  at  the  original  performance  and  is,  there- 
fore. No.  I.  The  greatest  and  justly  the  most  famous, 
the  No.  3,  is  really  No.  2.  The  so-called  No.  i  was  com- 
posed for  a  projected  performance  at  Prague,  which  never 
came  off.  The  score  and  parts,  in  a  copyist's  hand,  biit 
with  corrections  by  Beethoven,  were  discovered  after  the 
composer's  death.  When  it  was  recognized  as  an  overture 
to  the  opera,  the  conclusion  that  it  was  the  earliest  one, 
which  he  probably  had  laid  aside,  was  not  unnaturally 
arrived  at.  The  "Fidelio"  overture  was  intended  for  the 
second  revision,  but  was  not  ready  in  time.  The  overture 
to  "The  Ruins  of  Athens"  was  substituted.  The  overture 
to  "Fidelio"  usually  is  pla^'^ed  before  the  opera  and  the 
"Leonore,"  No.  3,  between  the  acts. 


Photo  by  White 


Matzenauer  as  Fidelio 


Ludwig  van  Beethoven  ^ 

Of  the  "Leonore,"  No.  3,  I  think  it  is  within  bounds  to 
say  that  it  is  the  first  great  overture  that  sums  up  in  its 
thematic  material  and  in  its  general  scope,  construction, 
and  working  out,  the  story  of  the  opera  which  it  precedes. 
Even  the  trumpet  call  is  brought  in  with  stirring  dramatic 
effect.  It  may  be  said  that  from  this  time  on  the  melodies 
of  their  operas  were  drawn  on  more  and  more  by  composers 
for  the  thematic  material  of  their  overtures,  which  thus 
became  music  dramas  in  miniature.  The  overture  "Leo- 
nore," No.  3,  also  is  an  established  work  in  the  classical 
concert  repertoire,  as  is  also  Leonore's  recitative  and  air 
in  the  first  act. 

In  the  story  of  the  opera,  Florestan,  a  noble  Spaniard, 
has  aroused  the  enmity  of  Pizarro,  governor  of  a  gloomy 
mediaeval  fortress,  used  as  a  place  of  confinement  for  poli- 
tical prisoners.  Pizarro  has  been  enabled  secretly  to  seize 
Florestan  and  cast  him  into  the  darkest  dungeon  of  the 
fortress,  at  the  same  time  spreading  a  report  of  his  death. 
Indeed,  Pizarro  actually  plans  to  do  away  with  Florestan 
by  slow  starvation;  or,  if  necessary,  by  means  more  swift. 

One  person,  however,  suspects  the  truth — Leonore,  the 
wife  of  Florestan.  Her  faithfulness,  the  risks  she  takes, 
the  danger  she  runs,  in  order  to  save  her  husband,  and  the 
final  trimnph  of  conjugal  love  over  the  sinister  machina- 
tions of  Pizarro,  form  the  motive  of  the  story  of  "Fidelio," 
a  title  derived  from  the  name  assumed  by  Leonore, 
when,  disguised  as  a  man,  she  obtains  employment  as 
assistant  to  Rocco,  the  chief  jailer  of  the  prison.  Fidelio 
has  been  at  work  and  has  become  a  great  favourite  with 
Rocco,  as  well  as  with  Marcellina,  the  jailer's  daughter. 
The  latter,  in  fact,  much  prefers  the  gentle,  comely  youth, 
Fidelio,  to  Jacquino,  the  turnkey,  who,  before  Fidelia's 
appearance  upon  the  scene,  believed  himself  to  be  her 
accepted  lover.  Leonore  cannot  make  her  sex  known  to 
the  girl.     It  would  ruin  her  plans  to  save  her  husband. 


5^  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Such  is  the  situation  when  the  curtain  rises  on  the  first 
act,  which  is  laid  in  the  courtyard  of  the  prison. 

Act  I.  The  opera  opens  with  a  brisk  duet  between 
Jacquino  and  Marcellina,  in  which  he  urges  her  definitely 
to  accept  him  and  she  cleverly  puts  him  off.  Left  alone 
she  expresses  her  regret  for  Jacquino,  but  wishes  she  were 
united  with  Fidelio.  ("O  war  ich  schon  mit  dir  vereint" — 
O,  were  I  but  with  you  united.) 

Afterward  she  is  joined  by  her  father.  Then  Leonore 
(as  Fidelio)  enters  the  courtyard.  She  has  a  basket  of 
provisions  and  also  is  carr^'ing  some  fetters  which  she  has 
taken  to  be  repaired.  Marcellina,  seeing  how  weary 
Leonore  is,  hastens  to  relieve  the  supposed  youth  of  his 
burden.  Rocco  hints  not  only  tolerantly  but  even  en- 
couragingly at  what  he  believes  to  be  the  fancy  Fidelio  and 
Marcellina  have  taken  to  each  other.  This  leads  up  to 
the  quartet  in  canon  form,  one  of  the  notable  vocal  num- 
bers of  the  opera  "Mir  ist  so  wunderbar"  (How  wondrous 
the  emotion).  Being  a  canon,  the  theme  enunciated  by. 
each  of  the  four  characters  is  the  same,  but  if  the  difference 
in  the  sentiments  of  each  character  is  indicated  by  subtle 
nuance  of  expression  on  the  part  of  the  singers,  and  the 
intonation  be  correct,  the  beauty  of  this  quartet  becomes 
plain  even  at  a  first  hearing.  The  participants  are  Leonore, 
Marcellina,  Rocco,  and  Jacquino,  who  appears  toward  the 
close.  "After  this  canon,"  say  the  stage  directions,  so 
clearly  is  the  form  of  the  quartet  recognized,  "Jacquino 
goes  back  to  his  lodge." 


Rocco  then  voices  a  song  in  praise  of  money  and  the  need 
of  it  for  young  people  about  to  marry.  ("Wenn  sich 
Nichts  mit  Nichts  verbindet" — When  you  nothing  add  to 


Ludwig  van  Beethoven  59 

nothing.)  The  situation  is  awkward  for  Leonore,  but  the 
rescue  of  her  husband  demands  that  she  continue  to  masquer- 
ade as  a  man.  Moreover  there  is  an  excuse  in  the  palpable 
fact  that  before  she  entered  Rocco's  service,  Jacquino  was 
in  high  favour  with  MarcelUna  and  probably  will  have  no 
difficulty  in  re-establishing  himself  therein,  when  the  comely 
youth  Fidelio,  turns  out  to  be  Leonore,  the  faithful  wife  of 
Florestan. 

Through  a  description  which  Rocco  gives  of  the  prisoners, 
Leonore  now  learns  what  she  had  not  been  sure  of  before. 
Her  husband  is  confined  in  this  fortress  and  in  its  deepest 
dungeon. 

A  short  march,  with  a  pronounced  and  characteristic 
rhythm,  announces  the  approach  of  Pizarro.  He  looks 
over  his  despatches.  One  of  them  warns  him  that  Fer- 
nando, the  Minister  of  State,  is  about  to  inspect  the  fortress, 
accusations  having  been  made  to  him  that  Pizarro  has 
used  his  power  as  governor  to  wreak  vengeance  upon  his 
private  enemies.  A  man  of  quick  decision,  Pizarro  de- 
termines to  do  away  with  Florestan  at  once.  His  aria, 
"Ha!  welch  ein  Augenblick!"  (Ah!  the  great  moment!) 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  solos  in  the  dramatic  repertoire 
for  bass  voice.  When  really  mastered,  however,  it  also  is 
one  of  the  most  effective. 

Pizarro  posts  a  tnmipeter  on  the  ramparts  with  a  sentry 
to  watch  the  road  from  Seville.  As  soon  as  a  state  equip- 
age with  outriders  is  sighted,  the  tnmipeter  is  to  blow  a 
signal.  Having  thus  made  sure  of  being  warned  of  the 
approach  of  the  Minister,  he  tosses  a  well-filled  purse  to 
Rocco,  and  bids  him  "for  the  safety  of  the  State,"  to  make 
away  with  the  most  dangerous  of  the  prisoners — ^meaning 
Florestan.  Rocco  declines  to  commit  murder,  but  when 
Pizarro  takes  it  upon  himself  to  do  the  deed,  Rocco  consents 
to  dig  a  grave  in  an  old  cistern  in  the  vaults,  so  that  all 
traces  of  the  crime  will  be  hidden  from  the  expected  visitor. 


6o  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Leonore,  who  has  overheard  the  plot,  now  gives  vent  to 
her  feeHngs  in  the  highly  dramatic  recitative:  "Abscheu- 
licher'  wo  eilst  du  hin!"  ("Accursed  one!  Where  hasten'st 
thou ! ") ;  followed  by  the  beautiful  air,  "  Komm  Hoffnung" 
(Come,  hope!),  a  deeply  moving  expression  of  confidence 
that  her  love  and  faith  will  enable  her,  with  the  aid  of 
Providence,  to  save  her  husband's  life.  Soon  afterwards 
she  learns  that,  as  Rocco's  assistant,  she  is  to  help  him  in 
digging  the  grave.  She  will  be  near  her  husband  and 
either  able  to  aid  him  or  at  least  die  with  him. 

The  prisoners  from  the  upper  tiers  are  now,  on  Leonore' s 
intercession,  permitted  a  brief  opportunity  to  breathe  the 
open  air.  The  cells  are  imlocked  and  they  are  allowed  to 
stroll  in  the  garden  of  the  fortress,  until  Pizarro,  hearing 
of  this,  angrily  puts  an  end  to  it.  The  chorus  of  the  pris- 
oners, subdued  like  the  half-suppressed  joy  of  fearsome 
beings,  is  one  of  the  significant  passages  of  the  score. 

Act  II.  The  scene  is  in  the  dungeon  where  Florestan 
is  in  heavy  chains.  To  one  side  is  the  old  cistern  covered 
with  rubbish.  Musically  the  act  opens  with  Florestan' s 
recitative  and  air,  a  fit  companion  piece  to  Leonore' s  "Komm 
Hoffnung"  in  Act  I.  The  whispered  duet  between  Leonore 
and  Rocco  as  they  dig  the  grave  and  the  orchestral  accom- 
paniment impress  one  with  the  gruesome  significance  of 
the  scene. 

Pizarro  enters  the  vault,  exultantly  makes  himself 
known  to  his  enemy,  and  draws  his  dagger  for  the  fatal 
thrust.  Leonore  throws  herself  in  his  way.  Pushed  aside, 
she  again  interposes  herself  between  the  woyld-be  murderer 
and  his  victim,  and,  pointing  at  him  a  loaded  pistol,  which 
she  has  had  concealed  about  her  person,  cries  out:  "First 
slay  his  wife!" 

At  this  moment,  in  itself  so  tense,  a  trumpet  call  rings 
out  from  the  direction  of  the  fortress  wall.  Jacquino 
appears  at  the  head  of  the  stone  stairway  leading  down 


Ludwig  van  Beethoven 


6i 


into  the  dungeon.  The  Minister  of  State  is  at  hand.  His 
vanguard  is  at  the  gate.  Florestan  is  saved.  There  is 
a  rapturous  duet,  "O,  namenlose  Freude"  (Joy  inexpres- 
sible) for  him  and  the  devoted  wife  to  whom  he  owes  his 
life. 

In  Florestan  the  Minister  of  State  recognizes  his  friend, 
whom  he  believed  to  have  died,  according  to  the  reports 
set  afloat  by  Pizarro,  who  himself  is  now  apprehended. 
To  Leonore  is  assigned  the  joyful  task  of  unlocking  and 
loosening  her  husband's  fetters  and  freeing  him  from  his 
chains.  A  chorus  of  rejoicing:  "Wer  ein  solches  Weib 
errungen"  (He,  whom  such  a  wife  has  cherished)  brings 
the  opera  to  a  close. 

It  is  well  said  in  George  P.  Upton's  book,  The  Standard 
Operas,  that  "as  a  drama  and  as  an  opera,  "Fidelio"  stands 
almost  alone  in  its  perfect  purity,  in  the  moral  grandeur  of 
its  subject,  and  in  the  resplendent  ideality  of  its  music." 
Even  those  who  do  not  appreciate  the  beauty  of  such  a 
work,  and,  vmfortunately  their  number  is  considerable, 
cannot  fail  to  agree  with  me  that  the  trumpet  call,  which 
brings  the  prison  scene  to  a  climax,  is  one  of  the  most 
dramatic  moments  in  opera.  I  was  a  boy  when,  more 
than  forty  years  ago,  I  first  heard  "Fidelio"  in  Wiesbaden. 
But  I  still  remember  the  thrill,  when  that  trumpet  call 
split  the  air  with  the  message  that  the  Minister  of  State 
was  in  sight  and  that  Leonore  had  saved  her  husband. 


When  "Fidelio"  had  its  first  American  performance 
(New  York,  Park  Theatre,  September  9,  1839)  the  opera 
did  not  fill  the  entire  evening.     The  entertainment,  as  a 


62  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

whole,  was  a  curiosity  from  present-day  standards.  First 
came  Beethoven's  opera,  with  Mrs.  Martyn  as  Leonore. 
Then  a  pas  seul  was  danced  by  Mme.  Araline;  the  whole 
concluding  with  "The  Deep,  Deep  Sea,"  in  which  Mr. 
Placide  appeared  as  The  Great  American  Sea  Serpent. 
This  seems  incredible.  But  I  have  searched  for  and  found 
the  advertisement  in  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  and  the 
facts  are  stated. 

Under  Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch,  "Fidelio"  was  performed 
at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  in  the  season  of  1884- 
85;  under  Anton  Seidl,  during  the  season  of  1886-87, 
with  Brandt  and  Niemann  as  well  as  with  Lehmann  and 
Niemann  as  Leonore  and  Florestan. 

The  1886-87  representations  of  "Fidelio,"  by  great 
artists  under  a  great  conductor,  are  among  the  most  vivid 
memories  of  opera-goers  so  fortunate  as  to  have  heard 
them. 


"Weber  and  his  Operas 

CARL  MARIA  von  WEBER,  born  at  Eutin,  Oldenberg, 
December  i8,  1786,  died  in  London,  June  5,  1826, 
is  the  composer  of  "Der  Freischutz,"  "Euryanthe, "  and 
"Oberon." 

"Der  Freischutz"  was  first  heard  in  Berlin,  June  18, 
1821.  "Euryanthe"  was  produced  in  Vienna,  October 
25,  1823.  "Oberon"  had  its  first  performance  at  Covent 
Garden,  London,  April  12,  1826.  Eight  weeks  later  Weber 
died.  A  sufferer  from  consumption,  his  malady  was 
aggravated  by  over-exertion  in  finishing  the  score  of  "Obe- 
ron," rehearsing  and  conducting  the  opera,  and  attending 
the  social  functions  arranged  in  his  honour. 

DER  FREISCHUTZ 

The  first  American  performance  of  this  opera,  which  is  in  three 
acts,  was  in  English.  The  event  took  place  in  the  Park  Theatre, 
New  York,  March  2,  1825.  This  was  only  four -years  later  than  the 
production  in  Berlin.  It  was  not  heard  here  in  German  imtil  a  per- 
formance at  the  old  Broadway  Theatre.  This  occurred  in  1856  under 
the  direction  of  Carl  Bergmann.  London  heard  it,  in  English,  July 
23,  1824;  in  German,  at  the  King's  Theatre,  May  9,  1832;  in  ItaUan, 
as  "II  Franco  Arciero,"  at  Covent  Garden,  March  16,  1825.  For  this 
performance  Costa  wrote  recitatives  to  replace  the  dialogue.  BerHoz 
did  the  same  for  the  production  at  the  Grand  Op^ra,  Paris,  as  "  Le  Franc 
Archer,"  June  7,  1841.  "Freischutz"  means  "free -shooter" — some 
one  who  shoots  with  magic  bullets. 

Characters 

Prince  Ottokar Baritone 

CuNO,  head  ranger Bass 

63 


64  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Max,  a  forester Tenor 

Kaspar,  a  forester Bass 

KiLiAN,  a  peasant Tenor 

A  Hermit Bass 

Zamiel,  the  wild  huntsman Speaking  Part 

Agathe,  Cimo's  daughter Soprano 

Aennchen  (Annette),  her  cousin Soprano 

Time — ^Middle  of  i8th  Century  Place — Bohemia 


Act  I.  At  the  target  range.  Kilian,  the  peasant,  has 
defeated  Max,  the  forester,  at  a  prize  shooting,  a  Schutzen- 
fest,  maybe.  Max,  of  cotirse,  should  have  won.  Being 
a  forester,  accustomed  to  the  use  of  fire-arms,  it  is  disgraceful 
for  him  to  have  been  defeated  by  a  mere  peasant. 

Kilian  "rubs  it  in"  by  mocking  him  in  song  and  the  men 
and  girls  of  the  village  join  in  the  mocking  chorus — a 
clever  bit  of  teasing  in  music  and  establishing  at  the  very 
start  the  originality  in  melody,  style,  and  character  of  the 
opera. 

The  hereditary  forester,  Cuno,  is  worried  over  the  poor 
showing  Max  has  made  not  only  on  that  day,  but  for  some 
time  past.  There  is  to  be  a  "shoot "  on  the  morrow  before 
Prince  Oltokar.  In  order  to  win  the  hand  in  marriage  of 
Agathe,  Cuno's  daughter,  and  the  eventual  succession  as 
hereditary  forester.  Max  must  carry  off  the  honours  in  the 
competition  now  so  near  at  hand.  He  himself  is  in  despair. 
Life  will  be  worthless  to  him  without  Agathe.  Yet  he 
seems  to  have  lost  all  his  cunning  as  a  shot. 

It  is  now,  when  the  others  have  gone,  that  another  for- 
ester, Kaspar,  a  man  of  dark  visage  and  of  morose  and 
forbidding  character,  approaches  him.  He  hands  him  his 
gun,  points  to  an  eagle  circling  far  on  high,  and  tells  him 
to  fire  at  it.  Max  shoots.  From  its  dizzy  height  the  bird 
falls  dead  at  his  feet.  It  is  a  wonderful  shot.  Kaspar 
explains  to  him  that  he  has  shot  with  a  "free,  "  or  charmed 
bullet;  that  such  bullets  always  hit  what  the  marksman 


Cesl  Maria  von  Weber  65 

wills  them  to;  and  that  if  Max  will  meet  him  in  the  Wolf's 
Glen  at  midnight,  they  will  mould  bullets  with  one  of  which, 
on  the  morrow,  he  easily  can  win  Agathc's  hand  and  the 
hereditary  office  of  forester.  Max,  to  whom  victory  means 
all  that  is  dear  to  him,  consents. 

Act  II.  Agathe's  room  in  the  head  ranger's  house. 
The  girl  has  gloomy  forebodings.  Even  her  sprightly 
relative,  Aennchen,  is  unable  to  cheer  her  up.  At  last 
Max,  whom  she  has  been  awaiting,  comes.  Very  soon, 
however,  he  says  he  is  obliged  to  leave,  because  he  has 
shot  a  deer  in  the  Wolf's  Glen  and  must  go  after  it.  In 
vain  the  girls  warn  him  against  the  locality,  which  is  said 
to  be  haunted. 

The  scene  changes  to  the  Wolf's  Glen,  the  haunt  of 
Zamiel  the  wild  huntsman  (otherwise  the  devil)  to  whom 
Kaspar  has  sold  himself,  and  to  whom  now  he  plans^to  turn 
over  Max  as  a  victim,  in  order  to  gain  for  himself  a  brief 
respite  on  earth,  his  time  to  Zamiel  being  up.  The  younger 
forester  joins  him  in  the  Wolf's  Glen  and  together  they 
m.ould  seven  magic  bullets,  six  of  which  go  true  to  the  mark. 
The  seventh  goes  whither  Zamiel  wills  it. 

Act  III.  The  first  scene  again  plays  in  the  forester's 
house.  Agathe  still  is  filled  with  forebodings.  She  is 
attired  for  the  test  shooting  which  also  will  make  her 
Max's  bride,  if  he  is  successful.  Faith  dispels  her  gloom. 
The  bridesmaids  enter  and  wind  the  bridal  garland. 

The  time  arrives  for  the  test  shooting.  But  only  the 
seventh  bullet,  the  one  which  Zamiel  speeds  whither  he 
wishes,  remains  to  Max.  His  others  he  has  used  up  on  the 
hunt  in  order  to  show  off  before  the  Prince.  Kaspar 
climbs  a  tree  to  watch  the  proceedings  from  a  safe  place 
of  concealment.  He  expects  Max  to  be  Zamiel' s  victim. 
Before  the  whole  village  and  the  Prince  the  test  shot  is 
to  be  made.  The  Prince  points  to  a  flying  dove.  At  that 
moment  Agathe  appears  accompanied  by  a  Hermit,  a  holy 


66  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

man.  She  calls  out  to  Max  not  to  shoot,  that  she  is  the 
dcve.  But  Alax  already  has  pulled  the  trigger.  The  shot 
resounds.  Agathe  falls — but  only  in  a  swoon.  It  is  K  as  par 
who  tumbles  from  the  tree  and  rolls,  fatally  wounded,  on 
the  turf.  Zamiel  has  had  no  power  over  Max,  for  the  young 
forester  had  not  come  to  the  Wolf's  Glen  of  his  own  free 
will,  but  only  after  being  tempted  by  Kaspar.  Therefore 
Kaspar  himself  had  to  be  the  victim  of  the  seventh  bullet. 
Upon  the  Hermit's  intercession.  Max,  who  has  confessed 
everything,  is  forgiven  by  Prince  Ottokar,  the  test  shot  is 
abolished  and  a  year's  probation  substituted  for  it. 

Many  people  are  familiar  with  music  from  "Der  Frei- 
schutz"  without  being  aware  that  it  is  from  that  opera. 
Several  melodies  from  it  have  been  adapted  as  hymn  tunes, 
and  are  often  sung  in  church.  In  Act  I,  are  Kilian's 
song  and  the  chorus  in  which  the  men  and  women,  young 
and  old,  rally  Max  upon  his  bad  luck.  There  is  an  expres- 
sive trio  for  Max,  Kaspar,  and  Cuno,  with,  chorus  "O  diese 
Sonne!"  (O  fateful  morrow.)  There  is  a  short  waltz. 
Max's  solo,  "Durch  die  Walder,  durch  die  Auen"  (Through 
the  forest  and  o'er  the  meadows)  is  a  melody  of  great  beauty, 
and  this  also  can  be  said  of  his  other  solo  in  the  same  scene: 
"Jetzt  ist  wohl  ihr  Fenster  off  en"  (Now  mayhap  her 
window  opens),  while  the  scene  comes  to  a  close  with 
gloomy,  despairing  accents,  as  Zamiel,  unseen  of  course 
by  Max,  hovers,  a  threatening  shadow,  in  the  background. 
There  follows  Kaspar' s  drinking  song,  forced  in  its  hilari- 
ousness  and  ending  in  grotesque  laughter,  Kaspar  being 
the  familiar  of  Zamiel,  the  wild  huntsman.  His  air  ("Tri- 
tmiph!  Triumph!  Vengeance  will  succeed")  is  wholly  in 
keeping  with  his  sinister  character. 

Act  II  opens  with  a  delightful  duet  for  Agathe  andAenn- 
chen  and  a  charmingly  coquettish  little  air  for  the  latter 
(Comes  a  comely  youth  a-wooing).  Then  comes  Agathe' s 
principal  scene.     She  opens  the  window  and,  as  the  moon- 


Cairl  Maria  von  Weber 


67 


light  floods  the  room,  intones  the  prayer  so  simple,  so  ex- 
quisite, so  expressive:  "Leisc,  leise,  frotnme  Weise "  (Softly 
sighing,  day  is  dying).     This  is  followed,  after  a  recitative, 

rii'- L  I  '  ^  I 


by  a  rapturous,  descending  passage  leading  into  an  ecstatic 
melody:  "Alle  meine  Pulse  schlagen"  (All  my  pulses  now 
are  beating)  as  she  sees  her  lover  approaching. 


JLiA^ii                          MM          ,^  -■—~ 

r^ 

< 

fifH'^i  f  i,     ,:» iiJ  i^  J     '  r  r 

^=h^ 

TTp  IfvH 

-w ' ' — 1 — "  •■>- ' — ' 1    i    1 

■J  U    '11'^^ 

The  music  of  the  Wolf's  Glen  scene  long  has  been  con- 
sidered the  most  expressive  rendering  of  the  gruesome  that 
is  to  be  found  in  a  musical  score.  The  stage  apparatus 
that  goes  with  it  is  such  that  it  makes  the  young  sit  up 
and  take  notice,  while  their  elders,  because  of  its  naivet6, 
are  entertained.  The  ghost  of  Max's  mother  appears  to 
him  and  strives  to  warn  him  away.  Cadaverous,  spooky- 
looking  animals  crawl  out  from  caves  in  the  rocks  and 
spit  flames  and  sparks.  Wagner  got  more  than  one  hint 
from  the  scene.  But  in  the  crucible  of  his  genius  the 
glen  became  the  lofty  Valkyr  rock,  and  the  backdrop  with 
the  wild  hunt  the  superb  "Ride  of  the  Valkj'ries,"  while  other 
details  are  transfigured  in  that  sublime  episode,  "The  Magic 
Fire  Scene."  J 

After  a  brief  introduction,  with  suggestions  of  the  hunt- 
ing chorus  later  in  the  action,  the  third  act  opens  with 
Agathe's  lovely  cavatina,  "And  though  a  cloud  the  sun 
obscure."  There  are  a  couple  of  solos  for  Aennchen,  and 
then  comes  the  enchanting  chorus  of  bridesmaids.  This 
is  the  piece  which  Richard  Wagner,  then  seven    years  old, 


68  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

was  playing  in  a  room,  adjoining  which  his  stepfather, 
Ludwig  Geyer,  lay  in  his  last  illness.  Geyer  had  shown 
much  interest  in  the  boy  and  in  what  might  become  of  him. 
As  he  listened  to  him  playing  the  bridesmaids'  chorus 
from  "Der  Freischutz"  he  turned  to  his  wife,  Wagner's 
mother,  and  said:  "What  if  he  should  have  a  talent  for 
music?" 

In  the  next  scene  are  the  spirited  hunting  chorus  and 
the  brilliant  finale,  in  which  recurs  the  jubilant  melody 
from  A  gathers  second  act  scene. 

The  overture  to  "Der  Freischutz"  is  the  first  in  which 
an  operatic  composer  unreservedly  has  made  use  of  melo- 
dies from  the  opera  itself.  Beethoven,  in  the  third  "Leo- 
nore"  overture,  utilizes  the  theme  of  Florestan's  air  and  the 
trumpet  call.  Weber  has  used  not  merely  thematic  mate- 
rial but  complete  melodies.  Following  the  beautiful 
passage  for  horns  at  the  beginning  of  the  overt lu^e  (a  passage 
which,  like  A  gathers  prayer,  has  been  taken  up  into  the 
Protestant  hymnal)  is  the  music  of  Max's  outcry  when, 
in  the  opera,  he  senses  rather  than  sees  the  passage  of 
Zamiel  across  the  stage,  after  which  comes  the  sombre 
music  of  Max's  air:  "Hatt  denn  der  Himmel  mich  ver- 
lassen?"  (Am  I  then  by  heaven  forsaken?).  This  leads 
up  to  the  music  of  Agathe's  outburst  of  joy  when  she  sees 
her  lover  approaching;  and  this  is  given  complete. 

The  structure  of  this  overture  is  much  like  that  of  the 
overture  to  "Tannhauser"  by  Richard  Wagner.  There 
also  is  a  resemblance  in  contour  between  the  music  of 
Agathe's  jubilation  and  that  of  Tannhauser' s  hymn  to 
Venus.  Wagner  worshipped  Weber.  Without  a  sugges- 
tion of  plagiarism,  the  contour  of  Wagner's  melodic  idiom 
is  that  of  Weber's.  The  resemblance  to  Weber  in  the 
general  structure  of  the  finales  to  the  first  acts  of  "Tann- 
hauser" and  "Lohengrin"  is  obvious.  Even  in  some  of 
the  leading  motives  of  the  Wagner  music-dramas,   the 


Carl  Maria  von  Weber  69 

I 

student  will  find  the  melodic  contour  of  Weber  still  per- 
sisting. What  could  be  more  in  the  spirit  of  Weber  than 
the  ringing  Parsifal  motive,  one  of  the  last  things  from 
the  pen  of  Richard  Wagner? 

Indeed  the  importance  of  Weber  in  the  logical  develop- 
ment of  music  and  specifically  of  opera,  lies  in  the  fact  that 
he  is  the  founder  of  the  romantic  school  in  music; — a 
school  of  which  Wagner  is  the  culmination.  Weber  is  as 
truly  the  forerunner  of  Wagner  as  Haydn  is  of  Mozart, 
and  Mozart  of  Beethoven.  From  the  "Freischiitz" 
Wagner  derived  his  early  predilection  for  legendary  sub- 
jects, as  witness  the  "Flying  Dutchman,"  " Tannhauser, " 
and  "Lohengrin,"  from  which  it  was  but  a  step  to  the 
mythological  subject  of  the  "Ring"  dramas. 

"Der  Freischiitz"  is  heard  far  too  rarely  in  this  coun- 
try. But  Weber's  importance  as  the  founder  of  the  roman- 
tic school  and  as  the  inspired  forerunner  of  Wagner  long 
has  been  recognized.  Without  this  recognition  there 
would  be  missing  an  important  link  in  the  evolution  of 
music  and,  specifically,  of  opera. 

EURYANTHE 

Opera  in  three  acts  by  Weber.  Book,  by  Helmine  von  Chezy, 
adapted  from  "  L'Histoire  de  Gerard  de  Nevers  et  de  la  belle  et  vertueuse 
Euryanthe,  sa  mie."  Produced,  Vienna,  Kamthnerthor  Theatre 
(Theatre  at  the  Carinthian  Gate),  October  25,  1823.  New  York,  by 
Carl  Anschutz,  at  Wallack's  Theatre,  Broadway  and  Broome  Street, 
1863;  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  December  23,  1887,  with  Lehmann, 
Brandt,  Alvary,  and  Fischer,  Anton  Seidl  conducting. 

Characters 

Euryanthe  de  Savoie Soprano 

Eglantine  de  Puiset Mezzo  Soprano 

Lysiart  de  For^t Baritone 

Adolar  de  Nevers Tenor 

Louis  VI Bass 

Time — Beginning  of  the  Twelfth  Century  Place — France 


70  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Act  I.  Palace  of  the  King.  Count  Adolar  chants 
the  beauty  and  virtue  of  his  betrothed,  Euryanthe.  Count 
Lysiart  sneers  and  boasts  that  he  can  lead  her  astray. 
The  two  noblemen  stake  their  possessions  upon  the  result. 

Garden  of  the  Palace  of  Nevers.  Euryanthe  sings  of 
her  longing  ior  Adolar.  Eglantine,  the  daughter  of  a  rebel- 
lious subject  who,  made  a  prisoner,  has,  on  Euryanthe's 
plea,  been  allowed  the  freedom  of  the  domain,  is  in  love 
with  Adolar.  She  has  sensed  that  Euryanthe  and  her 
lover  guard  a  secret.  Hoping  to  estrange  Adolar  from 
her,  she  seeks  to  gain  Euryanthe' s  confidence  and  only  too 
successfully.  ¥  or  Euryanthe  confides  to  her  that  Adolar's 
dead  sister,  who  lies  in  the  lonely  tomb  in  the  garden,  has 
appeared  to  Adolar  and  herself  and  confessed  that,  her 
lover  having  been  slain  in  battle,  she  has  killed  herself  by 
drinking  poison  from  her  ring;  nor  can  her  soul  find  rest 
until  some  one,  innocently  accused,  shall  wet  the  ring  with 
tears.  To  hold  this  secret  inviolate,  has  been  imposed 
upon  Euryanthe  by  Adolar  as  a  sacred  duty.  Too  late  she 
repents  of  having  communicated  it  to  Eglantine  who,  on 
her  part,  is  filled  with  malicious  glee.  Lysiart  arrives  to 
conduct  Adolar's  betrothed  to  the  royal  palace. 

Act  II.  Lysiart  despairs  of  accomplishing  his  fell  piu*- 
pose  when  Eglantine  emerges  from  the  tomb  with  the  ring 
and  reveals  to  him  its  secret.  In  the  royal  palace,  before 
a  brilliant  assembly,  Lysiart  claims  to  have  won  his  wager, 
and,  in  proof,  produces  the  ring,  the  secret  of  which  he 
claims  Euryanthe  has  commimicated  to  him.  She  protests 
her  innocence,  but  in  vain.  Adolar  renounces  his  rank  and 
estates  with  which  Lysiart  is  forthwith  invested  and  en- 
dowed, and,  dragging  Euryanthe  after  him,  rushes  into  the 
forest  where  he  intends  to  kill  her  and  then  himself. 

Act  III.  In  a  rocky  mountain  gorge  Adolar  draws  his 
sword  and  is  about  to  slay  Euryanthe,  who  in  vain  protests 
her  innocence.     At  that  moment  a  huge  serpent  appears. 


Carl  Maria  von  Weber  71 

Euryanthe  throws  herself  between  it  and  Adolar  in  order 
to  save  him.  He  fights  the  serpent  and  kills  it;  then, 
although  Euryanthe  vows  she  would  rather  he  slew  her 
than  not  love  her,  he  goes  his  way  leaving  her  to  heaven's 
protection.  She  is  discovered  by  the  King,  who  credits 
her  story  and  promises  to  vindicate  her,  when  she  tells 
him  that  it  was  through  Eglantine,  to  whom  she  disclosed 
the  secret  of  the  tomb,  that  Lysiart  obtained  possession 
of  the  ring. 

Gardens  of  Nevers,  where  preparations  are  making  for 
the  wedding  of  Lysiart  and  Eglantine.  Adolar  enters  in 
black  armour  with  visor  down.  Eglantine,  still  madly  in 
love  with  him  and  dreading  her  union  with  Lysiart,  is  so 
affected  by  the  significance  of  the  complete  silence  with 
which  the  assembled  villagers  and  others  watch  her  pass, 
that,  half  out  of  her  mind,  she  raves  about  the  unjust 
degradation  she  has  brought  upon  Euryanthe. 

Adolar,  disclosing  his  identity,  challenges  Lysiart  to 
combat.  But  before  they  can  draw,  the  King  appears. 
In  order  to  punish  yl^o/ar  for  his  lack  of  faith  in  Euryanthe, 
he  tells  him  that  she  is  dead.  Savagely  triumphant  over 
her  rival's  end,  Eglantine  now  makes  known  the  entire 
plot  and  is  slain  by  Lysiart.  At  that  moment  Euryanthe 
rushes  into  Adolar' s  arms.  Lysiart  is  led  off  a  captive. 
Adolar's  sister  finds  eternal  rest  in  her  tomb  because  the 
ring  has  been  bedewed  by  the  tears  wept  by  the  innocent 
Euryanthe. 

The  libretto  of  "Eiiryanthe"  is  accounted  extremely 
stupid,  even  for  an  opera,  and  the  work  is  rarely  given. 
The  opera,  however,  is  important  historically  as  another 
stepping-stone  in  the  direction  of  Wagner.  Several  Wagner- 
ian commentators  regard  the  tomb  motive  as  having  con- 
veyed to  the  Bayreuth  master  more  than  a  suggestion  of 
the  Leitmotif  system  which  he  developed  so  fully  in  his 
music-drama.     Adolar,   in  black    armour,   is    believed   to 


72  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

have  suggested  Parsifal's  appearance  in  sable  harness  and 
accoutrements  in  the  last  act  of  "Parsifal."  In  any  event, 
Wagner  was  a  close  student  of  Weber  and  there  is  more 
than  one  phrase  in  "Euryanthe"  that  finds  its  echo  in 
"Lohengrin,"  although  of  plagiarism  in  the  ordinary 
sense  there  is  none. 

While  "Euryanthe"  has  never  been  popular,  some  of 
its  music  is  very  fine.  The  overture  may  be  said  to  con- 
sist of  two  vigorous,  stirringly  dramatic  sections  separated 
by  the  weird  tomb  motive.  The  opening  chorus  in  the 
King's  palace  is  sonorous  and  effective.  There  is  a  very 
beautiful  romanza  for  Adolar  ("  'Neath  almond  trees  in 
blossom").  In  the  challenge  of  the  knights  to  the  test  of 
Euryanthe's  virtue  occurs  the  vigorous  phrase  with  which 
the  overture  opens.  Euryanthe  has  an  exquisite  cavatina 
("Chimes  in  the  valle}'-").  There  is  an  effective  duet  for 
Euryanthe  and  Eglantine  ("Threatful  gather  clouds  about 
me").  A  scene  for  Eglantine  is  followed  by  the  finale — 
a  chorus  with  solo  for  Euryanthe. 

Lysiart's  recitations  and  aria  ("Where  seek  to  hide?"), 
expressive  of  hatred  and  defiance — a  powerfully  dramatic 
number — opens  the  second  act.  There  is  a  darkly  pre- 
monitory duet  for  Lysiart  and  Eglantine.  Adolar  has  a 
tranquil  aria  ("When  zephyrs  waft  me  peace");  and  a 
duet  full  of  abandon  with  Euryanthe  ("To  you  my  soul  I 
give").  The  finale  is  a  quartette  with  chorus.  The  hunt- 
ing chorus  in  the  last  act,  previous  to  the  King's  discovery 
of  Euryanthe,  has  been  called  Weber's  finest  inspiration. 

Something  should  be  done  by  means  of  a  new  libretto 
or  by  re-editing  to  give  "Euryanthe"  the  position  it  de- 
serves in  the  modern  operatic  repertoire.  An  attempt  at 
a  new  libretto  was  made  in  Paris  in  1857,  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique.  It  failed.  Having  read  a  synopsis  of  that 
libretto,  I  can  readily  understand  why.  It  is,  if  possible, 
more   absurd   than   the   original.     Shakespeare's    "Cym- 


Carl  Maria  von  Weber  73 

beline"  is  derived  from  the  same  source  as  "Eiiryan- 
the,"  which  shows  that,  after  all,  something  could  be 
made  of  the  story. 

OBERON, 

OR   THE  elf-king's  OATH 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Weber.     Words  by  James  Robinson  Planch^. 
Characters 

Oberon Tenor 

Titania Mute  Cliaracter 

Puck Contralto 

Droll Contralto 

HuGN  DE  Bordeaux Tenor 

Scherasmin,  his  esquire Baritone 

Haroun  el  Raschid Baritone 

Rezia,  his  daughter Soprano 

Fatima,  her  slave Soprano 

Prince  Babekan Tenor 

Emir  Almansor Baritone 

Roschana,  his  wife Contralto 

Abdallah,  a  pirate Bass 

Charlemagne Bass 

In  a  tribute  to  Weber,  the  librettist  of  "Oberon"  wrote 
a  sketch  of  the  action  and  also  gave  as  the  origin  of  the 
story  the  tale  of  "Huon  de  Bordeaux,"  from  the  old  col- 
lection of  romances  known  as  "La  Bibliotheque  Bleue." 
Wieland's  poem  "Oberon,"  is  based  upon  the  old  romance 
and  Sotheby's  translation  furnished  Planchd  with  the 
groundwork  for  the  text. 

According  to  Planchd's  description  of  the  action,  Oberon, 
the  Elfin  King,  having  quarrelled  with  his  fairy  partner, 
Titania,  vows  never  to  be  reconciled  to  her  till  he  shall 
find  two  lovers  constant  through  peril  and  temptation. 
To  seek  such  a  pair  his  "tricksy  spirit,"  Puck,  has  ranged 
in  vain  through  the  world.     Puck,  however,  hears  sentence 


74  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

passed  on  Sir  Huon,  of  Bordeaux,  a  young  knight,  who, 
having  been  insulted  by  the  son  of  Charlemagne,  kills  him  in 
single  combat,  and  is  for  this  condemned  by  the  monarch 
to  proceed  to  Bagdad,  slay  him  who  sits  on  the  Caliph's 
left  hand,  and  claim  the  Caliph's  daughter  as  his  bride. 
Oheron  instantly  resolves  to  make  this  pair  the  instruments 
of  his  reunion  with  his  queen,  and  for  this  purpose  he 
brings  up  Huon  and  Scherasmin  asleep  before  him,  enamours 
the  knight  by  showing  him  Rezia,  daughter  of  the  Caliph, 
in  a  vision,  transports  him  at  his  waking  to  Bagdad,  and 
having  given  him  a  magic  horn,  by  the  blasts  of  which  he 
is  always  to  summon  the  assistance  of  Oheron,  and  a  cup 
that  fills  at  pleasure,  disappears.  Sir  Huon  rescues  a  man 
from  a  lion,  who  proves  afterwards  to  be  Prince  Babekan, 
who  is  betrothed  to  Rezia.  One  of  the  properties  of  the 
cup  is  to  detect  misconduct.  He  offers  it  to  Babekan. 
On  raising  it  to  his  lips  the  wine  turns  to  flame,  and  thus 
proves  him  a  villain.  He  attempts  to  assassinate  Huon, 
but  is  put  to  flight.  The  knight  then  learns  from  an  old 
woman  that  the  princess  is  to  be  married  next  day,  but 
that  Rezia  has  been  influenced,  like  her  lover,  by  a  vision, 
and  is  resolved  to  be  his  alone.  She  believes  that  fate  will 
protect  her  from  her  nuptials  with  Babekan,  which  are  to 
be  solemnized  on  the  next  day,  Huon  enters,  fights  with 
and  vanquishes  Babekan,  and  having  spellbound  the  rest 
by  a  blast  of  the  magic  horn,  he  and  Scherasmin  carry  off 
Rezia  and  Fatima.  They  are  soon  shipwrecked.  Rezia 
is  captured  by  pirates  on  a  desert  island  and  brought  to 
Tunis,  where  she  is  sold  to  the  Emir  and  exposed  to  every 
temptation,  but  she  remains  constant.  Sir  Huon,  by  the 
order  of  Oheron,  is  also  conveyed  thither.  He  undergoes 
similar  trials  from  Roschana,  the  jealous  wife  of  the  Emir, 
but  proving  invulnerable  she  accuses  him  to  her  husband, 
and  he  is  condemned  to  be  burned  on  the  same  pyre  with 
Rezia.     They  are  rescued  by  Scherasmin,  who  has  the  magic 


Carl  Maria  von  Weber  75 

horn,  and  sets  all  those  who  would  harm  Sir  Huon  and 
Rezia  dancing.  Oberon  appears  with  his  queen,  whom  he 
has  regained  by  the  constancy  of  the  lovers,  and  the  opera 
concludes  with  Charlemagne' s  pardon  of  Huon. 

The  chief  musical  numbers  are,  in  the  first  act,  Huon's 
grand  scene,  beginning  with  a  description  of  the  glories 
to  be  won  in  battle:  in  the  second  act,  an  attractive  quar- 
tette, "Over  the  dark  blue  waters,"  Puck's  invocation 
of  the  spirits  and  their  response,  the  great  scene  for  Rezia, 
"Ocean,  thou  mighty  monster,  that  liest  like  a  green  ser- 
pent coiled  around  the  world,"  and  the  charming  mermaid's 
song;  and,  in  the  third  act,  the  finale. 

As  is  the  case  with  "Euryanthe,"  the  puerilities  of  the 
libretto  to  "Oberon"  appear  to  have  been  too  much  even 
for  Weber's  beautiful  music.  Either  that,  or  else  Weber 
is  suffering  the  fate  of  all  obvious  forerunners:  which  is 
that  their  genius  finds  its  full  and  lasting  fruition  in  those 
whose  greater  genius  it  has  caused  to  germinate  and  ripen. 
Thus  the  full  fruition  of  Weber's  genius  is  found  in  the 
Wagner  operas  and  music-dramas.  Even  the  fine  over- 
tures, "Freischutz,"  "Euryanthe,"  and  "Oberon,"  in 
former  years  so  often  found  in  the  classical  concert  reper- 
toire, are  played  less  and  less  frequently.  The  "Tann- 
hauser"  overture  has  supplanted  them.  The  "Oberon" 
overture,  like  that  to  "Freischutz"  and  "Euryanthe,"  is 
composed  of  material  from  the  opera — the  horn  solo  from 
Sir  Huon's  scena,  portions  of  the  fairies,  chorus  and  the 
third-act  finale,  the  climax  of  Rezia's  scene  in  the  second 
act,  and  Puck's  invocation. 

In  his  youth  Weber  composed,  to  words  by  Heimer,  an 
amusing  little  musical  comedy  entitled  "Abu  Hassan." 
It  was  produced  in  Dresden  under  the  composer's  direction. 
The  text  is  derived  from  a  well-known  tale  in  the  Arabian 
Nights.  Another  youthful  opera  by  Weber,  "Silvana," 
was  produced  at  Frankfort-on-Main  in  18 10.     The  text. 


76  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

based  upon  an  old  Rhine  legend  of  a  feud  between  two 
brothers,  has  been  rearranged  by  Ernst  Pasque,  the  score 
by  Ferdinand  Lange,  who,  in  the  ballet  in  the  second  act, 
has  introduced  Weber's  "Invitation  a  la  Valse"  and  his 
"Polonaise,"  besides  utilizing  other  music  by  the  com- 
poser. The  fragment  of  another  work,  a  comic  opera, 
"The  Three  Pintos,"  text  by  Theodor  Hell,  was  taken  in 
hand  and  completed,  the  music  by  Gustav  Mahler,  the 
libretto  by  Weber's  grandson,  Carl  von  Weber. 


Why  Some  Operas  are  Rarely  Given 

THERE  is  hardly  a  writer  on  music,  no  matter  how 
advanced  his  views,  who  will  not  agree  with  me  in 
all  I  have  said  in  praise  of  "Orpheus  and  Eurydice,"  the 
principal  Mozart  operas,  Beethoven's  "Fidelio,"  and 
Weber's  "Freischiitz"  and  "Euryanthe."  The  question 
therefore  arises:  "Why  are  these  works  not  performed  with 
greater  frequency?" 

A  general  answer  would  be  that  the  modem  opera  house 
is  too  large  for  the  refined  and  delicate  music  of  Gluck  and 
Mozart  to  be  heard  to  best  effect.  Moreover,  these  are 
the  earliest  works  in  the  repertoire. 

In  Mozart's  case  there  is  the  further  reason  that  "Don 
Giovanni"  and  "The  Magic  Flute"  are  very  difficult  to 
give.  An  adequate  performance  of  "Don  Giovanni"  calls 
for  three  prima  donnas  of  the  highest  rank.  The  demands 
of  "The  Magic  Flute"  upon  the  female  personnel  of  an 
opera  company  also  are  very  great — that  is  if  the  work  is 
to  be  given  at  all  adequately  and  effectively.  Moreover, 
the  recitativo  secco  (dry  recitative)  of  the  Mozart  operas 
— a  recitative  which,  at  a  performance  of  "Don  Giovanni" 
in  the  Academy  of  M  usic.  New  York,  I  have  heard  accom- 
panied by  the  conductor  on  an  upright  pianoforte — is 
tedious  to  ears  accustomed  to  have  every  phrase  in  modern 
opera  sung  to  an  expressive  orchestral  accompaniment. 
As  regards  "Fidelio"  it  has  spoken  dialogue;  and  if  any- 
thing has  been  demonstrated  over  and  over  again,  it  is 
that  American  audiences  of  today  simply  will  not  stand 

77 


78  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

for  spoken  dialogue  in  grand  opera.  That  also,  together 
with  the  extreme  naivete  of  their  librettos,  is  the  great 
handicap  of  the  Weber  operas.  It  is  neither  an  easy  nor 
an  agreeable  descent  from  the  vocalized  to  the  spoken  word. 
And  so,  works,  admittedly  great,  are  permitted  to  lapse 
into  unpardonable  desuetude,  because  no  genius,  willing 
or  capable,  has  come  forward  to  change  the  recitativo 
secco  of  Mozart,  or  the  dialogue  that  affronts  the  hearer 
in  the  other  works  rnentioned,  into  recitatives  that  will 
restore  these  operas  to  their  deserved  place  in  the  modern 
repertoire.  Berlioz  tried  it  with  "Der  Freischiitz"  and 
appears  to  have  failed;  nor  have  the  "Freischiitz"  recita- 
tives by  Costa  seemingly  fared  any  better.  This  may 
have  deterred  others  from  making  further  attempts  of 
the  kind.  But  it  seems  as  if  a  lesser  genius  than  Berlioz, 
and  a  talent  superior  to  Costa's,  might  succeed  where 
they  failed. 


From  Weber  to  Wagner 

IN  the  evolution  of  opera  from  Weber  to  Wagner  a  gap 
was  filled  by  composers  of  but  little  reputation  here, 
although  their  names  are  known  to  every  student  of  the 
lyric  stage.  Heinrich  Marschner  (1795-1861)  composed 
in  "Hans  Heiling,"  Berlin,  1833,  an  opera  based  on  leg- 
endary material.  Its  success  may  have  confirmed 
Wagner's  bent  toward  dramatic  sources  of  this  kind  al- 
ready aroused,  by  his  admiration  for  Weber.  "Hans 
Heiling,"  "Der  Vampyr"  (The  Vampire),  and  "Der 
Templer  und  Die  Judin"  (Templar  and  Jewess,  a  version 
of  Ivanhoe)  long  held  an  important  place  in  the  operatic 
repertoire  of  their  composer's  native  land.  On  the  other 
hand  "Faust"  (1818)  and  "Jessonda"  (1823),  by  Ludwig 
Spohr  ( 1 784-1 859),  have  about  completely  disappeared. 
Spohr,  however,  deserves  mention  as  being  one  of  the 
first  professional  musicians  of  prominence  to  encourage 
Wagner.  Incapable  of  appreciating  either  Beethoven  or 
Weber,  yet,  strange  to  say,  he  at  once  recognized  the 
merits  of  "The  Flying  Dutchman"  and  " Tannhauser, " 
and  even  of  "Lohengrin" — at  the  time  sealed  volumes  to 
most  musicians  and  music  lovers.  As  court  conductor 
at  Kassel,  he  brought  out  the  first  two  Wagner  operas 
mentioned  respectively  in  1842  and  1853;  and  was  eager 
to  produce  "Lohengrin, "  but  was  prevented  by  opposition 
from  the  court. 

Meyerbeer  and  his  principal  operas  will  be  considered 
at  length  in  the  chapters  in  this  book  devoted  to  French 

79 


8o  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

opera.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  what  may  be 
called  the  "largeness"  of  Meyerbeer's  style  and  the  effect- 
iveness of  his  instrumentation  had  their  influence  on 
Wagner. 

Gasparo  Spontini  (1774-185 1)  was  an  Italian  by  birth, 
but  I  believe  can  be  said  to  have  made  absolutely  no 
impression  on  the  development  of  Italian  opera.  His 
principal  works,  "La  Vestale"  (The  Vestal  Virgin),  and 
"Fernando  Cortez,"  were  brought  out  in  Paris  and  later 
in  Berlin,  where  he  was  general  music  director,  1820-1841. 
His  operas  were  heavily  scored,  especially  for  brass.  M  uch 
that  is  noisy  in  "Rienzi"  may  be  traced  to  Spontini,  but 
later  Wagner  understood  how  to  utilize  the  brass  in  the 
most  eloquent  manner;  for,  like  Shakespeare,  Wagner 
possessed  the  genius  that  converts  the  dross  of  others  into 
refined  gold. 

Mention  may  be  here  made  of  three  composers  of  light 
opera,  who  succeeded  in  evolving  a  refined  and  charming 
type  of  the  art.  We  at  least  know  the  delightful  over- 
ture to  "The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  by  Otto  Nicolai 
(1810-1849);  and  the  whole  opera,  produced  in  Berlin  a 
few  months  before  Nicolai  died,  is  equally  frolicksome  and 
graceful.  Conradin  Kreutzer  (i 780-1849)  brought  out, 
in  1836,  "Das  Nachtlager  in  Granada"  (A  Night's  Camp 
in  Granada),  a  melodious  and  sparkling  score. 

But  the  German  light  opera  composer  par  excellence  is 
Albert  Lortzing  (1803-1851).  His  chief  works  are,  "Czar 
und  Zimmermann"  (Czar  and  Carpenter),  1834,  with  its 
beautiful  baritone  solo,  "In  childhood  I  played  with  a 
sceptre  and  crown";  "Der  Wildschiitz"  (The  Poacher); 
"Undine";  and  "Der  Waff enschmied "  (The  Armourer) 
which  last  also  has  a  deeply  expressive  solo  for  baritone, 
"Ich  auch  war  einst  Jungling  mit  lockigem  Haar"  (I  too 
was  a  youth  once  with  fair,  curly  hair). 


Richard  Wagner 

(1813-1883) 

RICHARD  WAGNER  was  bom  at  Leipsic,  May  22, 
1813.  His  father  was  clerk  to  the  city  police  court 
and  a  man  of  good  education.  During  the  French  occupa- 
tion of  Leipsic  he  was,  owing  to  his  knowledge  of  French, 
made  chief  of  police.  He  was  fond  of  poetry  and  had  a 
special  love  for  the  drama,  often  taking  part  in  amateur 
theatricals. 

Five  months  after  Richard's  birth  his  father  died  of  an 
epidemic  fever  brought  on  by  the  carnage  during  the 
battle  of  Leipsic,  October  16,  18,  and  19,  1813.  In  1815 
his  v/idow,  whom  he  had  left  in  most  straitened  circum- 
stances, married  Ludwig  Geyer,  an  actor,  a  plaj'wright, 
and  a  portrait  painter.  By  inheritance  from  his  father, 
by  association  with  his  stepfather,  who  was  very  fond  of 
him,  Wagner  readily  acquired  the  dramatic  faculty  so 
pronounced  in  his  operas  and  music-dramas  of  which  he 
is  both  author  and  composer. 

At  the  time  Wagner's  mother  married  Geyer,  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Court  Theatre  at  Dresden.  Thither  the 
family  removed.  When  the  boy  was  eight  years  old,  he 
had  learned  to  play  on  the  pianoforte  the  chorus  of  brides- 
maids from  "Der  Freischiitz,"  then  quite  new.  The  day 
before  Geyer's  death,  September  30,  1821,  Richard  was 
playing  this  piece  in  an  adjoining  room  and  heard  Geyer 
say  to  his  mother:  "Do  you  think  he  might  have  a  gift 
(>  81 


82  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

for  music?"  Coming  out  of  the  death  room  Wagner's 
mother  said  to  him :  "  Of  you  he  wanted  to  make  something." 
"From  this  time  on,"  writes  Wagner  in  his  early  autobio- 
graphical sketch,  "I  always  had  an  idea  that  I  was  destined 
to  amount  to  something  in  this  world." 

At  school  Wagner  made  quite  a  little  reputation  as  a 
writer  of  verses.  He  was  such  an  enthusiastic  admirer 
of  Shakespeare  that  at  the  age  of  fourteen  he  began  a 
grand  tragedy,  of  which  he  himself  says  that  it  was  a 
jumble  of  Hamlet  and  Lear.  So  many  people  died  in  the 
course  of  it  that  their  ghosts  had  to  return  in  order  to  keep 
the  fifth  act  going. 

In  1833,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  Wagner  began  his  career 
as  a  professional  musician.  His  elder  brother  Albert  was 
engaged  as  tenor,  actor,  and  stage  manager  at  the  Wiirz- 
burg  theatre.  A  position  as  chorus  master  being  offered 
to  Richard,  he  accepted  it,  although  his  salary  was  a 
pittance  of  ten  florins  a  month.  However,  the  experience 
was  valuable.  He  was  able  to  profit  by  many  useful 
hints  from  his  brother,  the  Musikverein  performed  several 
of  his  compositions,  and  his  duties  were  not  so  arduous 
but  that  he  found  time  to  write  the  words  and  music  of  an 
opera  in  three  acts  entitled  "The  Fairies" — first  per- 
formed in  June,  1888,  five  years  after  his  death,  at  Munich. 
In  the  autumn  of  1834  he  was  called  to  the  conductorship 
of  the  opera  at  Magdeburg.  There  he  wrote  and  pro- 
duced an  opera,  "Das  Liebesverbot "  (Love  Veto),  based 
on  Shakespeare's  Measure  for  Measure.  The  theatre  at 
Magdeburg  was,  however,  on  the  ragged  edge  of  bankruptcyt 
and  during  the  spring  of  1836  matters  became  so  bad  that 
it  was  evident  the  theatre  must  soon  close.  Finally  only 
twelve  days  were  left  for  the  rehearsing  and  the  performance 
of  his  opera.  The  result  was  that  the  production  went 
completely  to  pieces,  singers  forgetting  their  lines  and 
music,  and  a  repetition  which  was  announced  could  not 


Richard  Wagner  83 

come  off  because  of  a  free  fight  behind  the  scenes  between 
two  of  the  principal  singers.  Wagner  describes  this  in 
the  following  amusing  passage  in  his  autobiographical 
sketch : 

"All  at  once  the  husband  of  my  prima  donna  (the  im- 
personator of  Isabella)  pounced  upon  the  second  tenor,  a 
ver}''  young  and  handsome  fellow  (the  singer  of  my  Claudio), 
against  whom  the  injured  spouse  had  long  cherished  a 
secret  jealousy.  It  seemed  that  the  prima  donna's  hus- 
band, who  had  from  behind  the  curtains  inspected  with 
me  the  composition  of  the  audience,  considered  that  the 
time  had  now  arrived  when,  without  damage  to  the  pros- 
pects of  the  theatre,  he  could  take  his  revenge  on  his 
wife's  lover.  Claicdio  was  so  pounded  and  belaboured  by 
him  that  the  imhappy  individual  was  compelled  to  retire 
to  the  dressing-room  with  his  face  all  bleeding.  Isabella 
was  informed  of  this,  and,  rushing  desperately  toward  her 
furious  lord,  received  from  him  such  a  series  of  violent 
cuffs  that  she  forthwith  went  into  spasms.  The  confusion 
among  my  personnel  was  now  quite  boundless;  everybody 
took  sides  with  one  party  or  the  other,  and  everything 
seemed  on  the  point  of  a  general  fight.  It  seemed  as  if 
this  unhappy  evening  appeared  to  all  of  them  precisely 
calculated  for  a  final  settling  up  of  all  sorts  of  fancied 
insults.  This  much  was  evident,  that  the  couple  who 
had  suffered  under  the  'love  veto'  (Liebesverbot)  of 
Isabella's  husband,  were  certainly  unable  to  appear  on  this 
occasion." 

Wagner  was  next  engaged  as  orchestral  conductor  at 
Konigsberg,  where  he  married  the  actress  Wilhelmina,  or 
Minna  Planer.  Later  he  received  notice  of  his  appoint- 
ment as  conductor  and  of  the  engagement  of  his  wife  and 
sister  at  the  theatre  at  Riga,  on  the  Russian  side  of  the 
Baltic. 

In  Riga  he  began  the  composition  of  his  first  great  sue- 


84  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

cess,  "Rienzi."  He  completed  the  libretto  during  the  s\un- 
mer  of  1838,  and  began  the  music  in  the  autumn,  and  when 
his  contract  terminated  in  the  spring  of  1839  the  first  two 
acts  were  finished.  In  Jtily,  accompanied  by  his  wife  and 
a  huge  Ne^vfoundland  dog,  he  boarded  a  sailing  vessel 
for  London,  at  the  port  of  Pilau,  his  intention  being  to  go 
from  London  to  Paris.  "I  shall  never  forget  the  voyage," 
he  says.  "It  was  full  of  disaster.  Three  times  we  nearly 
suffered  shipwreck,  and  once  were  obliged  to  seek  safety 
in  a  Norwegian  harbour.  .  .  .  The  legend  of  the  'Flying 
Dutchman'  was  confirmed  by  the  sailors,  and  the  circum- 
stances gave  it  a  distinct  and  characteristic  colour  in  my 
mind."  No  wonder  the  sea  is  depicted  so  graphically  in 
his  opera  "The  Flying  Dutchman." 

He  arrived  in  Paris  in  September,  1839,  and  remained 
until  April  7,  1842,  from  his  twenty-sixth  to  his  twenty- 
ninth  year.  This  Parisian  sojourn  was  one  of  the  bitter 
experiences  of  his  life.  At  times  he  actually  suffered  from 
cold  and  hunger,  and  was  obliged  to  do  a  vast  amount  of 
most  uncongenial  kind  of  hack  work. 

November  19,  1840,  he  completed  the  score  of  "Rienzi," 
and  in  December  forwarded  it  to  the  director  of  the  Royal 
Theatre  at  Dresden.  While  awaiting  a  reply,  he  contributed 
to  the  newspapers  and  did  all  kinds  of  musical  drudgery 
for  Schlesinger,  the  music  publisher,  even  making  arrange- 
ments for  the  comet  a  piston.  Finally  word  came  from 
Dresden.  "Rienzi"  had  aroused  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
chorus  master,  Fischer,  and  of  the  tenor  Tichatschek, 
who  saw  that  the  title  role  was  exactly  suited  to  his  robust, 
dramatic  voice.  Then  there  was  Mme.  Schroeder-Devrient 
for  the  part  of  Adriano.  The  opera  was  produced  October 
20,  1842,  the  performance  beginning  at  six  and  ending  just 
before  midnight,  to  the  enthusiastic  plaudits  of  an  immense 
audience.  So  great  was  the  excitement  that  in  spite  of  the 
late  hour  people  remained  awake  to  talk  over  the  success. 


Richard  Wagner  85 

"We  all  ought  to  have  gone  to  bed,"  relates  a  witness, 
"but  we  did  nothing  of  the  kind."  Early  the  next  morning 
Wagner  appeared  at  the  theatre  in  order  to  make  excisions 
from  the  score,  which  he  thought  its  great  length  necessi- 
tated. But  when  he  returned  in  the  afternoon  to  see  if 
they  had  been  executed,  the  copyist  excused  himself  by 
saying  the  singers  had  protested  against  any  cuts.  Tichat- 
schek  said:  "I  will  have  no  cuts;  it  is  too  heavenly." 
After  a  while,  owing  to  its  length,  the  opera  was  divided 
into  two  evenings. 

The  success  of  "Rienzi"  led  the  Dresden  management 
to  put  "The  Flying  Dutchman"  in  rehearsal.  It  was 
brought  out  after  somewhat  hasty  preparations,  January 
2,  1843.  The  opera  was  so  different  from  "Rienzi,"  its 
sombre  beauty  contrasted  so  darkly  with  the  glaring, 
brilliant  music  and  scenery  of  the  latter,  that  the  audience 
failed  to  grasp  it.  In  fact,  after  "Rienzi,"  it  was  a  dis- 
appointment. 

Before  the  end  of  January,  1843,  not  long  after  the  suc- 
cess of  "Rienzi,"  Wagner  was  appointed  one  of  the  Royal 
conductors  at  Dresden.  He  was  installed  February  2d. 
One  of  his  first  duties  was  to  assist  Berlioz  at  the  rehearsals 
of  the  latter's  concerts.  Wagner's  work  in  his  new  posi- 
tion was  somewhat  varied,  consisting  not  only  of  conduct- 
ing operas,  but  also  music  between  the  acts  at  theatrical 
performances  and  at  church  services.  The  principal 
operas  which  he  rehearsed  and  conducted  were  "Euryanthe," 
"Freischutz,"  "Don  Giovanni,"  "The  Magic  Flute," 
Gluck's  "Armide,"  and  "Iphigeniain  Aulis."  The  last- 
named  was  revised  both  as  regards  words  and  music  by 
him,  and  his  changes  are  now  generally  accepted. 

Meanwhile  he  worked  arduously  on  " Tannhauser, "  com- 
pleting it  April  13,  1844.  It  was  produced  at  Dresden, 
October  19,  1845.  At  first  the  work  proved  even  a  greater 
puzzle  to  the  public  than  "The  Flying  Dutchman"  had, 


86  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

and  evoked  comments  which  nowadays,  when  the  opera 
has  actually  become  a  classic,  seem  ridiculous.  Some 
people  even  suggested  that  the  plot  of  the  opera  should  be 
changed  so  that  Tannhduser  should  marry  Elizabeth. 

The  management  of  the  Dresden  theatre,  which  had 
witnessed  the  brilliant  success  of  "Rienzi"  and  had  seen 
"The  Flying  Dutchman"  and  "Tannhauser"  at  least 
hold  their  own  in  spite  of  the  most  virulent  opposition, 
looked  upon  his  next  work,  "Lohengrin,"  as  altogether 
too  risky  and  put  off  its  production  indefinitely. 

Thinking  that  political  changes  might  put  an  end  to  the 
routine  stagnation  in  musical  matters,  Wagner  joined  in 
the  revolutionary  agitation  of  '48  and  '49.  In  May,  1849, 
the  disturbances  at  Dresden  reached  such  an  alarming 
point  that  the  Saxon  Court  fled.  Prussian  troops  were 
dispatched  to  quell  the  riot  and  Wagner  thought  it  ad- 
visable to  flee.  He  went  to  Weimar,  where  Liszt  was 
busy  rehearsing  "Tannhauser."  While  attending  a  re- 
hearsal of  this  work,  May  19,  news  was  received  that 
orders  had  been  issued  for  his  arrest  as  a  politically  dan- 
gerous individual.  Liszt  at  once  procured  a  passport  and 
Wagner  started  for  Paris.  In  June  he  went  to  Zurich, 
where  he  found  Dresden  friends  and  where  his  wife  joined 
him,  being  enabled  to  do  so  through  the  zeal  of  Liszt,  who 
raised  the  money  to  defray  her  journey  from  Dresden. 

Liszt  brought  out  "Lohengrin"  at  Weimar,  August  28, 
1850.  The  reception  of  "Lohengrin"  did  not  at  first 
differ  much  from  that  accorded  to  "Tannhauser."  Yet 
the  performance  made  a  deep  impression.  The  fact  that 
the  weight  of  Liszt's  influence  had  been  cast  in  its  favour 
gave  vast  importance  to  the  event,  and  it  may  be  said  that 
through  this  performance  Wagner's  cause  received  its 
first  great  stimulus.  The  so-called  Wagner  movement 
may  be  said  to  have  dated  from  this  production  of  "  Lohen- 
grin." 


Richard  Wagner  87 

He  finished  the  librettos  of  the  "Nibelung"  dramas  in 
1853.  By  May,  1854,  the  music  of  "Das  Rheingold" 
was  composed.  The  following  month  he  began  "Die 
Walkiire"  and  finished  all  but  the  instrumentation  during 
the  following  winter  and  the  full  score  in  1856.  Previous 
to  this,  in  fact  already  in  the  autumn  of  1854,  he  had 
sketched  some  of  the  music  of  "Siegfried,"  and  in  the 
spring  of  1857  the  full  score  of  the  first  act  and  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  second  act  was  finished.  Then,  recog- 
nizing the  difficulties  which  he  would  encounter  in  securing 
a  performance  of  the  "Ring,"  and  appalled  by  the  pros- 
pect of  the  battle  he  would  be  obliged  to  wage,  he  was 
so  disheartened  that  he  abandoned  the  composition  of 
"Siegfried"  at  the  Waldweben  scene  and  turned  to  "Tris- 
tan." His  idea  at  that  time  was  that  "Tristan"  would 
be  short  and  comparatively  easy  to  perform.  Genius 
that  he  was,  he  believed  that  because  it  was  easy  for  him 
to  write  great  music  it  would  be  easy  for  others  to  inter- 
pret it.  A  very  curious,  not  to  say  laughable,  incident 
occurred  at  this  time.  An  agent  of  the  Emperor  of  Brazil 
called  and  asked  if  Wagner  would  compose  an  opera  for 
an  Italian  troupe  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  would  he  conduct 
the  work  himself,  all  upon  his  own  terms.  The  composi- 
tion of  "Tristan"  actually  was  begun  with  a  view  of  its 
being  performed  by  Italians  in  Brazil ! 

The  poem  of  "Tristan"  was  finished  early  in  1857,  and 
in  the  winter  of  the  same  year  the  full  score  of  the  first 
act  was  ready  to  be  forwarded  to  the  engraver.  The 
second  act  is  dated  Venice,  March  2,  1859.  The  third  is 
dated  Lyons,  August,  1859. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  connection  with  "Tristan" 
that,  while  Wagner  wrote  it  because  he  thought  it  would 
be  easy  to  secure  its  performance,  he  subsequently  found 
more  difficulty  in  getting  it  produced  than  any  other  of 
his  works.     In  September,  1859,  he  again  went  to  Paris 


88  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

with  the  somewhat  curious  hope  that  he  could  there  find 
opportunity  to  produce  "Tristan"  with  German  artists. 
Through  the  intercession  of  the  Princess  Mettemich, 
the  Emperor  ordered  the  production  of  "Tannhauser" 
at  the  Opera.  Beginning  March  13,  1861,  three  per- 
formances were  given,  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether 
the  performance  was  on  the  stage  or  in  the  auditorium, 
for  the  uproar  in  the  house  often  drowned  the  sounds 
from  the  stage.  The  members  of  the  Jockey  Club,  who 
objected  to  the  absence  of  a  ballet,  armed  themselves 
with  shrill  whistles,  on  which  they  began  to  blow  whenever 
there  was  the  slightest  hint  of  applause,  and  the  result 
was  that  between  the  efforts  of  the  singers  to  make  them- 
selved  heard  and  of  Wagner's  friends  to  applaud,  and  the 
shrill  whistling  from  his  enemies,  there  was  confusion 
worse  confounded.  But  Wagner's  friendship  with  Prin- 
cess Mettemich  bore  good  fruit.  Through  her  media- 
tion, it  is  supposed,  he  received  permission  to  return  to 
all  parts  of  Germany  but  Saxony.  It  was  not  until  March, 
1862,  thirteen  years  after  his  banishment,  that  he  was 
again  allowed  to  enter  the  kingdom  of  his  birth  and  first 
success. 

His  first  thought  now  was  to  secure  the  production  of 
"Tristan,"  but  at  Vienna,  after  fifty-seven  rehearsals,  it 
was  put  upon  the  shelf  as  impossible. 

In  1863,  while  working  upon  "Die  Meistersinger, "  at 
Penzing,  near  Vienna,  he  published  his  "Nibelung" 
dramas,  expressing  his  hope  that  through  the  bounty  of 
one  of  the  German  rulers  the  completion  and  performance 
of  his  "Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  would  be  made  possible. 
But  in  the  spring  of  1864,  worn  out  by  his  struggle  with 
poverty  and  almost  broken  in  spirit  by  his  contest  with 
public  and  critics,  he  actually  determined  to  give  up  his 
public  career,  and  eagerly  grasped  the  opportunity  to 
visit  a  private  country  seat  in  Switzerland.     Just  at  this 


Richard  Wagner  89 

very  moment,  when  despair  had  settled  upon  him,  the 
long  wished  for  help  came.  King  Ludwig  II.,  of  Bavaria, 
bade  him  come  to  Munich,  where  he  settled  in  1864. 
"Tristan"  was  produced  there  June  10,  1865.  June  21, 
1868,  a  model  performance  of  "Die  Meistersinger,"  which 
he  had  finished  in  1867,  was  given  at  Munich  under  the 
direction  of  von  Bulow,  Richter  acting  as  chorus  master 
and  Wagner  supervising  all  the  details.  Wagner  also 
worked  steadily  at  the  unfinished  portion  of  the  "Ring," 
completing  the  instrumentation  of  the  third  act  of  "Sieg- 
fried" in  1869  and  the  introduction  and  first  act  of  "The 
Dusk  of  the  Gods"  in  June,  1870. 

August  25,  1870,  his  first  wife  having  died  January  25, 
1866,  after  five  years'  separation  from  him,  he  married 
the  divorced  wife  of  von  Biilow,  Cosima  Liszt.  In  1869 
and  1870,  respectively  " The  Rhinegold "  and  "The  Valkyr" 
were  performed  at  the  Court  Theatre  in  Munich. 

Bayreuth  having  been  determined  upon  as  the  place 
where  a  theatre  for  the  special  production  of  his  "Ring" 
should  be  built,  Wagner  settled  there  in  April,  1872.  By 
November,  1874,  "Dusk  of  the  Gods"  received  its  finishing 
touches,  and  rehearsals  had  already  been  held  at  Bay- 
reuth. During  the  summer  of  1875,  under  Wagner's 
supervision,  Hans  Richter  held  full  rehearsals  there,  and 
at  last,  twenty-eight  years  after  its  first  conception,  on 
August  13th,  14th,  1 6th,  and  17th,  again  from  August  20 
to  23,  and  from  August  27  to  30,  1876,  "The  Ring  of  the 
Nibelung"  was  performed  at  Bayreuth  with  the  following 
cast:  Wotan,  Betz;  Loge,  Vogel;  Alberich,  Hill;  Mime, 
Schlosser;  Fricka,  Frau  Griin;  Donner  and  Gunther,  Gura; 
Erda  and  Waltraute,  Frau  Jaide;  Siegmund,  Niemann; 
Sieglinde,  Frl.  Schefsky;  Briinnhilde,  Frau  Materna;  Sieg- 
fried, Unger;  Hagen,  Siehr;  Gutrune,  Frl.  Weckerin; 
Rhinedaughters ;  Lilli  and  Marie  Lehmann,  and  Frl.  Lam- 
mert.     First  violin,  Wilhelmj;  conductor,   Hans  Richter. 


90  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  first- RJdnedatighter  was  the  same  Lilli  Lehmann  who, 
in  later  years,  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York, 
became  one  of  the  greatest  of  prima  donnas  and,  as  regards 
the  Wagnerian  repertoire,  set  a  standard  for  all  time. 
Materna  appeared  at  that  house  in  the  "Valkyr"  produc- 
tion under  Dr.  Damrosch,  in  January,  1885,  and  Niemann 
was  heard  there  later. 

To  revert  to  Bayreuth,  "Parsifal"  was  produced  there 
in  July,  1882.  In  the  autumn  of  that  year,  Wagner's 
health  being  in  an  unsatisfactory  state,  though  no  alarm- 
ing symptoms  had  shown  themselves,  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  Venice  at  the  Palazzo  Vendramini,  on  the  Grand , 
Canal.     He  died  February  13,  1883. 

In  manner  incidental,  that  is,  without  attention  formally 
being  called  to  the  subject,  Wagner's  reform  of  the  lyric 
stage  is  set  forth  in  the  descriptive  accounts  of  his  music- 
dramas  which  follow,  and  in  which  the  leading  motives 
are  quoted  in  musical  notation.  But  something  directly 
to  the  point  must  be  said  here. 

Once  again,  like  Gluck  a  century  before,  Wagner  opposed 
the  assumption  of  superiority  on  the  part  of  the  inter- 
preter— the  singer — over  the  composer.  He  opposed  it 
in  manner  so  thorough-going  that  he  changed  the  whole 
face  of  opera.  A  far  greater  tribute  to  Wagner's  genius 
than  the  lame  attempts  of  some  German  composers  at 
imitating  him,  is  the  frank  adoption  of  certain  phases  of 
his  method  by  modern  French  and  Italian  composers, 
beginning  with  Verdi  in  "Aida."  While  by  no  means  a 
Wagnerian  work,  since  it  contains  not  a  trace  of  the  theory 
of  the  leading  motive,  "Aida,"  through  the  richness  of  its 
instrumentation,  the  significant  accompaniment  of  its  recita- 
tive, the  lack  of  mere  bravura  embellishment  in  its 
vocal  score,  and  its  sober  reaching  out  for  true  dramatic 
effect  in  the  treatment  of  the  voices,  substituting  this  for 
ostentatious   brilliancy   and    ear-tickling   fluency,    plainly 


Richard  Wagner  91 

shows  the  influence  of  Wagner  upon  the  greatest  of  Italian 
composers.  And  what  is  true  of  "Aida, "  is  equally  ap- 
plicable to  the  whole  school  of  Italian  versimo  that  came 
after  Verdi — Mascagni,  Leoncavallo,  Puccini. 

Wagner's  works  are  conceived  and  executed  upon  a 
gigantic  scale.  They  are  Shakespearian  in  their  dimensions 
and  in  their  tragic  power;  or,  as  in  the  "Meistersinger," 
in  their  comedy  element.  Each  of  his  works  is  highly 
individual.  The  "Ring"  dramas  and  "Tristan"  are 
unmistakably  Wagner.  Yet  how  individually  character- 
istic the  music  of  each !  That  of  the  "  Ring  "  is  of  elemental 
power.  The  "Tristan"  music  is  molten  passion.  Equally 
characteristic  and  individual  are  his  other,  scores. 

The  theory  evolved  by  Wagner  was  that  the  lyric  stage 
should  present  not  a  series  of  melodies  for  voice  upon  a 
mere  framework  of  plot  and  versified  story,  but  a  serious 
work  of  dramatic  art,  the  music  to  which  should,  both 
vocally  and  instrumentally,  express  the  ever  varying 
development  of  the  drama.  With  this  end  in  view  he 
invented  a  melodious  recitative  which  only  at  certain 
great  crises  in  the  progress  of  the  action — such  as  the  love- 
climax,  the  gathering  at  the  Valkyr  Rock,  the  "Farewell," 
and  the  "Magic  Fire"  scenes  in  "The  Valkyr";  the  meet- 
ing of  Siegfried  and  Brtinnhilde  in  "Siegfried";  the  love 
duet  and  "Love  Death"  in  "Tristan" — swells  into  pro- 
longed melody.  Note  that  I  say  prolonged  melody. 
For  besides  these  prolonged  melodies,  there  is  almost 
constant  melody,  besides  marvellous  orchestral  colour,  in 
the  weft  and  woof  of  the  recitative.  This  is  produced  by 
the  artistic  use  of  leading  motives,  every  leading  motive 
being  a  brief,  but  expressive,  melody — so  brief  that,  to 
one  coming  to  Wagner  without  previous  study  or  experi- 
ence, the  melodious  quality  of  his  recitative  is  not  appre- 
ciated at  first.  After  a  while,  however,  the  hearer  begins 
to  recognize  certain  brief,  but  melodious  and  musically 


92  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

eloquent  phrases — leading  motives — as  belonging  to  cer- 
tain characters  in  the  drama  or  to  certain  influences  potent 
in  its  development,  such  as  hate,  love,  jealousy,  the  desire 
for  revenge,  etc.  Often  to  express  a  combination  of  cir- 
cumstances, influences,  passions,  or  personal  actions,  these 
leading  motives,  these  brief  melodious  phrases,  are  com- 
bined with  a  skill  that  is  unprecedented ;  or  the  voice  may 
express  one,  while  the  orchestra  combines  with  it  in  another. 

To  enable  the  orchestra  to  follow  these  constantly  chang- 
ing phases  in  the  evolution  and  development  of  the  drama, 
and  often  to  give  utterance  to  them  separately,  it  was 
necessary  for  Wagner  to  have  most  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  individual  tone-quality  and  characteristics  of  every 
instrument  in  the  orchestra,  and  this  mastery  of  what  I 
may  call  instrumental  personality  he  possessed  to  a  hitherto 
undreamed-of  degree.  Nor  has  any  one  since  equalled 
him  in  it.  The  result  is  a  choice  and  variety  of  instru- 
mentation which  in  itself  is  almost  an  equivalent  for 
dramatic  action  and  enables  the  orchestra  to  adapt  itself 
with  unerring  acciu^acy  to  the  varying  phases  of  the  drama. 

Consider  that,  when  Wagner  first  projected  his  theory 
of  the  music-drama,  singers  were  accustomed  in  opera  to 
step  into  the  limelight  and,  standing  there,  deliver  them- 
selves of  set  melodies,  acknowledge  applause  and  give  as 
many  encores  as  were  called  for,  in  fact  were  "it,"  while 
the  real  creative  thing,  the  opera,  was  but  secondary,  and 
it  is  easy  to  comprehend  the  opposition  which  his  works 
aroused  among  the  personnel  of  the  lyric  stage;  for 
music-drama  demands  a  singer's  absorption  not  only  in 
the  music  but  also  in  the  action.  A  Wagner  music- 
drama  requires  great  singers,  but  the  singers  no  longer 
absorb  everything.  They  are  part — a  most  important 
part,  it  is  true — of  a  performance,  in  which  the  drama 
itself,  the  orchestra,  and  the  stage  pictures  are  also 
of    great     importance.      A    performance    of    a    Wagner 


Richard  Wagner  93 

music-drama,  to  be  effective,  must  be  a  well-rounded, 
eloquent  whole.  The  drama  must  be  well  acted  from  a 
purely  dramatic  point  of  view.  It  must  be  well  sung  from 
a  purely  vocal  point  of  view.  It  must  be  well  interpreted 
from  a  purely  orchestral  point  of  view.  It  must  be  well 
produced  from  a  purely  stage  point  of  view.  For  all  these 
elements  go  hand  in  hand.  It  is,  of  course,  well  knowTi 
that  Wagner  was  the  author  of  his  own  librettos  and  showed 
himself  a  dramatist  of  the  highest  order  for  the  lyric  stage. 

While  his  music-dramas  at  first  aroused  great  opposition 
among  operatic  artists,  growing  familiarity  with  them  caused 
these  artists  to  change  their  view.  The  interpretation  of  a 
Wagner  character  was  discovered  to  be  a  combined  intellec- 
tual and  emotional  task  which  slowly,  but  surely,  appealed 
more  and  more  to  the  great  singers  of  the  lyric  stage. 
They  derived  a  new  dignity  and  satisfaction  from  their 
work,  especially  as  audiences  also  began  to  realize  that, 
instead  of  mere  entertainment,  performances  of  Wagner 
music-dramas  were  experiences  that  both  stirred  the  emo- 
tions to  their  depths  and  appealed  to  the  intellect  as  well. 
To  this  day  Lilli  Lehmann  is  regarded  by  all,  who  had  the 
good  fortune  to  hear  her  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
as  the  greatest  prima  donna  and  the  most  dignified  figure 
in  the  history  of  the  Ijnic  stage  in  this  country;  for  on  the 
lyric  stage  the  interpretation  of  the  great  characters  in 
Wagnerian  music-drama  already  had  come  to  be  regarded 
as  equal  to  the  interpretation  of  the  great  Shakespearian 
characters  on  the  dramatic. 

Wagner's  genius  was  so  supreme  that,  although  he  has 
been  dead  thirty-four  years,  he  is  still  without  a  successor. 
Through  the  force  of  his  own  genius  he  appears  destined 
to  remain  the  sole  exponent  of  the  art  form  of  which  he 
was  the  creator.  But  his  influence  is  still  potent.  This  we 
discover  not  only  in  the  enrichment  of  the  orchestral 
accompaniment  in  opera,  but  in  the  banishment  of  sense- 


94  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

less  vocal  embellishment,  in  the  search  for  true  dramatic 
expression  and  in  general,  in  the  greater  seriousness  with 
which  opera  is  taken  as  an  art.  Even  the  minor  point  of 
lowering  the  lights  in  the  auditorium  during  a  performance, 
so  as  to  concentrate  attention  upon  the  stage,  is  due  to 
him;  and  even  the  older  Italian  operas  are  now  given  with 
an  attention  to  detail,  scenic  setting,  and  an  endeavour  to 
bring  out  their  dramatic  effects,  quite  unheard  of  before 
his  day.  He  was,  indeed,  a  reformer  of  the  lyric  stage 
whose  influence  long  will  be  potent  "all  along  the  line." 

RIENZI,  DER  LETZTE  DER  TRIBUNEN 

RIENZI,   THE  LAST   OF   THE   TRIBUNES 

Opera  in  five  acts.  Words  and  music  by  Wagner.  Produced, 
Dresden,  October  20,  1842.  London,  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  April 
16,  1869.  New  York,  Academy  of  Music,  1878,  with  Charles  R. 
Adams,  as  Rienzi,  Pappenheim  as  Adriano;  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
February  5,  1886,  with  Sylva  as  Rienzi,  Lehmann  as  Irene,  Brandt 
as  Adriano,  Fischer  as  Colonna. 

Characters 

Cola  Rienzi,  Roman  Tribune  and  Papal  Notary Tenor 

Irene,  his  sister Soprano 

Steffano  Colonna Bass 

Adriano,  his  son Mezzo  Soprano 

Paolo  Orsino Bass 

Raimondo,  Papal  Legate Bass 

Baroncello  I      t^  .  .  J  Tenor 

Cecco  del  Vecchio    \      ^°"^^  "^^^^ 1  Bass 

Messenger  of  Peace Soprano 

Ambassadors,  Nobles,  Priests,  Monks,  Soldiers,  Messengers, 

and  Populace  in  General. 

Time — Middle  of  the  Fourteenth  Century.  Place — Rome. 

Orsino,  a  Roman  patrician,  attempts  to  abduct  Irene, 
the  sister  of  Rienzi,  a  papal  notary,  but  is  opposed  at 
the  critical  moment  by  Colonna,  another  patrician.  A  fight 
ensues  between  the  two  factions,  in  the  midst  of  which 


Richard  Wagner  95 

Adriano,  the  son  of  Colonna,  who  is  in  love  with  Irene, 
appears  to  defend  her.  A  crowd  is  attracted  by  the  tumult, 
and  among  others  Rienzi  comes  upon  the  scene.  Enraged 
at  the  insult  offered  his  sister,  and  stirred  on  by  Cardinal 
Raimondo,  he  urge^  the  people  to  resist  the  outrages  of  the 
nobles.  Adriano  is  impelled  by  his  love  for  Irene  to  cast 
his  lot  with  her  btother.  The  nobles  are  overpowered, 
and  appear  at  the  capitol  to  swear  allegiance  to  Rienzi, 
but  diuing  the  festal  proceedings  Adriano  warns  him 
that  the  nobles  have  plotted  to  kill  him.  An  attempt 
which  Orsino  makes  upon  him  with  a  dagger  is  frustrated 
by  a  steel  breastplate  which  Rienzi  wears  under  his 
robe. 

The  nobles  are  seized  and  condemned  to  death,  but  on 
Adriano's  pleading  they  are  spared.  They,  however, 
violate  their  oath  of  submission,  and  the  people  again 
under  Rienzi' s  leadership  rise  and  exterminate  them,  Adri- 
ano having  pleaded  in  vain.  In  the  end  the  people  prove 
fickle.  The  popular  tide  turns  against  Rienzi,  especially 
in  consequence  of  the  report  that  he  is  in  league  with  the 
German  emperor,  and  intends  to  restore  the  Roman  pontiff 
to  power.  As  a  festive  procession  is  escorting  him  to 
church,  Adriano  rushes  upon  him  with  a  drawn  dagger, 
being  infuriated  at  the  slaughter  of  his  family,  but  the 
blow  is  averted.  Instead  of  the  "Te  Deiun,"  however, 
with  which  Rienzi  expex^ted  to  be  greeted  on  his  entrance 
to  the  church,  he  hears  the  malediction  and  sees  the  eccle- 
siastical dignitaries  placing  the  ban  of  excommunication 
against  him  upon  the  doors.  Adriano  hurries  to  Irene 
to  warn  her  of  her  brother's  danger,  and  urges  her  to  seek 
safety  with  him  in  flight.  She,  however,  repels  him,  and 
seeks  her  brother,  determined  to  die  with  him,  if  need  be. 
She  finds  him  at  prayer  in  the  capitol,  but  rejects  his 
counsel  to  save  herself  with  Adriano.  Rienzi  appeals  to 
the  infuriated  populace  which  has  gathered  around    the 


96  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

capitol,  but  they  do  not  heed  him.  They  fire  the  capitol 
with  their  torches,  and  hurl  stones  at  Rienzi  and  Irene. 
As  Adriano  sees  his  beloved  one  and  her  brother  doomed 
to  death  in  the  flames,  he  throws  away  his  sword,  rushes 
into  the  capitol,  and  perishes  with  them. 

The  overture  of  "Rienzi"  gives  a  vivid  idea  of  the  action 
of  the  opera.  Soon  after  the  begimiing  there  is  heard 
the  broad  and  stately  melody  of  Rienzi' s  prayer,  and  then 
the  Rienzi  Motive,  a  typical  phrase,  which  is  used  with 
great  effect  later "  in  the  opera.  It  is  followed  in  the 
overture  by  the  lively  melody  heard  in  the  concluding 
portion  of  the  finale  of  the  second  act.  These  are  the 
three  most  conspicuous  portions  of  the  overture,  in  which 
there  are,  however,  numerous  tumultuous  passages 
reflecting  the  dramatic  excitement  which  pervades  many 
scenes. 

The  opening  of  the  first  act  is  full  of  animation,  the 
orchestra  depicting  the  tumult  which  prevails  during  the 
struggle  between  the  nobles.  Rienzi" s  brief  recitative  is  a 
masterpiece  of  declamatory  music,  and  his  call  to  arms  is 
spirited.  It  is  followed  by  a  trio  between  Irene,  Rienzi, 
and  Adriano,  and  this  in  turn  by  a  duet  for  the  two  last- 
named  which  is  full  of  fire.  The  finale  opens  with  a  double 
chorus  for  the  populace  and  the  monks  in  the  Lateran. 
accompanied  by  the  organ.  Then  there  is  a  broad  and 
energetic  appeal  to  the  people  from  Rienzi,  and  amid  the 
shouts  of  the  populace  and  the  ringing  tones  of  the  trumpets 
the  act  closes. 

The  insurrection  of  the  people  against  the  nobles  is 
successful,  and  Rienzi,  in  the  second  act,  awaits  at  the 
capitol  the  patricians  who  are  to  pledge  him  their  submis- 
sion. The  act  opens  with  a  broad  and  stately  march,  to 
which  the  messengers  of  peace  enter.  They  sing  a  graceful 
chorus.  This  is  followed  by  a  chorus  for  the  senators, 
and  the  nobles  then  tender  their  submission.     There  is  a 


Richard  Wagner  97 

terzettO:  between  Adriano,  Colonna,  and  Orsino,  in  which 
the  nobles  express  their  contempt  for  the  young  patrician. 
The  finale  which  then  begins  is  highly  spectacular.  There 
is  a  march  for  the  ambassadors,  and  a  grand  ballet,  histori- 
cal in  character,  and  supposed  to  be  symbolical  of  the  tri- 
tmiphs  of  ancient  Rome.  In  the  midst  of  this  occurs  the 
assault  upon  Rienzi.  RienzVs  pardon  of  the  nobles  is 
conveyed  in  a  broadly  beautiful  melody,  and  this  is  suc- 
ceeded by  the  animated  passage  heard  in  the  overture. 
With  it  are  mingled  the  chants  of  the  monks,  the  shouts 
of  the  people  whb  are  opposed  to  the  cardinal  and  nobles, 
and  the  tolling  of  bells. 

The  third  act  opens  tumultuously.  The  people  have 
been  aroused  by  fresh  outrages  on  the  part  of  the  nobles. 
Rienzi' s  emissaries  disperse,  after  a  furious  chorus,  to  rouse 
the  populace  to  vengeance.  After  they  have  left,  Adriano 
has  his  great  air,  a  number  which  can  never  fail  of  effect 
when  sung  with  all  the  expression  of  which  it  is  capable. 
The  rest  of  the  act  is  a  grand  accumulation  of  martial  music 
or  noise,  whichever  one  chooses  to  call  it,  and  includes  the 
stupendous  battle  hymn,  which  is  accompanied  by  the 
clashing  of  sword  and  shields,  the  ringing  of  bells,  and  all 
the  tumult  incidental  to  a  riot.  After  Adriano  has  pleaded 
in  vain  with  Rienzi  for  the  nobles,  and  the  various  bands 
of  armed  citizens  have  dispersed,  there  is  a  duet  between 
Adriano  and  Irene,  in  which  Adriano  takes  farewell  of  her. 
The  victorious  populace  appears  and  the  act  closes  with 
their  triumphant  shouts.  The  fourth  act  is  brief,  and 
beyond  the  description  given  in  the  synopsis  of  the  plot, 
requires  no  farther  comment. 

The  fifth  act  opens  with  the  beautiful  prayer  of  Rienzi, 
already  familiar  from  the  overture.  There  is  a  tender 
duet  between  Rienzi  and  Irene,  an  jmpassioned  aria  for 
Rienzi,  a  duet  for  Irene  and  Adriano,  and  then  the  finale, 
which  is  chiefly  choral. 


98  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

DER  FLIEGENDE  HOLLANDER 

THE   FLYING   DUTCHMAN 

Opera  in  three  acts,  words  and  music  by  Richard  Wagner.  Pro- 
duced, Royal  Opera,  Dresden,  January  2,  1843.  London,  July  23, 
1870,  as  "L'Olandese  Dannato";  October  3,  1876,  by  Carl  Rosa,  in 
English.  New  York,  Academy  of  Music,  January  26,  1877,  in  English, 
with  Clara  Louise  Kellogg;  March  12,  1877,  in  German;  in  the  spring 
of  1883,  in  Italian,  with  Albani,  Galassi,  and  Ravelli. 

Characters 

Daland,  a  Norwegian  sea  captain Bass 

Senta,  his  daughter Soprano 

Eric,  a  huntsman Tenor 

Mary,  Senta's  nurse Contralto 

Daland's  Steersman Tenor 

The  Dutchman Baritone 

Sailors,  Maidens,  Hunters,  etc. 
Time — Eighteenth  Century.  Place — A  Norwegian  Fishing  Village. 

From  "Rienzi"  Wagner  took  a  great  stride  to  "The 
Flying  Dutchman."  This  is  the  first  milestone  on  the 
road  from  opera  to  music-drama.  Of  his  "Rienzi"  the 
composer  was  in  after  years  ashamed,  writing  to  Liszt: 
"I,  as  an  artist  and  man,  have  hot  the  heart  for  the  recon- 
struction of  that,  to  m}'  taste,  superannuated  work,  which 
in  consequence  of  its  immoderate  dimensions,  I  have  had 
to  remodel  more  than  once.  I  have  no  longer  the  heart 
for  it,  and  desire  from  all  my  soul  to  do  something  new 
instead."  He  spoke  of  it  as  a  youthful  error,  but  in  "The 
Flying  Dutchman"  there  is  little,  if  anything,  which  could 
have  troubled  his  artistic  conscience. 

One  can  hardly  imagine  the  legend  more  effective  dra- 
matically and  musically  than  it  is  in  Wagner's  libretto  and 
score.  It  is  a  work  of  wild  and  sombre  beauty,  relieved 
only  occasionally  by  touches  of  light  and  grace,  and  has 
all  the  interest  attaching  to  a  work  in  which  for  the  first 
time  a  genius  feels  himself  conscious  of  his  greatness.     If 


Richard  Wagner  99 

it  is  not  as  impressive  as  "Tannhauser"  or  "Lohengrin," 
nor  as  stupendous  as  the  music-dramas,  that  is  because 
the  subject  of  the  work  is  lighter.  As  his  genius  developed, 
his  choice  of  subjects  and  his  treatment  of  them  passed 
through  as  complete  an  evolution  as  his  musical  theory, 
so  that  when  he  finally  abandoned  the  operatic  form  and 
adopted  his  system  of  leading  motives,  he  conceived,  for 
the  dramatic  bases  of  his  scores,  dramas  which  it  would 
be  difficult  to  fancy  set  to  any  other  music  than  that  which 
is  so  characteristic  in  his  music-dramas. 

Wagner's  present  libretto  is  based  upon  the  weirdly 
picturesque  legend  of  "The  Flying  Dutchman" — the 
Wandering  Jew  of  the  ocean.  A  Dutch  sea-captain,  who, 
we  are  told,  tried  to  double  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in 
the  teeth  of  a  furious  gale,  swore  that  he  would  accomplish 
his  purpose  even  if  he  kept  on  sailing  forever.  The  devil, 
hearing  the  oath,  condemned  the  captain  to  sail  the  sea 
imtil  Judgment  Day,  without  hope  of  release,  unless  he 
should  find  a  woman  who  would  love  him  faithfully  unto 
death.  Once  in  every  seven  years  he  is  allowed  to  go 
ashore  in  search  of  a  woman  who  will  redeem  him  thorough 
her  faithful  love. 

The  opera  opens  just  as  a  term  of  seven  years  has  elapsed. 
The  Dutchman's  ship  comes  to  anchor  in  a  bay  of  the 
coast  of  Norway,  in  which  the  ship  of  Daland,  a  Norwegian 
sea-captain,  has  sought  shelter  from  the  storm.  Daland's 
home  is  not  far  from  the  bay,  and  the  Dutchman,  learning 
he  has  a  daughter,  asks  permission  to  woo  her,  offering  him 
in  return  all  his  treasures.  Daland  readily  consents. 
His  daughter,  Senta,  is  a  romantic  maiden  upon  whom 
the  legend  of  "The  Flying  Dutchman"  has  made  a  deep 
impression.  As  Daland  ushers  the  Dutchman  into  his  home 
Senta  is  gazing  dreamily  upon  a  picture  representing  the  un- 
'happy  hero  of  the  legend.  The  resemblance  of  the  stranger 
to    the    face    in    this    picture   is    so    striking    that    the 


100  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

emotional  girl  is  at  once  attracted  to  him,  and  pledges  him 
her  faith,  deeming  it  her  mission  to  save  him.  Later  on, 
Eric,  a  young  huntsman,  who  is  in  love  with  her,  pleads 
his  cause  with  her,  and  the  Dutchman,  overhearing  them, 
and  thinking  himself  again  forsaken,  rushes  off  to  his 
vessel.  Senta  cries  out  that  she  is  faithful  to  him,  but  is 
held  back  by  Eric,  Daland,  and  her  friends.  The  Dutch- 
man, who  really  loves  Senta,  then  proclaims  who  he  is, 
thinking  to  terrify  her,  and  at  once  puts  to  sea.  But  she, 
undismayed  by  his  words,  and  truly  faithful  unto  death, 
breaks  away  from  those  who  are  holding  her,  and  rushing 
to  the  edge  of  a  clifE  casts  herself  into  the  ocean,  with  her 
arms  outstretched  toward  him.  The  phantom  ship  sinks, 
the  sea  rises  high  and  falls  back  into  a  seething  whirlpool. 
In  the  sunset  glow  the  forms  of  Senta  and  the  Dutchman 
are  seen  rising  in  each  other's  embrace  from  the  sea  and 
floating  upward. 

In  "The  Flying  Dutchman"  Wagner  employs  several 
leading  motives,  not,  indeed,  with  the  skill  which  he  dis-. 
plays  in  his  music-dramas,  but  with  considerably  greater 
freedom  of  treatment  than  in  "Rienzi."  There  we  had 
but  one  leading  motive,  which  never  varied  in  form.  The 
overture,  which  may  be  said  to  be  an  eloquent  and  beautiful 
musical  narrative  of  the  whole  opera,  contains  all  these 
leading  motives.  It  opens  with  a  stormy  passage,  out  of 
which  there  bursts  the  strong  but  sombre  Motive  of  the 
Flying  Dutchman  himself,  the  dark  hero  of  the  legend. 
The  orchestra  fairly  seethes  and  rages  like  the  sea  roaring 
under  the  lash  of  a  terrific  storm.  And  through  all  this 
furious  orchestration  there  is  heard  again  and  again  the 
motive  of  the  Dutchman,  as  if  his  figure  could  be  seen  amid 
all  the  gloom  and  fury  of  the  elements.  There  he  stands, 
hoping  for  death,  3^et  indestructible.  As  the  excited 
music  gradually  dies  away,  there  is  heard  a  calm,  somewhat 
undulating  phrase  which   occurs  in  the  opera  when  the 


Richard  Wagner  loi 

Dutchman's  vessel  puts  into  the  quiet  Norwegian  harbour. 
Then,  also,  there  occurs  again  the  motive  of  the  Dutchman, 
but  this  time  played  softly,  as  if  the  storm-driven  wretch 
had  at  last  found  a  moment's  peace. 

We  at  once  recognize  to  whom  it  is  due  that  he  has 
found  this  moment  of  repose,  for  we  hear  like  prophetic 
measures  the  strains  of  the  beautiful  ballad  which  is  sung 
by  Senta  in  the  second  act  of  the  opera,  in  which  she  relates 
the  legend  of  "The  Flying  Dutchman"  and  tells  of  his  un- 
happy fate.  She  is  the  one  whom  he  is  to  meet  when  he 
goes  ashore.  The  entire  ballad  is  not  heard  at  this  point, 
only  the  opening  of  the  second  part,  which  may  be  taken 
as  indicating  in  this  overture  the  simplicity  and  beauty  of 
Senta's  character.  In  fact,  it  would  not  be  too  much  to 
call  this  opening  phrase  the  Senta  Motive.  It  is  followed 
by  the  phrase  which  indicates  the  coming  to  anchor  of  the 
Dutchman's  vessel;  then  we  hear  the  Motive  of  the  Dutch- 
man himself,  dying  away  with  the  faintest  possible  effect. 
With  sudden  energy  the  orchestra  dashes  into  the  siu-ging 
ocean  music,  introducing  this  time  the  wild,  pathetic  plaint 
sung  by  the  Dutchman  in  the  first  act  of  the  opera.  Again 
we  hear  his  motive,  and  again  the  music  seems  to  represent 
the  surging,  swirling  ocean  when  aroused  by  a  furious 
tempest.  Even  when  we  hear  the  measures  of  the  sailors' 
chorus  the  orchestra  continues  its  furious  pace,  making 
it  appear  as  if  the  sailors  were  shouting  above  the 
storm. 

Characteristic  in  this  overture,  and  also  throughout  the 
opera,  especially  in  Senta's  ballad,  is  what  may  be  called 
the  Ocean  Motive,  which  most  graphically  depicts  the 
wild  and  terrible  aspect  of  the  ocean  during  a  storm.  It 
is  varied  from  time  to  time,  but  never  loses  its  character- 
istic force  and  weirdness.  The  overture  ends  with  an 
impassioned  burst  of  melody  based  upon  a  portion  of  the 
concluding  phrases  of  Senta's  ballad;  phrases  which   we 


102  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

hear  once  more  at  the  end  of  the  opera  when  she  sacrifices 

herself  in  order  to  save  her  lover. 

A  wild  and  stormy  scene  is  disclosed  when  the  curtain 
rises  upon  the  first  act.  The  sea  occupies  the  greater  part 
of  the  scene,  and  stretches  itself  out  far  toward  the  horizon. 
A  storm  is  raging.  Daland's  ship  has  sought  shelter  in  a 
little  cove  formed  by  the  cliffs.  Sailors  are  employed  in 
furling  sails  and  coiling  ropes.  D aland  is  standing  on  a 
rock,  looking  about  him  to  discover  in  what  place  they  are. 
The  orchestra,  chiefly  with  the  wild  ocean  music  heard  in 
the  overture,  depicts  the  raging  of  the  storm,  and  above 
it  are  heard  the  shouts  of  the  sailors  at  work:  "Ho- jo-he! 
Hal-lo-jo!" 

Daland  discovers  that  they  have  missed  their  port  by 
seven  miles  on  account  of  the  storm,  and  deplores  his  bad 
luck  that  when  so  near  his  home  and  his  beloved  child, 
he  should  have  been  driven  out  of  his  course.  As  the  storm 
seems  to  be  abating  the  sailors  descend  into  the  hold  and 
Daland  goes  down  into  the  cabin  to  rest,  leaving  his 
steersman  in  charge  of  the  deck.  The  steersman  walks 
the  deck  once  or  twice  and  then  sits  down  near  the  rudder, 
yawning,  and  then  rousing  himself  as  if  sleep  were  coming 
over  him.  As  if  to  force  himself  to  remain  awake  he 
intones  a  sailor  song,  an  exquisite  little  melody,  with  a  dash 
of  the  sea  in  its  undulating  measures.  He  intones  the 
second  verse,  but  sleep  overcomes  him  and  the  phrases 
become  more  and  more  detached,  until  at  last  he  falls 
asleep. 

The  storm  begins  to  rage  again  and  it  grows  darker. 
Suddenly  the  ship  of  the  Flying  Dutchman,  with  blood- 
red  sails  and  black  mast,  looms  up  in  the  distance.  She 
glides  over  the  waves  as  if  she  did  not  feel  the  storm  at  all, 
and  quickly  enters  the  harbour  over  against  the  ship  of  the 
Norwegian;  then  silently  and  without  the  least  noise  the 
spectral  crew  furl  the  sails.     The  Dutchman  goes  on  shore. 


Richard  Wagner  103 

Here  now  occur  the  weird,  dramatic  recitative  and  aria : 
"The  term  is  passed,  and  once  again  are  ended  seven  long 
years."  As  the  Dutchman  leans  in  brooding  silence  against 
a  rock  in  the  foreground,  Daland  comes  out  of  the  cabin 
and  observes  the  ship.  He  rouses  the  steersman,  who  be- 
gins singing  again  a  phrase  of  his  song,  until  Daland  points 
out  the  strange  vessel  to  him,  when  he  springs  up  and 
hails  her  through  a  speaking  trumpet.  Daland,  however, 
perceives  the  Dutchman  and  going  ashore  questions  him. 
It  is  then  that  the  Dutchman,  after  relating  a  mariner's 
story  of  ill  luck  and  disaster,  asks  Daland  to  take  him  to 
his  home  and  allow  him  to  woo  his  daughter,  offering  him 
his  treasures.  At  this  point  we  have  a  graceful  and  pretty 
duet,  Daland  readily  consenting  that  the  Dutchman 
accompany  him.  The  storm  having  subsided  and  the 
wind  being  fair,  the  crews  of  the  vessels  hoist  sail  to  leave 
port,  Daland's  vessel  disappearing  just  as  the  Dutchman 
goes  on  board  his  ship. 

After  an  introduction  in  which  we  hear  a  portion  of 
the  steersman's  song,  and  also  that  phrase  which  denotes 
the  appearance  of  the  Dutchman's  vessel  in  the  harbour,  the 
curtain  rises  upon  a  room  in  Daland's  house.  On  the  walls 
are  pictures  of  vessels,  charts,  and  on  the  farther  wall  the 
portrait  of  a  pale  man  with  a  dark  beard.  Sejita  leaning 
back  in  an  armchair,  is  absorbed  in  dreamy  contemplation 
of  the  portrait.  Her  old  nurse,  Mary,  and  her  young 
friends  are  sitting  in  various  parts  of  the  room,  spinning. 
Here  we  have  that  charming  mUsical  niimber  famous  all 
the  musical  world  over,  perhaps  largely  through  Liszt's 
admirable  piano  arrangement  of  it,  the  "Spinning  Chonis." 
For  graceful  and  engaging  beauty  it  cannot  be  surpassed, 
and  may  be  cited  as  a  striking  instance  of  Wagner's  gift 
of  melody,  should  anybody  at  this  late  day  be  foolish  enough 
to  require  proof  of  his  genius  in  that  respect.  The  girls 
tease  Senta  for  gazing  so  dreamily  at  the  portrait  of  the 


104 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Flying  Dutchman,  and  finally  ask  her  if  she  will  not  sing 
his  ballad. 

This  ballad  is  a  masterpiece  of  composition,  vocall}''  and 
intnimentally,  being  melodious  as  well  as  descriptive.  It 
begins  with  the  storm  music  familiar  from  the  overture,  and 
with  the  weird  measures  of  the  Flying  Dutchman's  Motive, 
which  sound  like  a  voice  calling  in  distress  across  the  sea. 


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Senia  repeats  the  measures  of  this  motive,  and  then  we 
have  the  simple  phrases  beginning:  "A  ship  the  restless 
ocean  sweeps."  Throughout  this  portion  of  the  ballad 
the  orchestra  depicts  the  surging  and  heaving  of  the  ocean, 
Senta's  voice  ringing  out  dramatically  above  the  accom- 
paniment. She  then  tells  how  he  can  be  delivered  from 
his  curse,  this  portion  being  set  to  the  measures  which  were 
heard  in  the  overture,  Senta  finally  proclaiming,  in  the  broadly 


delivered,  yet  rapturous  phrases  with  which  the  overture  ends, 
that  she  is  the  woman  who  will  save  him  by  being  faithful  to 
him  unto  death.  The  girls  about  her  spring  up  in  terror  and 
Eric,  who  has  just  entered  the  door  and  heard  her  outcry, 
hastens  to  her  side.  He  brings  news  of  the  arrival  of 
Daland's  vessel,  and  Mary  and  the  girls  hasten  forth  to 
meet  the  sailors.  Senta  wishes  to  follow,  but  Eric  restrains 
her  and  pleads  his  love  for  her  in  melodious  measures. 
Senta,  however,  will  not  give  him  an  answer  at  this  time. 
He  then' tells  her  of  a  dream  he  has  had,  in  which  he  saw 
a  weird  vessel  from  which  two  men,  one  her  father,  the 
other  a  ghastly-looking  stranger,  made  their  way.  Her  he 
saw  going  to  the  stranger  and  entreating  him  for  his  regard. 


Richard  Warner  105 

Senta,  worked  up  to  the  highest  pitch  of  excitement  by 
Eric's  words,  now  exclaims:  "He  seeks  for  me  and  I  for 
him,"  and  Eric,  full  of  despair  and  horror,  rushes  away. 
Senta,  after  her  outbxurst  of  excitement,  remains  again  sunk 
in  contemplation  of  the  picture,  softly  repeating  the  meas- 
lu'es  of  her  romance.  The  door  opens  and  the  Dutchman 
and  Daland  appear.  The  Dutchman  is  the  first  to  enter. 
Senta  turns  from  the  picture  to  him,  and,  uttering  a  loud 
cry  of  wonder,  remains  standing  as  if  transfixed  without 
removing  her  eyes  from  the  Dutchman.  Daland,  seeing 
that  she  does  not  greet  him,  comes  up  to  her.  She  seizes 
his  hand  and  after  a  hasty  greeting  asks  him  who  the 
stranger  is.  Daland  tells  her  of  the  stranger's  request, 
and  leaves  them  alone.  Then  follows  a  duet  for  Senta  and 
the  Dutchman,  with  its  broad,  smoothly  flowing  melody 
and  its  many  phrases  of  dramatic  power,  in  which  Senta 
gives  herself  up  imreservedly  to  the  hero  of  her  romantic 
attachment,  Daland  finally  entering  and  adding  his  con- 
gratulations to  their  betrothal.      This  scene  closes  the  act. 

The  music  of  it  re-echoes  through  the  introduction  of 
the  next  act  and  goes  over  into  a  vigorous  sailors'  chorus 
and  dance.  The  scene  shows  a  bay  with  a  rocky  shore. 
Daland' s  house  is  in  the  foreground  on  one  side,  the  back- 
ground is  occupied  by  his  and  the  Dutchman' ssh\^s,  which 
lie  near  one  another.  The  Norwegian  ship  is  lighted  up, 
and  all  the  sailors  are  making  merry  on  the  deck.  In 
strange  contrast  is  the  Flying  Dutchman's  vessel.  An  un- 
natural darkness  hangs  over  it  and  the  stillness  of  death 
reigns  aboard.  The  sailors  and  the  girls  in  their  merry- 
making call  loudly  toward  the  Dutch  ship  to  join  them, 
but  no  reply  is  heard  from  the  weird  vessel.  Finally  the 
sailors  call  louder  and  louder  and  taunt  the  crew  of  the 
other  ship.  Then  suddenly  the  sea,  which  has  been  quite 
calm,  begins  to  rise.  The  storm  wind  whistles  through 
the  cordage  of  the  strange  vessel,  and  as  dark  bluish  flames 


io6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

flare  up  in  the  rigging,  the  weird  crew  show  themselves, 
and  sing  a  wild  chorus,  which  strikes  terror  into  all  the 
merrymakers.  The  girls  have  fled,  and  the  Norwegian 
sailors  quit  their  deck,  making  the  sign  of  the  cross.  The 
crew  of  the  Flying  Dutchman  observing  this,  disappear 
with  shrill  laughter.  Over  their  ship  comes  the  stillness 
of  death.  Thick  darkness  is  spread  over  it  and  the  air  and 
the  sea  become  calm  as  before. 

Senta  now  comes  with  trembling  steps  out  of  the  house. 
She  is  followed  by  Eric.  He  pleads  with  her  and  entreats 
her  to  remember  his  love  for  her,  and  speaks  also  of  the 
encoiiragement  which  she  once  gave  him.  The  Dutchman 
has  entered  unperceived  and  has  been  listening.  Eric 
seeing  him,  at  once  recognizes  the  man  of  ghastly  mien 
whom  he  saw  in  his  vision.  When  the  Flying  Dutchman 
bids  her  farewell,  because  he  deems  himself  abandoned, 
and  Senta  endeavours  to  follow  him,  Eric  holds  her  and 
summons  others  to  his  aid.  But,  in  spite  of  all  resistance, 
Senta  seeks  to  tear  herself  loose.  Then  it  is  that  the 
Flying  Dutchman  proclaims  who  he  is  and  puts  to  sea. 
Senta,  however,  freeing  herself,  rushes  to  a  cliff  overhanging 
the  sea,  and  calling  out, 

"Praise  thou  thine  angel  for  what  he  saith; 
Here  stand  I  faithful,  yea,  to  death," 

casts  herself  into  the  sea.  Then  occurs  the  concluding 
tableau,  the  work  ending  with  the  portion  of  the  ballad 
which  brought  the  overture  and  spinning  scene  to  a  close. 

TANNHAUSER 

und  der  sangerkrieg  auf  dem  wartburg 

(and  the  song  contest  at  the  wartburg) 

Opera  in  three  acts,  words  and  music  by  Richard  Wagner.     Pro- 
duced, Royal  Opera,  Dresden,  October  19,  1845.     Paris,  Grand  Op^ra, 


Richard  Wagner  107 

March  13,  1861.  London,  Covent  Garden,  May  6,  1876,  in  Italian; 
Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  February  14,  1882,  in  English;  Drury  Lane, 
May  23,  1882,  in  German,  under  Hans  Richter.  New  York,  Stadt 
Theatre,  April  4,  1859,  and  July,  1861,  conducted  by  Carl  Bergmann; 
under  AdolflF  Neuendorflf's  direction,  1870,  and.  Academy  of  Music, 
1877;  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  opening  night  of  German  Opera, 
under  Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch,  November  17,  1884,  with  Seidl-Kraus  as 
Elizabeth,  Anna  Slach  as  Ventis,  Schott  as  Tannhduser,  Adolf  Robin- 
son as  Wolfram,  Josef  Kogel  as  the  Landgrave. 

Characters 

Hermann,  Landgrave  of  Thuringia Bass 

Tannhauser  "I Tenor 

Wolfram  von  Eschenbach        Baritone 

Walter  von  der  Vogelweide    Knights  and Tenor 

BiTEROLF  Minnesinger Bass 

Heinrich  DER  ScHREiBER  Tetior 

Reinmar  von  Zweter  J Bass 

Elizabeth,  niece  of  the  Landgrave Soprano 

Venus Soprano 

A  Young  Shepherd Soprano 

Four  Noble  Pages Soprano  and  Alto 

Nobles,  Knights,  Ladies,  elder  and  younger  Pilgrims,  Sirens, 

Naiads,  Nymphs,  Bacchantes. 

Time — Early  Thirteenth  Century.  Place — Near  Eisenach. 

The  story  of  "Tannhauser"  is  laid  in  and  near  the 
Wartburg,  where,  during  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
Landgraves  of  the  Thuringian  Valley  held  sway.  They 
were  lovers  of  art,  especiall}'-  of  poetry  and  music,  and  at 
the  Wartburg  many  peaceful  contests  between  the  famous 
minnesingers  took  place.  Near  this  castle  rises  the  Venus- 
berg.  According  to  tradition  the  interior  of  this  mountain 
was  inhabited  by  Holda,  the  Goddess  of  Spring,  who, 
however,  in  time  became  identified  with  the  Goddess  of 
Love.  Her  court  was  filled  with  nj'^mphs  and  sirens,  and 
it  was  her  greatest  joy  to  entice  into  the  mountain  the 
knights  of  the  Wartburg  and  hold  them  captive  to  her 
beauty. 


io8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Among  those  whom  she  has  thus  lured  into  the  ros}''  re- 
cesses of  the  Venusberg  is  Tannhduser. 

In  spite  of  her  beauty,  however,  he  is  weary  of  her  charms 
and  longs  for  a  glimpse  of  the  world.  He  seems  to  have 
heard  the  tolling  of  bells  and  other  earthly  sounds,  and 
these  stimulate  his  yearning  to  be  set  free  from  the  magic 
charms  of  the  goddess. 

In  vain  she  prophesies  evil  to  him  should  he  return  to 
the  world.  With  the  cry  that  his  hope  rests  in  the  Yirgin, 
he  tears  himself  away  from  her.  In  one  of  the  swiftest 
and  most  effective  of  scenic  changes  the  court  of  Venus 
disappears  and  in  a  moment  we  see  Tannhduser  prostrate 
before  a  cross  in  a  valley  upon  which  the  Wartburg  peace- 
fully looks  down.  Pilgrims  on  their  wa}''  to  Rome  pass 
him  by  and  Tannhduser  thinks  of  joining  them  in  order 
that  at  Rome  he  may  obtain  forgiveness  for  his  crime  in 
allowing  himself  to  be  enticed  into  the  Venusberg.  But 
at  that  moment  the  Landgrave  and  a  ntimber  of  minnesing- 
ers on  their  return  from  the  chase  come  upon  him  and, 
recognizing  him,  endeavoiu"  to  persuade  him  to  return  to 
the  Wartburg  with  them.  Their  pleas,  however,  are  vain, 
until  one  of  them,  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  tells  him  that 
since  he  has  left  the  Wartburg  a  great  sadness  has  come 
over  the  niece  of  the  Landgrave,  Elizabeth.  It  is  evident 
that  Tannhduser  has  been  in  love  with  her,  and  that  it  is 
because  of  her  beauty  and  virtue  that  he  regrets  so  deeply 
having  been  lured  into  the  Vnussberg.  For  Wolfram's 
words  stir  him  profoundly.  To  the  great  joy  of  all,  he 
agrees  to  return  to  the  Wartburg,  the  scene  of  his  many 
triumphs  as  a  minnesinger  in  the  contests  of  song. 

The  Landgrave,  feeling  sure  that  Tannhduser  will  win  the 
prize  at  the  contest  of  song  soon  to  be  held,  offers  the 
hand  of  his  niece  to  the  winner.  The  minnesingers  sing 
tamely  of  the  beauty  of  virtuous  love,  but  Tannhduser, 
suddenly  remembering  the  seductive  and  magical  beauties 


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Richard  Wagner  109 

of  the  Venusberg,  cannot  control  himself,  and  bursts  out 
into  a  reckless  hymn  in  praise  of  Venus.  Horrified  at  his 
words,  the  knights  draw  their  swords  and  would  slay  him, 
but  Elizabeth  throws  herself  between  him  and  them. 
Crushed  and  penitent,  Tannhduser  stands  behind  her,  and 
the  Landgrave,  moved  by  her  willingness  to  sacrifice  her- 
self for  her  sinful  lover,  announces  that  he  will  be  allowed 
to  join  a  second  band  of  pilgrims  who  are  going  to  Rome 
and  to  plead  with  the  Pope  for  forgiveness. 

Elizabeth  prayerfully  awaits  his  return;  but,  as  she  is 
kneeling  by  the  crucifix  in  front  of  the  Wartburg,  the 
Pilgrims  pass  her  by  and  in  the  band  she  does  not  see  her 
lover.  Slowly  and  sadly  she  returns  to  the  castle  to  die. 
When  the  Pilgrims'  voices  have  died  away,  and  Elizabeth 
has  returned  to  the  castle,  leaving  only  Wolfram,  who  is 
also  deeply  enamoured  of  her,  upon  the  scene,  Tannhduser 
appears,  weary  and  dejected.  He  has  sought  to  obtain 
forgiveness  in  vain.  The  Pope  has  cast  him  out  forever, 
proclaiming  that  no  more  than  that  his  staff  can  put  forth 
leaves  can  he  expect  forgiveness.  He  has  come  back  to 
re-enter  the  Venusberg.  Wolfram  seeks  to  restrain  him, 
but  it  is  not  until  he  invokes  the  name  of  Elizabeth  that 
Tannhduser  is  saved.  A  cortege  approaches,  and,  as 
Tannhduser  recognizes  the  form  of  Elizabeth  on  the  bier, 
he  sinks  down  on  her  coffin  and  dies.  Just  then  the  second 
band  of  pilgrims  arrive,  bearing  Tannhduser' s  staff,  which 
has  put  forth  blossoms,  thus  showing  that  his  sins  have 
been  forgiven. 

From  "The  Flying  Dutchman"  to  "Tannhauser," 
dramatically  and  musically,  is,  if  anything,  a  greater 
stride  than  from  "Rienzi"  to  "The  Flying  Dutchman." 
In  each  of  his  successive  works  Wagner  demonstrates 
greater  and  deeper  powers  as  a  dramatic  poet  and  com- 
poser. True  it  is  that  in  nearly  every  one  of  them  woman 
appears  as  the  redeeming  angel  of  sinful  man,   but  the 


no  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

circumstances  differ  so  that  this  beautiful  tribute  always 
interests  us  anew. 

The  overture  of  the  opera  has  long  been  a  favorite  piece 
on  concert  programs.  Like  that  of  "The  Flying  Dutch- 
man" it  is  the  story  of  the  whole  opera  told  in  music.  It 
certainly  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  effective  pieces  of 
orchestral  music  and  its  popularity  is  easily  understood. 
It  opens  with  the  melody  of  the  Pilgrims'  chorus,  beginning 
softly  as  if  coming  from  a  distance  and  gradually  increas- 
ing in  power  until  it  is  heard  in  all  its  grandeur.  At  this 
point  it  is  joined  by  a  violently  agitated  accompaniment 
on  the  violins.  This  passage  evoked  great  criticism  when  it 
was  first  produced  and  for  many  years  thereafter.  It  was 
thought  to  mar  the  beauty  of  the  pilgrims'  chorus.  But 
without  doing  so  at  all  it  conveys  additional  dramatic 
meaning,  for  these  agitated  phrases  depict  the  restlessness 
of  the  world  as  compared  with  the  grateful  tranquillity 
of  religious  faith  as  set  forth  in  the  melody  of  the  Pilgrims' 
chorus. 


Ha\4ng  reached  a  climax,  this  chorus  gradually  dies 
away,  and  suddenly,  and  with  intense  dramatic  contrast, 
we  have  all  the  seductive  spells  of  the  Venusberg  displayed 
before  us — that  is,  musically  displayed;  but  then  the 
music  is  so  wonderfully  vivid,  it  depicts  with  such  mar- 
vellous clearness  the  many-coloured  alluring  scene  at  the 
cotu*t  of  the  unholy  goddess,  it  gives  vent  so  freely  to  the 
sinful  excitement  which  pervades  the  Venusberg,  that  we 
actually  seem  to  see  what  we  hear.  This  passes  over  in 
turn  to  the  impassioned  burst  of  song  in  which  Tannhduser 
hymns  Venus's  praise,  and  immediately  after  we  have  the 
boisterous    and   vigorous    music    which    accompanies   the 


Richard  Wagner 


III 


threatening  action  of  the  Landgrave  and  minnesingers 
when  they  draw  their  swords  upon  Tannhduser  in  order 
to  take  vengeance  upon  him  for  his  crimes.  Upon  these 
three  episodes  of  the  drama,  which  so  characteristically 
give  insight  into  its  plot  and  action,  the  overture  is  based, 
and  it  very  naturally  concludes  with  the  Pilgrims'  chorus 
which  seems  to  voice  the  final  forgiveness  of  Tannhduser. 

The  curtain  rises,  disclosing  all  the  seductive  spells  of 
the  Venusberg.  Tannhduser  lies  in  the  arms  of  Venus, 
who  reclines  upon  a  flowery  couch.  Nymphs,  sirens,  and 
satyrs  are  dancing  about  them  and  in  the  distance  are 
grottoes  alive  with  amorous  figures.  Various  mythological 
amours,  such  as  that  of  Leda  and  the  swan,  are  supposed 
to  be  in  progress,  but  fortunatelj''  at  a  mitigating  distance. 


j''*'  LUr^j  figj  'ilOT^^ 


Much  of  the  music  familiar  from  the  overture  is  heard 
during  this  scene,  but  it  gains  in  effect  from  the  distant 
voices  of  the  sirens  and,  of  course,  from  artistic  scenery 
and  grouping  and  well-executed  dances  of  the  denizens  of 
Venus's  court.  Very  dramatic,  too,  is  the  scene  between 
Venus  and  Tannhduser,  when  the  latter  sings  his  hymn  in 
her  praise,  but  at  the  same  time  proclaims  that  he  desires 
to  return  to  the  world.  In  alluring  strains  she  endeavours 
to  tempt  him  to  remain  with  her,  but  when  she  discovers 
that  he  is  bound  upon  going,  she  vehemently  warns  him 
of  the  misfortunes  which  await  him  upon  earth  and  prophe- 


112  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

sies  that  he  will  some  day  return  to  her  and  penitently  ask 
to  be  taken  back  into  her  realm. 

Dramatic  and  effective  as  this  scene  is  in  the  original 
score,  it  has  gained  immensely  in  power  by  the  additions 
which  Wagner  made  for  the  production  of  the  work  in 
Paris,  in  1861.  The  overture  does  not,  in  this  version, 
come  to  a  formal  close,  but  after  the  manner  of  Wagner's 
later  works,  the  transition  is  made  directly  from  it  to  the 
scene  of  the  Venusberg.  The  dances  have  been  elaborated 
and  laid  out  upon  a  more  careful  allegorical  basis  and  the 
music  of  Venus  has  been  greatly  strengthened  from  a  dra- 
matic point  of  view,  so  that  now  the  scene  in  which  she  pleads 
with  him  to  remain  and  afterwards  warns  him  against  the 
sorrows  to  which  he  will  be  exposed,  are  among  the  finest 
of  Wagner's  compositions,  rivalling  in  dramatic  power  the 
ripest  work  in  his  music-dramas. 

Wagner's  knowledge  of  the  stage  is  shown  in  the  won- 
derfully dramatic  effect  in  the  change  of  scene  from  the 
Venusberg  to  the  landscape  in  the  valley  of  the  Wartburg. 
One  moment  we  have  the  variegated  allures  of  the  court 
of  the  Goddess  of  Love,  with  its  dancing  nymphs,  sirens, 
and  sat5a-s,  its  beautiful  grottoes  and  groups;  the  next 
all  this  has  disappeared  and  from  the  heated  atmosphere 
of  Venus's  unholy  rites  we  are  suddenly  transported  to  a 
peaceful  scene  whose  influence  upon  us  is  deepened  by 
the  crucifix  in  the  foreground,  before  which  Tannhduser 
kneels  in  penitence.  The  peacefulness  of  the  scene  is 
further  enhanced  by  the  appearance  upon  a  rocky  eminence 
to  the  left  of  a  young  Shepherd  who  pipes  a  pastoral  strain, 
while  in  the  background  are  heard  the  tinkling  of  bells, 
as  though  his  sheep  were  there  grazing  upon  some  upland 
meadow.  Before  he  has  finished  piping  his  lay  the  voices 
of  the  Pilgrims  are  heard  in  the  distance,  their  solemn 
measures  being  interrupted  by  little  phrases  piped  by  the 
Shepherd.    As  the  Pilgrims  approach,  the  chorus  becomes 


Richard  Wagner  113 

louder,  and  as  they  pass  over  the  stage  and  bow  before 
the  crucifix,  their  praise  swells  into  an  eloquent  psalm  of 
devotion. 

Tannhduser  is  deeply  affected  and  gives  way  to  his  feel- 
ings in  a  lament,  against  which  are  heard  the  voices  of  the 
Pilgrims  as  they  recede  in  the  distance.  This  whole  scene 
is  one  of  marvellous  beauty,  the  contrast  between  it  and 
the  preceding  episode  being  enhanced  by  the  religiously 
tranquil  natiu"e  of  what  transpires  and  of  the  accompanying 
music.  Upon  this  peaceful  scene  the  notes  of  hunting- 
horns  now  break  in,  and  gradually  the  Landgrave  and  his 
hunters  gather  about  Tannhduser.  Wolfram  recognizes 
him  and  tells  the  others  who  he  is.  They  greet  him  in  an 
expressive  septette,  and  Wolfram,  finding  he  is  bent  upon 
following  the  Pilgrims  to  Rome,  asks  permission  of  the 
Landgrave  to  inform  him  of  the  impression  which  he  seems 
to  have  made  upon  Elizabeth.  This  he  does  in  a  melodious 
solo,  and  Tannhduser,  overcome  by  his  love  for  Elizabeth, 
consents  to  return  to  the  halls  which  have  missed  him  so 
long.  Exclamations  of  joy  greet  his  decision,  and  the 
act  closes  with  an  enthusiastic  ensemble,  which  is  a  glorious 
piece  of  concerted  music,  and  never  fails  of  brilliant  effect 
when  it  is  well  executed,  especially  if  the  representative  of 
Tannhduser  has  a  voice  that  can  soar  above  the  others, 
which,  unfortunately,  is  not  always  the  case.  The  accom- 
panying scenic  grouping  should  also  be  in  keeping  with  the 
composer's  instructions.  The  Landgrave's  suite  should 
gradually  arrive,  bearing  the  game  which  has  been  slain, 
and  horses  and  hunting-hounds  should  be  led  on  the  stage. 
Finally,  the  Landgrave  and  minnesingers  mount  their 
steeds  and  ride  away  toward  the  castle. 

The  scene  of  the  second  act  is  laid  in  the  singers'  hall 
of  the  Wartburg.  The  introduction  depicts  Elizabeth's 
joy  at  Tannhduser' s  return,  and  when  the  curtain  rises  she 
at  once  enters  and  joyfully  greets  the  scenes  of  Tannhduser' s 

8 


114  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

former  triiunphs  in  broadly  dramatic  melodious  phrases. 
Wolfram  then  appears,  conducting  Tannhdiiser  to  her. 
Elizabeth  seems  overjoyed  to  see  him,  but  then  checks 
herself,  and  her  maidenly  modesty,  which  veils  her  trans- 
port at  meeting  him,  again  finds  expression  in  a  number 
of  hesitating  but  exceedingly  beautiful  phrases.  She  asks 
Tannhduser  where  he  has  been,  but  he,  of  course,  gives 
misleading  answers.  Finally,  however,  he  tells  her  she  is 
the  one  who  has  attracted  him  back  to  the  castle.  Their 
love  finds  expression  in  a  swift  and  rapidly  flowing  dramatic 
duet,  which  unfortunately  is  rarely  given  in  its  entirety, 
although  as  a  glorious  outburst  of  emotional  music  it  cer- 
tainly deserves  to  be  heard  in  the  exact  form  and  length 
in  which  the  composer  wrote  it. 

There  is  then  a  scene  of  much  tender  feeling  between  the 
Landgrave  and  Elizabeth,  in  which  the  former  tells  her 
that  he  will  offer  her  hand  as  prize  to  the  singer  whom  she 
shall  crown  as  winner.  The  first  strains  of  the  grand  march 
are  then  heard.  This  is  one  of  Wagner's  most  brilliant 
and  effective  orchestral  and  vocal  pieces.  Though  in 
perfect  march  rythm,  it  is  not  intended  that  the  guests 
who  assembled  at  the  Wartbtu"g  shall  enter  like  a  company 
of  soldiers.  On  the  contrary,  they  arrive  in  irregular  de- 
tachments, stride  across  the  floor,  and  make  their  obeisance 
jin  a  perfectly  natural  manner.  After  an  address  by  the 
Landgrave,  which  can  hardly  be  called  remarkably  inter- 
esting, the  singers  draw  lots  to  decide  who  among  them 
shall  begin.  This  prize  singing  is,  unfortunately,  not  so 
great  in  musical  value  as  the  rest  of  the  score,  and,  unless 
a  person  imderstands  the  words,  it  is  decidedly  long 
drawn  out.  What,  however,  redeems  it  is  a  gradually 
growing  dramatic  excitement  as  Tannhduser  voices  his 
contempt  for  what  seem  to  him  the  tame  tributes  paid 
to  fove  by  the  minnesingers,  an  excitement  which 
reaches   its   climax    when,    no    longer    able    to    restrain 


Richard  Wagner  115 

himself,  he  bursts  forth   into  his  hymn  in  praise  of  the 

unholy  charms  of   Venus. 


The  women  cry  out  in  horror  and  rush  from  the  hall  as 
if  the  very  atmosphere  were  tainted  by  his  presence,  and 
the  men,  drawing  their  swords,  rush  upon  him.  This 
brings  us  to  the  great  dramatic  moment,  when,  with  a 
shriek,  Elizabeth,  in  spite  of  his  betrayal  of  her  love,  throws 
herself  protectingly  before  him,  and  thus  appears  a  second 
time  as  his  saving  angel.  In  short  and  excited  phrases 
the  men  pour  forth  their  wrath  at  Tannhduser's  crime  in 
having  sojourned  with  Venus,  and  he,  realizing  its  enor- 
mity, seems  crushed  with  a  consciousness  of  his  guilt.  Of 
wondrous  beauty  is  the  septette,  "An  angel  has  from 
heaven  descended,"  which  rises  to  a  magnificent  climax  and 
is  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of  dramatic  writing  in  Wagner's 
scores,  although  often  execrably  sung  and  rarely  receiving 
complete  justice.  The  voices  of  young  Pilgrims  are  heard 
in  the  valley.  The  Landgrave  then  announces  the  condi- 
tions upon  which  Tannhduser  can  again  obtain  forgiveness, 
and  Tannhduser  joins  the  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Rome. 

The  third  act  displays  once  more  the  valley  of  the  Wart- 
burg,  the  same  scene  as  that  to  which  the  Venusberg 
changed  in  the  first  act.  Elizabeth,  arrayed  in  white,  is 
kneeling,  in  deep  prayer,  before  the  crucifix.  At  one  side, 
and  watching  her  tenderly,  stands  Wolfram.  After  a  sad 
recitative  from  Wolfram,  the  chorus  of  returning  Pilgrims 
is  heard  in  the  distance.  They  sing  the  melody  heard  in 
the  overture  and  in  the  first  act;  and  the  same  effect  of 
gradual  approach  is  produced  by  a  superb  crescendo  as 
they  reach  and  cross  the  scene.  With  almost  piteous 
anxiety  and  grief  Elizabeth  scans  them  closely  as  they  go 


ii6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

by,  to  see  if  Tannhduser  be  among  them,  and  when  the 
last  one  has  passed  and  she  reaHzes  that  he  has  not  re- 
turned, she  sinks  again  upon  her  knees  before  the  crucifix 
and  sings  the  prayer,  "Almighty  Virgin,  hear  my  sorrow," 
music  in  which  there  is  most  beautifully  combined  the 
expression  of  poignant  grief  with  trust  in  the  mil  of  the 
Almighty.  As  she  rises  and  turns  toward  the  castle, 
Wolfram,  by  his  gesture,  seems  to  ask  her  if  he  cannot 
accompany  her,  but  she  declines  his  offer  and  slowly  goes 
her  way  up  the  mountain. 

Meanwhile  night  has  fallen  upon  the  scene  and  the 
evening  star  glows  softly  above  the  castle.  It  is  then 
that  Wolfram,  accompanying  himself  on  his  lyre,  intones 
the  wondrously  tender  and  beautiful  "Song  to  the  Evening 
Star,"  confessing  therein  his  love  for  the  .saintly  Elizabeth. 

W^l^i  I  "11  L  Mr   I    '  I  J    I 

Then  TawM^aM^er,  dejected,  footsore,  and  weary,  appears, 
and  in  broken  accents  asks  Wolfram  to  show  him  the  way 
back  to  the  Venusberg.  Wolfram  bids  him  stay  his  steps 
and  persuades  him  to  tell  him  the  story  of  his  pilgrimage. 
In  fierce,  dramatic  accents,  Tannhduser  relates  all  that  he 
has  suffered  on  his  way  to  Rome  and  the  terrible  judgment 
pronounced  upon  him  by  the  Pope.  This  is  a  highly  im- 
pressive episode,  clearly  foreshadowing  Wagner's  dramatic 
use  of  musical  recitative  in  his  later  music-dramas.  Only 
a  singer  of  the  highest  rank  can  do  justice  to  it. 

Tannhduser  proclaims  that,  having  lost  all  chance  of 
salvation,  he  will  once  more  give  himself  up  to  the  delights 
of  the  Venusberg.  A  roseate  light  illumines  the  recesses 
of  the  mountain  and  the  unholy  company  of  the  Venusberg 
again  is  seen,  Venus  stretching  out  her  arms  for  Tann- 
hduser, to   welcome  him.      But   at  last,  when  Tannhduser 


Richard  Wagner  117 

seems  unable  to  resist  Venus'  enticing  voice  any  longer, 
Wolfram  conjures  him  by  the  memory  of  the  sainted  Eliza- 
beth.  Then  Venus  knows  that  all  is  lost.  The  light  dies 
away  and  the  magic  charms  of  the  Venusberg  disappear. 
Amid  tolling  of  bells  and  mournful  voices  a  funeral  proces- 
sion comes  down  the  mountain.  Recognizing  the  features 
of  Elizabeth,  the  d3ang  Tannhduser  falls  upon  her  corpse. 
The  younger  pilgrims  arrive  with  the  staff,  which  has 
again  put  forth  leaves,  and  amid  the  hallelujahs  of  the 
pilgrims  the  opera  closes. 

Besides  the  character  of  Elizabeth  that  of  Wolfram  stands 
out  for  its  tender,  manly  beauty.  In  love  with  Elizabeth, 
he  is  yet  the  means  of  bringing  back  her  lover  to  her,  and 
in  the  end  saves  that  lover  from  perdition,  so  that  they 
may  be  united  in  death. 

LOHENGRIN 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Richard  Wagner.  Produced,  Weimar,  Ger- 
many, August  28,  1850,  under  the  direction  of  Franz  Liszt;  London, 
Covent  Garden,  May  8,  1875;  New  York,  Stadt  Theater,  in  German, 
Aprils,  1871;  Academy  of  Music,,  in  Italian,  March  23,  1874,  with 
Nilsson,  Gary,  Campanini,  and  DelPuente;  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
in  German,  November  23,  1885,  with  Seidl-Kraus,  Brandt,  Stritt, 
Robinson,  and  Fischer,  American  d^but  of  Anton  Seidl  as  conductor. 

Characters 

Henry  the  Fowler,  King  of  Germany Bass 

Lohengrin Tenor 

Elsa  of  Brabant Soprano 

Duke  Godfrey,  her  brother Mute 

Frederick  of  Telramund,  Count  of  Brabant Baritone 

Ortrud,  his  wife Mezzo-Soprano 

The  King's  Herald Bass 

Saxon,  Thuringian,  and  Brabantian  Counts  and   Nobles,   Ladies  of 

Honour,  Pages,  Attendants. 
Time — First  half  of  the  Tenth  Century.  Scene — Antwerp. 


ii8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  clrctimstances  attending  the  creation  and  first 
production  of  "Lohengrin"  are  most  interesting. 

Prior  to  and  for  more  than  a  decade  after  he  wrote  and 
composed  the  work  Wagner  suffered  many  vicissitudes.  In 
Paris,  where  he  Hved  from  hand  to  mouth  before  "Rienzi  " 
was  accepted  by  the  Royal  Opera  House  at  Dresden,  he 
was  absolutely  poverty-stricken  and  often  at  a  loss  how  to 
procure  the  next  meal. 

"Rienzi"  was  produced  at  the  Dresden  Opera  in  1842. 
It  was  brilliantly  successful.  "The  Flying  Dutchman," 
which  followed,  was  less  so,  and  "Tannhauser"  seemed 
even  less  attractive  to  its  early  audiences.  Therefore  it 
is  no  wonder  that,  although  Wagner  was  royal  conductor 
in  Dresden,  he  could  not  succeed  in  having  "Lohengrin" 
accepted  there  for  performance.  Today  "Rienzi"  hardly 
can  be  said  to  hold  its  own  in  the  repertoire  outside  of  its 
composer's  native  country.  The  sombre  beauty  of  "The 
Flying  Dutchman,"  though  recognized  by  musicians  and 
serious  music  lovers,  has  prevented  its  becoming  popular. 
But  "Tannhauser,"  looked  at  so  askance  at  first,  and 
"Lohengrin,"  absolutely  rejected,  are  standard  operas 
and,  when  well  given,  among  the  most  popular  works  of 
the  lyric  stage.     Especially  is  this  true  of  "  Lohengrin." 

This  opera,  at  the  time  of  its  composition  so  novel  and 
so  strange,  yet  filled  with  beauties  of  orchestration  and 
harmony  that  are  now  quoted  as  leading  examples  in  books 
on  these  subjects,  was  composed  in  less  than  a  year.  The 
acts  were  finished  almost,  if  not  quite,  in  reversed  order. 
For  Wagner  wrote  the  third  act  first,  beginning  it  in  Sep- 
tember, 1846,  and  completing  it  March  5,  1847.  The 
first  act  occupied  him  from  May  12th  to  June  8th,  less 
than  a  month;  the  second  act  from  June  i8th  to  August  2d. 
Fresh  and  beautiful  as  "Lohengrin"  still  sounds  today,  it 
is,  in  fact,  a  classic. 

Wagner's  music,  however,  was  so  little  understood    at 


Richard  Wagner  119 

the  time,  that  even  before  "Lohengrin"  was  produced 
and  not  a  note  of  it  had  been  heard,  people  made  fun  of  it. 
A  lithographer  named  Meser  had  issued  Wagner's  pre- 
vious three  scores,  but  the  enterprise  had  not  been  a 
success.  People  said  that  before  publishing  "Rienzi," 
Meser  had  lived  on  the  first  floor.  "Rienzi"  had  driven 
him  to  the  second;  "The  Flying  Dutchman"  and  "Tann- 
hauser"  to  the  third;  and  now  "Lohengrin"  would  drive 
him  to  the  garret — a  prophecy  that  didn't  come  true, 
because  he  refused  to  publish  it. 

In  1849,  "Lohengrin"  still  not  having  been  accepted 
by  the  Dresden  Opera,  Wagner,  as  already  has  been  stated, 
took  part  in  the  May  revolution,  which,  apparently  success- 
ful for  a  very  short  time,  was  quickly  suppressed  by  the 
military.  The  composer  of  "Lohengrin"  and  the  future 
composer  of  the  "Ring  of  the  Nibelung,"  "Tristan  und 
Isolde,"  "Meistersinger,"  and  "Parsifal,"  is  said  to  have 
made  his  escape  from  Dresden  in  the  disguise  of  a  coach- 
man. Occasionally  there  tiirns  up  in  sales  as  a  great 
rarity  a  copy  of  the  warrant  for  Wagner's  arrest  issued  by 
the  Dresden  police.  As  it  gives  a  description  of  him  at 
the  time  when  he  had  but  recently  composed  "Lohengrin," 
I  will  quote  it: 

"Wagner  is  thirty-seven  to  thirty-eight  years  of  age, 
of  medium  stature,  has  brown  hair,  an  open  forehead; 
eyebrows,  brown;  eyes,  greyish  blue;  nose  and  mouth, 
proportioned ;  chin,  round,  and  wears  spectacles.  Special 
characteristics:  rapid  in  movements  and  speech.  Dress: 
coat  of  dark  green  buckskin,  trousers  of  black  cloth, 
velvet  vest,  silk  neckerchief,  ordinary  felt  hat  and  boots." 

Much  fun  has  been  made  of  the  expression  "chin,  round, 
and  wears  spectacles."  Wagner  got  out  of  Dresden  on 
the  pass  of  a  Dr.  Widmann,  whom  he  resembled.     It  has 


I20  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

been  suggested  that  he  made  the  resemblance  still  closer 
by  discontinuing  the  habit  of  wearing  spectacles  on  his  chin. 

I  saw  Wagner  several  times  in  Bayreuth  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1882,  when  I  attended  the  first  performance 
of  "Parsifal,"  as  correspondent  by  cable  and  letter 
for  one  of  the  large  New  York  dailies.  Except  that  his 
hair  was  grey  (and  that  he  no  longer  wore  his  spectacles 
on  his  chin)  the  description  in  the  warrant  still  held 
good,  especially  as  regards  his  rapidity  of  movement 
and  speech,,  to  which  I  may  add  a  marked  vivacity  of 
gesture.  There,  too,  I  saw  the  friend,  who  had  helped  him 
over  so  many  rough  places  in  his  early  career,  Franz 
Liszt,  his  hair  white  with  age,  but  framing  a  face  as  strong 
and  keen  as  an  eagle's.  I  saw  them  seated  at  a  banquet, 
ajid  with  them  Cosima,  Liszt's  daughter,  who  was  Wagner's 
secorui  wife,  and  their  son,  Siegfried  Wagner;  Cosima  the 
image  of  her  father,  and  Siegfried  a  miniatin"e  replica  of 
the  composer  to  whom  we  owe  "Lohengrin"  and  the 
music-dramas  that  followed  it.  The  following  summer 
one  of  the  four  was  missing.  I  have  the  "Parsifal"  pro- 
gram with  mourning  border  signifying  that  the  perform- 
ances of  the  work  were  in  memory  of  its  creator. 

In  April,  1850,  Wagner,  then  an  exile  in  Zurich,  wrote 
to  Liszt:  "Bring  out  my  'Lohengrin!'  You  are  the  only 
one  to  whom  I  would  put  this  request;  to  no  one  but  you 
would  I  entrust  the  production  of  this  opera;  but  to  you 
I  surrender  it  with  the  fullest,  most  joyous  confidence." 

Wagner  himself  describes  the  appeal  and  the  resul-t, 
by  saying  that  at  a  time  when  he  was  ill,  unhappy,  and  in 
despair,  his  eye  fell  on  the  score  of  "Lohengrin"  which  he 
had  almost  forgotten.  "A  pitiful  feeling  overcame  me- 
that  these  tones  would  never  resound  from  the  deathly- 
pale  paper;  two  words  I  wrote  to  Liszt,  the  answer  to 
which  was  nothing  else  than  the  information  that,  as  far 
as  the  resources  of  the  Weimar  Opera  permitted,  the  most 


Richard  Wagner  121 

elaborate  preparations  were  being  made  for  the  production 
of  'Lohengrin.'  " 

Liszt's  reply  to  which  Wagner  refers,  and  which  gives 
some  details  regarding  "the  elaborate  preparations," 
while  testifying  to  his  full  comprehension  of  Wagner's 
genius  and  the  importance  of  his  new  score  as  a  work 
of  art,  may  well  cause  us  to  smile  today  at  the  small  scale 
on  which  things  were  done  in  1850. 

"Your  'Lohengrin,'"  he  wrote,  "will  be  given  under 
conditions  that  are  most  unusual  and  most  favourable  for 
its  success.  The  direction  will  spend  on  this  occasion 
almost  2000  thalers  [about  $1500] — a  sum  unprecedented 
at  Weimar  within  memory  of  man  .  .  .  the  bass  clarinet 
has  been  bought,"  etc.  Ten  times  fifteen  hundred  dollars 
might  well  be  required  today  for  a  properly  elaborate 
production  of  "Lohengrin,"  and  the  opera  orchestra  that 
had  to  send  out  and  buy  a  bass  clarinet  would  be  a  curio- 
sity. But  Weimar  had  what  no  other  opera  house  could 
boast  of — Franz  Liszt  as  conductor. 

Under  his  brilliant  direction  "Lohengrin"  had  at  Wei- 
mar its  first  performance  on  any  stage,  August  28,  1850. 
This  was  the  anniversary  of  Goethe's  birth,  the  date  of  the 
dedication  of  the  Weimar  montunent  to  the  poet,  Herder, 
and,  by  a  coincidence  that  does  not  appear  to  have  struck 
either  Wagner  or  Liszt,  the  third  anniversary  of  the  com- 
pletion of  "Lohengrin."  The  work  was  performed  with- 
out cuts  and  before  an  audience  which  included  some  of 
the  leading  musical  and  literary  men  of  Germany.  The 
performance  made  a  deep  impression.  The  circumstance 
that  Liszt  added  the  charm  of  his  personality  to  it  and 
that  the  weight  of  his  influence  had  been  thrown  in  its 
favour  alone  gave  vast  importance  to  the  event.  Indeed, 
through  Liszt's  production  of  Wagner's  early  operas 
Weimar  became,  as  Henry  T.  Finck  has  said  in  Wagner 
and  His  Works,  a   sort  of  preliminary  Bayreuth.     Occa- 


122  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

sionally  special  opera  trains  were  put  on  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  visitors  to  the  Wagner  performances.  In  January, 
1853,  Liszt  writes  to  Wagner  that  "the  public  interest  in 
'Lohengrin'  is  rapidly  increasing.  You  are  already  very 
popular  at  the  various  Weimar  hotels,  where  it  is  not  easy 
to  get  a  room  on  the  days  when  yoiir  operas  are  given." 
The  Liszt  production  of  "Lohengrin"  was  a  turning-point 
in  his  career,  the  determining  influence  that  led  him  to 
throw  himself  heart  and  soul  into  the  composition  of  the 
"Ring  of  the  Nibelung." 

On  May  15,  1861,  when,  through  the  intervention  of 
Princess  Metternich,  he  had  been  permitted  to  return  to 
Germany,  fourteen  years  after  he  had  finished  "Lohengrin" 
and  eleven  years  after  its  production  at  Weimar,  he  him- 
self heard  it  for  the  first  time  at  Vienna.  A  tragedy  of 
fourteen  years — to  create  a  masterpiece  of  the  lyric  stage, 
and  be  forced  to  wait  that  long  to  hear  it! 

Before  proceeding  to  a  complete  descriptive  account 
of  the  "Lohengrin"  story  and  music  I  will  give  a  brief 
summary  of  the  plot  and  a  similar  characterization  of  the 
score. 

Wagner  appears  to  have  become  so  saturated  with  the 
subject  of  his  dramas  that  he  transported  himself  in  mind 
and  temperament  to  the  very  time  in  which  his  scenes 
are  laid.  vSo  vividly  does  he  portray  the  mythological 
occurrences  told  in  "Lohengrin"  that  one  can  almost 
imagine  he  had  been  an  eye-witness  of  them.  This  ca- 
pacity of  artistic  reproduction  of  a  remote  period  would 
alone  entitle  him  to  rank  as  a  great  dramatist.  But  he  has 
done  much  more;  he  has  taken  unpromising  material, 
which  in  the  original  is  strung  out  over  a  period  of  years, 
and.  by  condensing  the  action  to  two  days,  has  converted 
it  into  a  swiftly  moving  drama. 

The  story  of  "Lohengrin"  is  briefly  as  follows:  The 
Hungarians  have  invaded  Germany,  and  King  Henry  I. 


Copyright  photo  by  Mishkin 


Sembach  as  Lohengrin 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Schumann-Heink  as  Ortrud  in  "Lohengrin" 


Richard  Wagner  123 

visits  Antwerp  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a  force  to  combat 
them.  He  finds  the  country  in  a  condition  of  anarchy. 
The  dukedom  is  claimed  by  Frederick,  who  has  married 
Ortrud,  a  daughter  of  the  Prince  of  Friesland.  The  legiti- 
mate heir,  Godfrey,  has  mysteriously  disappeared,  and  his 
sister,  Elsa,  is  charged  by  Frederick  and  Ortrtid  with  having 
done  away  with  him  in  order  that  she  might  obtain  the 
sovereignty.  The  King  summons  her  before  him  so  that 
the  cause  may  be  tried  by  the  ordeal  of  single  combat 
between  Frederick  and  a  champion  who  may  be  willing  to 
appear  for  Elsa.  None  of  the  knights  will  defend  her  cause. 
She  then  describes  a  champion  whose  form  has  appeared  to 
her  in  a  vision,  and  she  proclaims  that  he  shall  be  her 
champion.  Her  pretence  is  derided  by  Frederick  and  his 
followers,  who  think  that  she  is  out  of  her  mind;  but  after 
a  triple  summons  by  the  Herald,  there  is  seen  in  the  distance 
on  the  river,  a  boat  drawn  by  a  swan,  and  in  it  a  knight 
clad  in  silver  armour.  He  comes  to  champion  Elsa's  cause, 
and  before  the  combat  betroths  himself  to  her,  but  makes 
a  strict  condition  that  she  shall  never  question  him  as  to 
his  name  or  birthplace,  for  should  she,  he  would  be  obliged 
to  depart.  She  assents  to  the  conditions,  and  the  combat 
which  ensues  results  in  Frederick's  ignominious  defeat. 
Judgment  of  exile  is  pronounced  on  him. 

Instead,  however,  of  leaving  the  country  he  lingers  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Brabant,  plotting  with  Ortrud  how 
they  may  compass  the  ruin  of  Lohengrin  and  Elsa.  Ortrud 
by  her  entreaties  moves  Elsa  to  pity,  and  persuades  her  to 
seek  a  reprieve  for  Frederick,  at  the  same  time,  however, 
using  every  opportunity  to  instil  doubts  in  Elsa's  mind 
regarding  her  champion,  and  rousing  her  to  such  a  pitch 
of  nervous  curiosity  that  she  is  on  the  point  of  asking 
him  the  forbidden  question.  After  the  bridal  ceremonies, 
and  in  the  bridal  chamber,  the  distrust  which  Ortrud  and 
Frederick  have  engendered  in  Elsa's  mind  so  overcomes  her 


124  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

faith  that  she  vehemently  puts  the  forbidden  question  to 
her  champion.  Almost  at  the  same  moment  Frederick 
and  four  of  his  followers  force  their  way  into  the  apart- 
ment, intending  to  take  the  knight's  life.  A  single  blow 
of  his  sword,  however,  stretches  Frederick  lifeless,  and  his 
followers  bear  his  corpse  away.  Placing  Elsa  in  the 
charge  of  her  ladies-in-waiting,  and  ordering  them  to  take 
her  to  the  presence  of  the  King,  he  repairs  thither  himself. 

The  Brabantian  hosts  are  gathering,  and  he  is  expected 
to  lead  them  to  battle,  but  owing  to  Elsa's  question  he  is 
now  obliged  to  disclose  who  he  is  and  to  take  his  departure. 
He  proclaims  that  he  is  Lohengrin,  son  of  Parsifal,  Knight 
of  the  Holy  Grail,  and  that  he  can  linger  no  longer  in  Bra- 
bant, but  must  return  to  the  place  of  his  coming.  The 
swan  has  once  more  appeared,  drawing  the  boat  down 
the  river,  and  bidding  Elsa  farewell  he  steps  into  the  little 
shell-like  craft.  Then  Ortrnd,  with  malicious  glee,  declares 
that  the  swan  is  none  other  than  Elsa's  brother,  whom  she 
(Ortrud)  bewitched  into  this  form,  and  that  he  would  have 
been  changed  back  again  to  his  human  shape  had  it  not 
been  for  Elsa's  rashness.  But  Lohengrin,  through  his 
supernatural  powers,  is  able  to  undo  Ortrud's  work,  and 
at  a  word  from  him  the  swan  disappears  and  Godfrey 
stands  in  its  place.  A  dove  now  descends,  and,  hovering 
in  front  of  the  boat,  draws  it  away  with  Lohengrin,  while 
Elsa  expires  in  her  brother's  arms. 

Owing  to  the  lyric  character  of  the  story  upon  which 
"Lohengrin"  is  based,  the  opera,  while  not  at  all  lacking 
in  strong  dramatic  situations  is  characterized  by  a  subtler 
and  more  subdued  melodiousness  than  "Tannhauser," 
is  more  exquisitely  lyrical  in  fact  than  any  Wagnerian 
work  except  "Parsifal." 

There  are  typical  themes  in  the  score,  but  they  are  hardly 
handled  with  the  varied  effect  that  entitles  them  to  be 
called   leading   motives.     On    the   other    hand    there   are 


Richard  Wagner  125 

fascinating  details  of  orchestration.  These  are  important 
because  the  composer  has  given  significant  clang-tints 
to  the  music  that  is  heard  in  connection  with  the  different 
characters  in  the  story.  He  uses  the  brass  chiefly  to  ac- 
company the  King,  and,  of  course,  the  martial  choruses; 
the  plaintive,  yet  spiritual  high  wood-wind  for  Elsa;  the 
English  horn  and  sombre  bass  clarinet — the  instrument 
that  had  to  be  bought — for  Ortriid;  the  violins,  especially 
in  high  harmonic  positions,  to  indicate  the  Grail  and  its 
representative,  for  Lohengrin  is  a  Knight  of  the  Holy  Grail. 
Even  the  keys  employed  are  distinctive.  The  Herald's 
trumpeters  blow  in  C  and  greet  the  King's  arrival  in  that 
bright  key.  F  sharp  minor  is  the  dark,  threatful  key  that 
indicates  Ortrtid's  appearance.  The  key  of  A,  which  is  the 
purest  for  strings  and  the  most  ethereal  in  effect,  on  ac- 
count of  the  greater  ease  of  using  "  harmonics,"  announces  the 
approach  of  Lohengrin  and  the  subtle  influence  of  the  Grail. 

Moreover  Wagner  was  the  first  composer  to  discover  that 
celestial  effects  of  tone-colour  are  produced  by  the  prolonged 
notes  of  the  combined  violins  and  wood-wind  in  the  highest 
positions  more  truly  than  by  the  harp.  It  is  the  associa- 
tion of  ideas  with  the  Scriptures,  wherein  the  harp  fre- 
quently is  mentioned,  because  it  was  the  most  perfected 
instrument  of  the  period,  that  has  led  other  composers  to 
employ  it  for  celestial  tone-painting.  But  while  no  one 
appreciated  the  beauty  of  the  harp  more  than  Wagner, 
or  has  employed  it  with  finer  effect  than  he,  his  celestial 
tone-pictures  with  high-violins  and  wood-wind  are  dis- 
tinctly more  ecstatic  than  those  of  other  composers. 

The  music  clothes  the  drama  most  admirably.  The 
Vospiel  or  Prelude  immediately  places  the  listener  in  the 
proper  mood  for  the  story  which  is  to  unfold  itself,  and 
for  the  score,  vocal  and  instrumental,  whose  strains  are  to 
fall  upon  his  ear. 

The  Prelude  is  based  entirely  upon  one  theme,  a  beau- 


126 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


tiful  one  and  expressive  of  the  sanctity  of  the  Grail,  of 
which  Lohengrin  is  one  of  the  knights.  Violins  and  flutes 
with  long-drawn-out,  ethereal  chords  open  the  Prelude. 
Then  is  heard  on  the  violins,  so  divided  as  to  heighten  the 
delicacy  of  the  effect,  the  Motive  of  the  Grail,  the  cup  in 
which  the  Saviour's  blood  is  supposed  to  have  been  caught 
as  it  flowed  from  the  wound  in  His  side,  while  he  was  on 
the  Cross.  No  modern  book  on  orchestration  is  considered 
complete  unless  it  quotes  this  passage  from  the  score,  which 
is  at  once  the  earliest  and,  after  seventy  years,  still  the 
most  perfect  example  of  the  effect  of  celestial  harmony 
produced  on  the  high  notes  of  the  divided  violin  choir. 
This  interesting  passage  in  the  score  is  as  follows: 


f^i^i     Jr-^~^t    t 

" — ^, 

.... 

j-w  r^ 

""S^ 

t       f       ■: 

1         ' 

UM  ^  u  1  ^^= 

^^: 

Although  this  is  the  only  motive  that  occurs  in  the 
Prelude,  the  ear  never  wearies  of  it.  Its  effectiveness  is 
due  to  the  wonderful  skill  with  which  Wagner  handles 
the  theme,  working  it  up  through  a  superb  crescendo  to 
a  magnificent  climax,  with  all  the  splendours  of  Wagnerian 
orchestration,  after  which  it  dies  away  again  to  the  ethereal 
harmonies  with  which  it  first  greeted  the  listener. 

Act  I.  The  curtain,  on  rising,  discloses  a  scene  of 
unwonted  life  on  the  plain  near  the  River  Scheldt,  where 
the  stream  winds  toward  Antwerp.  On  an  elevated  seat 
under  a  huge  oak  sits  King  Henry  I.  On  either  side  are 
his  Saxon  and  Thuringian  nobles.  Facing  him  with  the 
knights  of  Brabant  are  Count  Frederick  of  Telramiind  and 
his  wife,  Ortrud,  daughter  of  the  Prince  of  Friesland,  of 
dark,  almost  forbidding  beauty,  and  with  a  treacherous 
mingling  of  haughtiness  and  humility  in  her  carriage. 


Richard  Wagner  127 

It  is  a  strange  tale  the  King  has  just  heard  fall  from 
Frederick  of  Telramund's  lips.  Henry  has  assembled  the 
Brabantians  on  the  plain  by  the  Scheldt  in  order  to  sum- 
mon them  to  join  his  army  and  aid  in  checking  the  threat- 
ened invasion  of  Germany  by  the  Hungarians.  But  he  has 
found  the  Brabantians  themselves  torn  by  factional  strife, 
some  supporting,  others  opposing  Frederick  in  his  claim 
to  the  ducal  succession  of  Brabant. 

"Sire,"  says  Frederick,  when  called  upon  by  the  King 
to  explain  the  cause  of  the  discord  that  has  come  upon  the 
land,  "the  late  Duke  of  Brabant  upon  his  death-bed  con- 
fided to  me,  his  kinsman,  the  care  of  his  two  children,  Elsa 
and  her  young  brother  Godfrey,  with  the  right  to  claim  the 
maid  as  my  wife.  But  one  day  Elsa  led  the  boy  into  the 
forest  and  returned  alone.  From  her  pale  face  and  fal- 
tering lips  I  judged  only  too  well  of  what  had  happened, 
and  I  now  publicly  accuse  Elsa  of  having  made  away  with 
her  brother  that  she  might  be  sole  heir  to  Brabant  and 
reject  my  right  to  her  hand.  Her  hand!  Horrified,  I 
shrank  from  her  and  took  a  wife  whom  I  could  truly  love. 
Now  as  nearest  kinsman  of  the  duke  I  claim  this  land  as 
my  own,  my  wife,  too,  being  of  the  race  that  once  gave  a 
line  of  princes  to  Brabant." 

So  saying,  he  leads  Ortrud  forward,  and  she,  lowering 
her  dark  visage,  makes  a  deep  obeisance  to  the  King. 
To  the  latter  but  one  course  is  open.  A  terrible  accusation 
has  been  uttered,  and  an  appeal  must  be  made  to  the 
immediate  judgment  of  God  in  trial  by  combat  between 
Frederick  and  whoever  may  appear  as  champion  for  Elsa. 
Solemnly  the  King  hangs  his  shield  on  the  oak,  the  Saxons 
and  Thuringians  thrust  the  points  of  their  swords  into  the 
ground,  while  the  Brabantians  lay  theirs  before  them. 
The  royal  Herald  steps  forward.  "Elsa,  without  delay 
appear!"  he  calls  in  a  loud  voice. 

A  sudden  hush  falls  upon  the  scene,  as  a  slender  figure 


128  The  Complete   Opera  Book 

robed  in  white  slowly  advances  toward  the  King.  It  is 
Elsa.  With  her  fair  brow,  gentle  mien,  and  timid  foot- 
steps it  seems  impossible  that  she  can  be  the  object 
of  Frederick's  dire  charge.  But  there  are  dark  forces  con- 
spiring against  her,  of  which  none  knows  save  her  accuser 
and  the  wife  he  has  chosen  from  the  remoter  North.  In 
Friesland  the  weird  rites  of  Odin  and  the  ancient  gods 
still  had  many  secret  adherents,  Ortrud  among  them,  and 
it  is  the  hope  of  this  heathenish  woman,  through  the 
undoing  of  Elsa,  and  the  accession  of  Frederick  whom 
she  has  completely  under  her  influence,  to  check  the 
spread  of  the  Christian  faith  toward  the  North  and 
restore  the  rites  of  Odin  in  Brabant.  To  this  end  she 
is  ready  to  bring  all  the  black  magic  of  which  she 
secretly  is  mistress  into  play.  What  wonder  that  F.lsa,  as 
she  encounters  her  malevolent  gaze,  lowers  her  eyes  with 
a  shudder! 

Up  to  the  moment  of  Elsa's  entrance,  the  music  is  harsh 
and  vigorous,  reflecting  Frederick's  excitement  as,  incited 
by  Ortrud,  he  brings  forward  his  charge  against  Elsa.  With 
her  appearance  a  change  immediately  comes  over  the  music. 
It  is  soft,  gentle,  and  plaintive;  not,  however,  entirely 
hopeless,  as  if  the  maiden,  being  conscious  of  her  innocence, 
does  not  despair  of  her  fate. 

"Elsa,"  gently  asks  the  King,  "whom  name  you  as 
your  champion?"  She  answers  as  if  in  a  trance;  and  it 
is  at  this  point  that  the  music  of  "Elsa's  Dream"  is  heard. 
In  the  course  of  this,  violins  whisper  the  Grail  Motive  and 
in  dreamy  rapture  Elsa  sings,  "I  see,  in  splendour  shining, 
a  knight  of  glorious  mien.  His  eyes  rest  upon  me  with 
tranquil  gaze.  He  stands  amid  clouds  beside  a  house  of 
gold,  and  resting  on  his  sword.  Heaven  has  sent  him  to 
save  me.     He  shall  my  champion  be!" 

The  men  regard  each  other  in  wonder.  But  a  sneer  ciirls 
around  Ortrud's  lips,   and   Frederick   again  proclaims  his 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Emma  Eames  as  Elsa  in  "Ivohengrin" 


"f-fRlCMT    A.PJP""'' 


Louise  Homer  as  Fricka  in  "The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung' 


Richard  Wagner 


129 


I 


readiness  to  prove  his  accusation  in  trial  by  combat  for 
life  and  death. 

"Elsa,"  the  King  asks  once  more,  "whom  have  you 
chosen  as  your  champion?" 

"Him  whom  Heaven  shall  send  me;  and  to  him,  what- 
ever he  shall  ask  of  me,  I  freely  will  give,  e'en  though  it 
be  myself  as  bride!"  Again  there  is  heard  the  lovely, 
broad  and  flowing  melody  of  which  I  have  already  spoken 
and  which  may  be  designated  as  the  Elsa  Motive. 


The  Herald  now  stations  his  trumpeters  at  the  corners 
of  the  plain  and  bids  them  blow  a  blast  toward  the  four 
points  of  the  compass.  When  the  last  echo  has  died  away 
he  calls  aloud : 

"He  who  in  right  of  Heaven  comes  here  to  fight  ior  Elsa 
of  Brabant,  let  him  step  forth!" 

•  The  deep  silence  that  follows  is  broken  by  Freder- 
ick's voice.  "No  one  appears  to  repel  my  charge.  'Tis 
proven." 

"My  King,"  implores  Elsa.  whose  growing  agitation  is 
watched  by  Ortrud  with  a  malevolent  smile,  "my  cham- 
pion bides  afar.  He  has  not  yet  heard  the  summons. 
I  pray  you  let  it  go  forth  once  more." 

Again  the  trumpeters  blow  toward  the  four  points  of 
the  compass,  again  the  Herald  cries  his  call,  again  there  is 


130  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

the  fateful  silence.  "The  Heavens  are  silent.  She  is 
doomed,"  murmured  the  men.  Then  Elsa  throws  herself 
upon  her  knees  and  raises  her  ej'-es  in  prayer.  Suddenly 
there  is  a  commotion  among  the  men  nearest  the  river  bank. 

"A  wonder!"  they  cry.  "A  swan!  A  swan — drawing 
a  boat  by  a  golden  chain!  In  the  boat  stands  a  knight! 
See,  it  approaches!  His  armo\ir  is  so  bright  it  blinds  our 
e5''es!     A  wonder!     A  wonder!" 

There  is  a  rush  toward  the  bank  and  a  great  shout  of 
acclaim,  as  the  swan  with  a  graceful  sweep  rounds  a  bend 
in  the  river  and  brings  the  shell -like  boat,  in  which  stands 
a  knight  in  dazzling  armour  and  of  noble  mien,  up  to  the 
shore.  Not  daring  to  trust  her  senses  and  turn  to  behold 
the  wondrous  spectacle,  Elsa  gazes  in  raptiire  heavenward, 
while  Ortrud  and  Telramund,  their  fell  intrigue  suddenly 
halted  by  a  marvel  that  surpasses  their  comprehension, 
regard  each  other  with  mingled  amazement  and  alarm. 

A  strange  feeling  of  awe  overcomes  the  assembly,  and  the 
timiult  with  which  the  advent  of  the  knight  has  been  hailed 
dies  away  to  breathless  silence,  as  he  extends  his  hand 
and  in  tender  accents  bids  farewell  to  the  swan,  which 
gently  inclines  its  head  and  then  glides  away  with  the 
boat,  vanishing  as  it  had  come.  There  is  a  chorus,  in 
which,  in  half-hushed  voices,  the  crowd  gives  expression 
to  the  mystery  of  the  scene.  Then  the  men  fall  back  and 
the  Knight  of  the  Swan,  for  a  silver  swan  siirmounts  his 
helmet  and  is  blazoned  upon  his  shield,  having  made  due 
obeisance  to  the  King,  advances  to  where  Elsa  stands  and, 
resting  his  eyes  upon  her  pure  and  radiant  beauty,  questions 
her. 

"Elsa,  if  I  become  your  champion  and  right  the  foul 
wrong  that  is  sought  to  be  put  upon  you,  will  you  confide 
your  future  to  me;  will  you  become  my  bride?" 

"My  guardian,  my  defender!"  she  exclaims  ecstatically. 
"All  that  I  have,  all  that  I  am,  is  yours!" 


Richard  Wagner  131 

"Elsa,"  he  says  slowly,  as  if  wishing  her  to  weigh  every 
word,  "if  I  champion  your  cause  and  take  you  to  wife, 
there  is  one  promise  I  must  exact :  Never  must  you  ask  me 
whence  I  come  or  what  my  name." 

"I  promise,"  she  answers,  serenely  meeting  his  warning 
look.  He  repeats  the  warning  and  again  she  promises  to 
observe  it. 

"Elsa,  I  love  you!"  he  exclaims,  as  he  clasps  her  in  his 
arms.  Then  addressing  the  King  he  proclaims  his  readi- 
ness to  defend  her  innocence  in  trial  by  combat. 

In  this  scene  occiu-s  one  of  the  significant  themes  of  the 
opera,  the  motive  of  warning — for  it  is  Elsa's  disregard 
of  it  and  the  breaking  of  her  promise  that  brings  her  hap- 
piness to  an  end. 


Three  Saxons  for  the  Knight  and  three  Brabantians  for 
Frederick  solemnly  pace  off  the  circle  within  which  the 
combatants  are  to  fight.  The  King,  drawing  his  sword, 
strikes  three  resounding  blows  with  it  upon  his  shield. 
At  the  first  stroke  the  Knight  and  Frederick  take  their 
positions.  At  the  second  they  draw  their  swords.  At 
the  third  they  advance  to  the  encounter.  Frederick  is  no 
coward.  His  willingness  to  meet  the  Knight  whose  com- 
ing had  been  so  strange  proves  that.  But  his  blows  are 
skilfully  warded  off  until  the  Swan  Knight,  finding  an 
opening,  fells  him  with  a  powerful  stroke.  Frederick's 
life  is  forfeited,  but  his  conqueror,  perchance  knowing 
that  he  has  been  naught  but  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  a  woman 
leagued  with  the  powers  of  evil,  ^ares  it  and  bids  his 
fallen  foe  rise.  The  King  leads  Elsa  to  the  victor,  while 
all  hail  him  as  her  deliverer  and  betrothed. 

The  scenes  here  described  are  most  stirring.     Before  the- 
combat  begins,   the  King  intoaes  a  prayer,  in  which  first 


132  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

the  principals  and  then  the  chorus  join  with  noble  effect, 
while  the  music  of  rejoicing  over  the  Knight's  victory  has 
an  irresistible  onsweep. 

Act  II.  That  night  in  the  fortress  of  Antwerp,  the 
palace  where  abide  the  knights  is  brilliantly  illuminated 
and  sounds  of  revelry  issue  from  it,  and  lights  shine  from 
the  kemenate,  where  Elsd's  maids-in-waiting  are  preparing 
her  for  the  bridal  on  the  morrow.  But  in  the  shadow  of 
the  walls  sit  two  figures,  a  man  and  a  woman;  the  man, 
his  head  bowed  in  despair,  the  woman  looking  vindictively 
toward  the  palace.  They  are  Frederick  and  Ortrud,  who 
have  been  condemned  to  banishment,  he  utterly  dejected, 
she  still  trusting  in  the  power  of  her  heathenish  gods.  To 
her  the  Swan  Knight's  chivalrous  forbearance  in  sparing 
Frederick's  life  has  seemed  weak  instead  of  noble,  and  Elsa 
she  regards  as  an  insipid  dreamer  and  easy  victim.  Not 
knowing  that  Ortrud  still  darkly  schemes  to  ruin  Elsa 
and  restore  him  to  power,  Frederick  denounces  her  in  an 
outburst  of  rage  and  despair. 

As  another  burst  of  revelry,  another  flash  of  light,  causes 
Ferederick  to  bow  his  head  in  deeper  gloom,  Ortrud  begins 
to  unfold  her  plot  to  him.  How  long  will  a  woman  like 
Elsa — as  sweet  as  she  is  beautiful,  but  also  as  weak — be 
able  to  restrain  herself  from  asking  the  forbidden  question? 
Once  her  suspicion  aroused  that  the  Knight  is  concealing 
from  her  something  in  his  past  life,  growing  jealousy  will 
impel  her  first  to  seek  to  coax  from  him.  then  to  demand 
of  him  his  name  and  lineage.  Let  Frederick  conceal  him- 
self within  the  minster,  and  when  the  bridal  procession 
reaches  the  steps,  come  forth  and,  accusing  the  Knight  of 
treachery  and  deceit,^  demand  that  he  be  compelled  to 
disclose  his  name  and  origin.  He  will  refuse,  and  thus, 
even  before  Elsa  enters  the  minster,  she  will  begin  to  be 
beset  by  doubts.  She  herself  meanwhile  will  seek  to  enter 
the  kemenate  and  play  upon  her  credulousness.     "She  is 


Richard  Wagner  133 

for  me;  her  champion  is  for  you.  Soon  the  daughter  of 
Odin  will  teach  you  all  the  joys  of  vengeance!"  is  Ortrud's 
sinister  exclamation  as  she  finishes. 

Indeed  it  seems  as  if  Fate  were  playing  into  her  hand. 
For  at  that  very  moment  Elsa,  all  clad  in  white,  comes 
out  upon  the  balcony  of  the  kemenate  and,  sighing  with 
happiness,  breathes  out  upon  the  night  air  her  rapture  at 
the  thought  of  what  bliss  the  coming  day  has  in  store  for 
her.  As  she  lets  her  gaze  rest  on  the  calm  night  she  hears 
a  piteous  voice  calling  her  name,  and  looking  down  sees 
Ortrud,  her  hands  raised  in  supplication  to  her.  Moved  by 
the  spectacle  of  one  but  a  short  time  before  so  proud  and 
now  apparently  in  such  utter  dejection,  the  guileless  maid 
descends  and,  herself  opening  the  door  of  the  kemenate, 
hastens  to  Ortnid,  raises  her  to  her  feet,  and  gently  leads 
her  in,  while,  hidden  in  the  shadows,  Frederick  of  Telra- 
mund  bides  his  time  for  action.  Thus  within  and  without, 
mischief  is  plotting  for  the  unsuspecting  Elsa. 

These  episodes,  following  the  appearance  of  Elsa  upon 
the  balcony,  are  known  as  the  "Balcony  Scene."  It  opens 
with  the  exquisite  melody  which  Elsa  breathes  upon  the 
zephyrs  of  the  night  in  gratitude  to  heaven  for  the  cham- 
pion sent  to  her  defence.  Then,  when  in  pity  she  has 
hastened  down  to  Ortrud,  the  latter  pours  doubts  regard- 
ing her  champion  into  Elsa's  mind.  Who  is  he?  Whence 
came  he?  May  he  not  as  unexpectedly  depart?  The 
whole  closes  with  a  beautiful  duet,  which  is  repeated  by 
the  orchestra,  as  Ortrud  is  conducted  by  Elsa  into  the 
apartment. 

It  is  early  mom.  People  begin  to  gather  in  the  open 
place  before  the  minster  and,  by  the  time  the  sun  is  high, 
the  space  is  crowded  with  folk  eager  to  view  the  bridal 
procession.     They  sing  a  fine  and  spirited  chorus. 

At  the  appointed  hour  iour  pages  come  out  upon  the 
balcony  of  the  kemenate  and  cry  out : 


134  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"Make  way,  our  Lady  Elsa  comes!"  Descending, 
they  clear  a  path  through  the  crowd  to  the  steps  of  the 
minster.  A  long  train  of  richly  clad  women  emerges 
upon  the  balcony,  slowly  comes  down  the  steps  and,  pro- 
ceeding past  the  palace,  winds  toward  the  minster.  At 
that  moment  a  great  shout,  "Hail!  Elsa  of  Brabant!" 
goes  up,  as  the  bride  herself  appears  followed  by  her  ladies- 
in-waiting.  For  the  moment  Ortricd's  presence  in  the  train 
is  unnoticed,  but  as  Elsa  approaches  the  minster,  Frederick's 
wife  suddenly  throws  herself  in  her  path. 

"Back,  Elsa!"  she  cries.  "I  am  not  a  menial,  born  to 
follow  you!  Although  j'^our  Knight  has  overthrown  my 
husband,  you  cannot  boast  of  who  he  is — his  very  name,  the 
place  whence  he  came,  are  unknown.  Strong  must  be  his 
motives  to  forbid  you  to  question  him.  To  what  foul  dis- 
grace would  he  be  brought  were  he  compelled  to  answer!" 

Fortunately  the  King,  the  bridegroom,  and  the  nobles 
approaching  from  the  palace,  Elsa  shrinks  from  Ortrud  to 
her  champion's  side  and  hides  her  face  against  his  breast. 
At  that  moment  Frederick  of  Telramund,  taking  his  cue 
from  Ortrud,  comes  out  upon  the  minster  steps  and  repeats 
his  wife's  accusation.  Then,  profiting  by  the  confusion, 
he  slips  away  in  the  crowd.  The  insidious  poison,  however, 
has  already  begun  to  take  effect.  For  even  as  the  King 
taking  the  Knight  on  his  right  and  Elsa  on  his  left  conducts 
them  up  the  minster  steps,  the  trembling  bride  catches  sight 
of  Ortrud  whose  hand  is  raised  in  threat  and  warning;  and  it 
is  clinging  to  her  champion,  in  love  indeed  but  love  mingled 
with  doubt  and  fear,  that  she  passes  through  the  portal, 
and  into  the  edifice. 

These  are  crucial  scenes.  The  procession  to  the  min- 
ster, often  known  as  the  bridal  procession,  must  not  be 
confused  with  the  "  Bridal  Chorus."  It  is  familiar  music, 
however,  because  at  weddings  it  often  is  played  softly  as 
a  musical  background  to  the  ceremony. 


Richard  Wagner  135 

Act  III.  The  wedding  festivities  are  described  in  the 
brilliant  "Introduction  to  Act  III."  This  is  followed  in 
the  opera  b}"-  the  "Bridal  Chorus,"  which,  wherever  heard 
— on  stage  or  in  church — falls  with  renewed  freshness  and 
significance  upon  the  ear.  In  this  scene  the  Knight  and 
Elsa  are  conducted  to  the  bridal  chamber  in  the  castle. 
From  the  right  enter  Elsa's  ladies-in-waiting  leading  the 
bride;  from  the  left  the  King  and  nobles  leading  the  Knight. 
Preceding  both  trains  are  pages  bearing  lights;  and  voices 
chant  the  bridal  chorus.  The  King  ceremoniously  em- 
braces the  couple  and  then  the  procession  makes  its  way 
out,  until,  as  the  last  strains  of  the  chorus  die  away,  Elsa 
and  her  champion  are  for  the  first  time  alone. 

It  should  be  a  moment  of  supreme  happiness  for  both, 
and  indeed,  Elsa  exclaims  as  her  bridegroom  takes  her  to 
his  arms,  that  words  cannot  give  expression  to  all  its  hidden 
sweetness.  Yet,  when  he  tenderly  breathes  her  name, 
it  serves  only  to  remind  her  that  she  cannot  respond  by 
uttering  his.  "How  sweetly  sounds  my  name  when  spoken 
by  you,  while  I,  alas,  cannot  reply  with  yours.  Surely, 
some  day,  you  will  tell  me,  all  in  secret,  and  I  shall  be  able 
to  whisper  it  when  none  but  you  is  near!  " 

In  her  words  the  Knight  perceives  but  too  clearly  the 
seeds  of  the  fatal  mistrust  sown  by  Ortriid  and  Frederick. 
Gently  he  leaves  her  side  and  throwing  open  the  case- 
ment, points  to  the  moonlit  landscape  where  the  river 
winds  its  course  along  the  plain.  The  same  subtle  magic 
that  can  conjure  up  this  scene  from  the  night  has  brought 
him  to  her,  made  him  love  her,  and  give  unshrinking  cre- 
dence to  her  vow  never  to  question  his  name  or  origin.  Will 
she  now  wantonly  destroy  the  wondrous  spell  of  moonlight 
and  love? 

But  still  Elsa  urges  him.  "Let  me  be  flattered  by 
your  trust  and  confidence.  Your  secret  will  be  safe  in 
my  heart.      No  threats,  not  even  of  death,  shall  tear  it 


136  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

from  my  lips.  Tell  me  who  you  are  and  whence  you 
come!" 

"Elsa!"  he  cries,  "come  to  my  heart.  Let  me  feel  that 
happiness  is  mine  at  last.  Let  your  love  and  confidence 
compensate  me  for  what  I  have  left  behind  me.  Cast  dark 
suspicion  aside.  For  know,  I  came  not  hither  from  night 
and  grieving  but  from  the  abode  of  light  and  noble 
pleasures." 

But  his  words  have  the  very  opposite  effect  of  what  he 
had  hoped  for.  "Heaven  help  me!"  exclaims  Elsa. 
"What  must  I  hear!  Already  you  are  beginning  to  look 
back  with  longing  to  the  joys  you  have  given  up  for  me. 
Some  day  you  will  leave  me  to  sorrow  and  regret.  I  have 
no  magic  spells  wherewith  to  hold  you.  Ah!" — and  now 
she  cries  out  like  one  distracted  and  with  eyes  straining  at 
distance — "See! — the  swan! — I  see  him  floating  on  the 
waters  yonder!  You  summon  him,  embark! — Love — 
madness — whatever  it  may  be — your  name  declare,  your 
lineage  and  your  home!" 

Hardly  have  these  mad  words  been  spoken  by  her  when, 
as  she  stands  before  her  husband  of  a  few  hours,  she  sees 
something  that  with  a  sudden  shock  brings  her  to  her  senses. 
Rushing  to  the  divan  where  the  pages  laid  the  Knight's 
sword,  she  seizes  it  and  thrusts  it  into  his  hand,  and  he, 
turning  to  discover  what  peril  threatens,  sees  Frederick, 
followed  by  four  Brabantian  nobles,  burst  into  the  room. 
With  one  stroke  he  lays  the  leader  lifeless,  and  the  others, 
seeing  him  fall,  go  down  on  their  knees  in  token  of  submis- 
sion. At  a  sign  from  the  Knight  they  arise  and,  lifting 
Frederick's  body,  bear  it  away.  Then  the  Knight  simi- 
mons  Elsa's  ladies-in-waiting  and  bids  them  prepare  her 
in  her  richest  garments  to  meet  him  before  the  King. 
"There  I  will  make  fitting  answer  to  her  questions,  tell  her 
my  name,  my  rank,  and  whence  I  come." 

Sadly  he  watches  her  being  led  away,  while  she,  no  longer 


Richard  Wagner  137 

the  happy  bride,  but  the  picture  of  utter  dejection,  turns 
and  raises  her  hands  to  him  in  supplication  as  though  she 
would  still  implore  him  to  undo  the  ruin  her  lack  of  faith 
in  him  has  wrought. 

Some  of  the  most  beautiful  as  well  as  some  of  the  most 
dramatic  music  of  the  score  occurs  in  these  scenes. 

The  love  duet  is  exquisite — one  of  the  sweetest  and 
tenderest  passages  of  which  the  lyric  stage  can  boast. 
A  very  beautiful  musical  episode  is  that  in  which  the  Knight, 
pointing  through  the  open  casement  to  the  flowery  close 
below,  softly  illumined  by  the  moon,  sings  to  an  accom- 
paniment of  what  might  be  called  musical  moonbeams, 
"Say,  dost  thou  breathe  the  incense  sweet  of  flowers?" 
But  when,  in  spite  of  the  tender  warning  which  he  con- 
veys to  her,  she  begins  questioning  him,  he  turns  toward 
her  and  in  a  passionate  musical  phrase  begs  her  to  trust 
him  and  abide  with  him  in  loving  faith.  Her  dread  that 
the  memory  of  the  delightful  place  from  which  he  has  come 
will  wean  him  from  her;  the  wild  vision  in  which  she 
imagines  she  sees  the  swan  approaching  to  bear  him  away 
from  her,  and  when  she  puts  to  him  the  forbidden  questions, 
are  details  expressed  with  wonderful  vividness  in  the 
music. 

After  the  attack  by  Frederick  and  his  death,  there  is  a 
dramatic  silence  during  which  Elsa  sinks  on  her  husband's 
breast  and  faints.  When  I  say  silence  I  do  not  mean  that 
there  is  a  total  cessation  of  sound,  for  silence  can  be  more 
impressively  expressed  in  music  than  by  actual  silence 
itself.  It  is  done  by  Wagner  in  this  case  by  long  drawn- 
out  chords  followed  by  faint  taps  on  the  tympani.  When 
the  Knight  bends  down  to  Elsa,  raises  her,  and  gently  places 
her  on  a  couch,  echoes  of  the  love  duet  add  to  the  mourn- 
fulness  of  the  music.  The  scene  closes  with  the  Motive 
of  Warning,  which  resounds  with  dread  meaning. 

A  quick  change  of  scene  should  be  made  at  this  point 


1^8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

in  the  performance  of  the  opera,  but  as  a  rule  the  change 
takes  so  long  that  the  third  act  is  virtually  given  in  two 
-acts. 

It  is  on  the  banks  of  the  Scheldt,  the  very  spot  where 
he  had  disembarked,  that  the  Knight  elects  to  make  reply 
to  Elsa's  questions.  There  the  King,  the  nobles,  and  the 
Brabantians,  whom  he  was  to  lead,  are  awaiting  him  to 
take  command,  and  as  their  leader  they  hail  him  when  he 
appears.  This  scene,  "Promise  of  Victory,"  is  in  the  form 
of  a  brilliant  march  and  chorus,  during  which  the  Counts 
of  Brabant,  followed  by  their  vassals,  enter  on  horseback 
from  various  directions.  In  the  average  performance  of 
the  opera,  however,  much  of  it  is  sacrificed  in  order  to 
shorten  the  representation. 

The  Knight  answers  their  hail  by  telling  them  that  he 
has  come  to  bid  them  farewell,  that  Elsa  has  been  lured 
to  break  her  vow  and  ask  the  forbidden  questions  which 
he  now  is  there  to  answer.  From  distant  lands  he  came, 
from  Montsalvat,  where  stands  the  temple  of  the  Holy 
Grail,  his  father,  Percival,  its  King,  and  he,  Lohengrin,  its 
Knight.  And  now,  his  name  and  lineage  known,  he  must 
retiim,  for  the  Grail  gives  strength  to  its  knights  to  right 
wrong  and  protect  the  innocent  only  so  long  as  the  secret 
of  their  power  remains  unrevealed. 

Even  while  he  speaks  the  swan  is  seen  floating  down  the 
river.  Sadly  Lohengrin  bids  Elsa  farewell.  Sadly  all,  save 
one,  look  on.  For  Ortrud,  who  now  pushes  her  way  through 
the  spectators,  it  is  a  moment  of  triumph. 

"Depart  in  all  your  glory,"  she  calls  out.  "The  swan 
that  draws  you  away  is  none  other  than  Elsa's  brother 
Godfrey,  changed  by  my  magic  into  his  present  form. 
Had  she  kept  her  vow,  had  you  been  allowed  to  tarry,  you 
would  have  freed  him  from  my  spell.  The  ancient  gods, 
whom  faithfully  I  serve,  thus  punish  htunan  faithlessness!" 

By  the  river  bank  Lohengrin  falls  upon  his  knees  and 


Richard  Wagner  139 

prays  in  silence.  Suddenly  a  white  dove  descends  over 
the  boat.  Rising,  Lohengrin  loosens  the  golden  chain  by 
which  the  swan  is  attached  to  the  boat;  the  swan  vanishes; 
in  its  place  Godfrey  stands  upon  the  bank,  and  Lohengrin, 
entering  the  boat,  is  drawn  away  by  the  dove.  At  sight  of 
the  young  Duke,  Orlrud  falls  with  a  shriek,  while  the 
Brabantian  nobles  kneel  before  him  as  he  advances  and 
makes  obeisance  to  the  King.  Elsa  gazes  on  him  in  rap- 
ture until,  mindful  of  her  own  sorrow,  as  the  boat  in  which 
Lohengrin  stands  vanishes  around  the  upper  bend  of  the 
river,  she  cries  out,  "My  husband!  My  husband!"  and 
falls  back  in  death  in  her  brother's  arms. 

Lohengrin's  narrative  of  his  origin  is  beautifully  set  to 
music  familiar  from  the  Prelude;  but  when  he  proclaims 
his  name  we  hear  the  same  measures  which  Elsa  sang  in 
the  second  part  of  her  dream  in  the  first  act.  Very  beauti- 
ful and  tender  is  the  music  which  he  sings  when  he  hands 
Elsa  his  horn,  his  sword,  and  his  ring  to  give  to  her  brother, 
should  he  return,  and  also  his  greeting  to  the  swan  when 
it  comes  to  bear  him  back.  The  work  is  brought  to  a  close 
with  a  repetition  of  the  music  of  the  second  portion  of 
Elsa's  dream,  followed  by  a  superb  climax  with  the  Motive 
of  the  Grail. 


Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen 

THE   RING   OF   THE   NIBELUNG 

A  Stage-festival  play  for  three  days  and  a  preliminary  evening 
(Ein  Buhuenfestspiel  fur  drei  Tage  und  einen  Vorabend),  words  and 
music  by  Richard  Wagner. 

The  first  performance  of  the  entire  cycle  of  four  music-dramas  took 
place  at  Bayreuth,  August  13,  14,  16,  and  17,  1876.  "Das  Rheingold" 
had  been  given  September  22,  1869,  and  "Die  Walkurc,"  Jvme  26, 
1870,  at  Munich. 

January  30,  1888,  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York, 
"Die  Walkure"  was  given  as  the  nrst   performance   of  the  "Ring" 


140  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

in  America,  with  the  omission,  however,  of  "Das  Rheingold,"  the 
cycle  therefore  being  incomplete,  consisting  only  of  the  three  music- 
dramas — "Die  Walkure,"  "Siegfried,"  and  " Gotterdammerung " ; 
in  other  words  the  trilogy  without  the  Vorabend,  or  preliminary  evening. 

Beginning  Monday,  March  4,  1889,  with  "Das  Rheingold,"  the 
complete  cycle,  "Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen,"  was  given  for  the  first 
time  in  America;  "Die  Walkure"  following  Tuesday,  March  5;  "Sieg- 
fried," Friday,  March  8:  "  Gotterdammerimg,"  Monday,  March  11. 
The  cycle  was  immediately  repeated.  Anton  Seidl  was  the  conduc- 
tor. Among  the  principals  were  Lilli  Lehmann,  Max  Alvary,  and 
Emil  Fischer. 

Seidl  conducted  the  production  of  the  "Ring"  in  London,  under  the 
direction  of  Angelo  Neumann,  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  May  5-9, 
1882. 

The  "Ring"  really  is  a  tetralogy.  Wagner,  however,  called  it  a 
trilogy,  regarding  "Das  Rheingold"  only  as  a  Vorabend  to  the  three 
longer  music-dramas. 

In  the  repetitions  of  the  "Ring"  in  this  country  many  distinguished 
artists  have  appeared:  Lehmann,  Moran-Olden,  Nordica,  Temina, 
Fremstad,  Gadski,  Kurt,  as  Briinnhilde;  Lehmann,  Nordica,  Fames, 
Fremstad,  as  Sieglinde;  Alvary  and  Jean  de  Rezske  as  Siegfried,  both 
in  "Siegfried"  and  "Gotterdammerung";  Niemann  and  Van  Dyck, 
as  Siegmund;  Fischer  and  Van  Rooy  as  Wotan;  Schumann-Heink  and 
Homer  as  Waltraute  and  Erda. 

INTRODUCTION 

The  "Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  consists  of  four  music- 
dramas — "Das  Rheingold"  (The  Rhinegold),  "Die  Wal- 
kure "  (The  Valkyr) ,  ' '  Siegfried, "  and  "  Gotterdammerung  " 
(Dusk  of  the  Gods).  The  "books"  of  these  were  written 
in  inverse  order.  Wagner  made  a  dramatic  sketch  of  the  Ni- 
belung myth  as  early  as  the  autumn  of  18^8,  and  between 
then  and  the  autvmin  of  1850  he  wrote  the  "Death  of 
Siegfried."  This  subsequently  became  the  "Dusk  of  the 
Gods."  Meanwhile  Wagner's  ideas  as  to  the  proper 
treatment  of  the  mjiih  seem  to  have  undergone  a  change. 
"Siegfried's  Death"  ended  with  Brunnhilde  leading  Sieg- 
fried to  Valhalla, — dramatic,  but  without  the  deeper  ethical 
gignificance  of  the  later  vision,  when  Wagner  evidently 


Richard  Wagner  141 

conceived  the  purpose  of  connecting  the  final  catastrophe 
of  his  tiilogy  with  the  "  Dusk  of  the  Gods,"  or  end  of  all 
things,  in  Northern  mythology,  and  of  embodying  a  pro- 
found truth  in  the  action  of  the  music-dramas.  This 
metaphysical  significance  of  the  work  is  believed  to  be 
sufficiently  explained  in  the  brief  synopsis  of  the  plot  of 
the  trilogy  and  in  the  descriptive  musical  and  dramatic 
analyses  below. 

In  the  autimin  of  1850  when  Wagner  was  on  the  point 
of  sketching  out  the  music  of  "Siegfried's  Death,"  he 
recognized  that  he  must  lead  up  to  it  with  another  drama, 
and  "Young  Siegfried,"  afterwards  "Siegfried,"  was  the 
result.  This  in  turn  he  found  incomplete,  and  finally 
decided  to  supplement  it  with  the  "Valkyr"  and  "Rhine- 
gold." 

"Das  Rheingold"  was  produced  in  Munich,  at  the  Court 
Theatre,  September  22,  1869;  "Die  Walkure,"  on  the 
same  stage,  June  20,  1870.  "Siegfried"  and  "Dusk  of 
the  Gods"  were  not  performed  until  1876,  when  they  were 
produced  at  Bayreuth. 

Of  the  principal  characters  in  the  "Ring  of  the  Nibelung," 
Alberich,  the  Nibelung,  and  Wotan,  the  chief  of  the  gods, 
are  symbolic  of  greed  for  wealth  and  power.  This  lust 
leads  Alberich  to  renounce  love — the  most  sacred  of  emo- 
tions— in  order  that  he  may  rob  the  Rhinedaughters  of 
the  Rhinegold  and  forge  from  it  the  ring  which  is  to  make 
him  all-powerful.  Wotan  by  strategy  obtains  the  ring, 
but  instead  of  returning  it  to  the  Rhinedaughters,  he  gives 
it  to  the  giants,  Fafner  and  Fasolt,  as  ransom  for  Frela,  the 
goddess  of  youth  and  beauty,  whom  he  had  promised  to 
the  giants  as  a  reward  for  building  Walhalla.  Alberich 
has  ctu"sed  the  ring  and  all  into  whose  possession  it  may 
come.  The  giants  no  sooner  obtain  it  than  they  fall  to 
quarrelling  over  it.  Fafner  slays  Fasolt  and  then  retires 
to  a  cave  in  the  heart  of  a  forest  where,  in  the  form  of  a 


142  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

dragon,  he  guards  the  ring  and  the  rest  of  the  treasure 
which  Woian  wrested  from  Alberich  and  also  gave  to  the 
giants  as  ransom  for  Freia.  This  treasure  inchides  the 
Tarnhehnet,  a  helmet  made  of  Rhinegold,  the  wearer  of 
which  can  assume  any  guise. 

Wotan  having  witnessed  the  slaying  of  Fasolt,  is  filled 
with  dread  lest  the  curse  of  Alberich  be  visited  upon  the 
gods.  To  defend  Walhalla  against  the  assaults  of  Alberich 
and  the  host  of  Nibelungs,  he  begets  in  union  with  Erda, 
the  goddess  of  wisdom,  the  Valkyrs  (chief  among  them 
Brilnnhilde),  wild  maidens  who  course  through  the  air  on 
superb  chargers  and  bear  the  bodies  of  departed  heroes 
to  Walhalla,  where  they  revive  and  aid  the  gods  in  warding 
off  the  attacks  of  the  Nibelungs.  But  it  is  also  necessary 
that  the  curse-laden  ring  should  be  wrested  from  Fafner  and 
restored  through  purely  unselfish  motives  to  the  Rhine- 
daughters,  and  the  curse  thus  lifted  from  the  race  of  the 
gods.  None  of  the  gods  can  do  this  because  their  motive 
in  doing  so  would  not  be  unselfish.  Hence  Wotan,  for  a 
time,  casts  off  his  divinity,  and  in  human  disguise  as  Walse, 
begets  in  union  with  a  human  woman  the  Walsung  twins, 
Siegmimd  and  Sieglinde.  Siegmund  he  hopes  will  be  the 
hero  who  will  slay  Fafner  and  restore  the  ring  to  the  Rhine- 
daughters.  To  nerve  him  for  this  task,  Wotan  surrounds 
the  Walsungs  with  numerous  hardships.  Sieglinde  is 
forced  to  become  the  wife  of  her  robber.  Handing.  Sieg- 
mund, storm-driven,  seeks  shelter  in  Handing  s  hut,  where 
he  and  his  sister,  recognizing  one  another,  flee  together. 
Hunding  overtakes  them  and  Wotan,  as  Siegmund  has  been 
guilty  of  a  crime  against  the  marriage  vow,  is  obliged,  at 
the  request  of  his  spouse  Fricka,  the  Juno  of  Northern 
mythology,  to  give  victory  to  Hunding.  Brunnhilde, 
contrary  to  Wotan's  command,  takes  pity  on  Siegmund, 
and  seeks  to  shield  him  against  Hunding.  For  this,  Wotan 
causes  her  to  fall  into  a  profound  slumber.     The  hero  who 


Richard  Wagner  143 

will  penetrate  the  barrier  of  fire  with  which  Wctan  has 
surrounded  the  rock  upon  which  she  slumbers  can  claim  her 
as  his  bride. 

After  Siegmtmd's  death  SiegUnde  gives  birth  to  Siegfried, 
a  son  of  their  illicit  xmion,  who  is  reared  by  one  of  the 
Nibelungs,  Mime,  in  the  forest  where  Fafner  guards  the 
Nibelung  treasure.  Mime  is  seeking  to  weld  the  pieces  of 
Siegmund's  sword  (Nothung  or  Needful)  in  order  that 
Siegfried  may  slay  Fafner,  Mime  hoping  then  to  kill  the 
youth  and  to  possess  himself  of  the  treasure.  But  he 
cannot  weld  the  sword.  At  last  Siegfried,  learning  that 
it  was  his  father's,  weapon,  welds  the  pieces  and  slays 
Fafner.  His  lips  having  come  in  contact  with  his  bloody 
fingers,  he  is,  through  the  magic  power  of  the  dragon's 
blood,  enabled  to  tmderstand  the  language  of  the  birds, 
and  a  little  feathery  songster  warns  him  of  Mime's  treachery. 
Siegfried  slays  the  Nibelung  and  is  then  guided  to  the  fiery 
barrier  around  the  Valkyr  rock.  Penetrating  this,  he 
comes  upon  Brunnhilde,  and  enraptured  with  her  beauty, 
awakens  her  and  claims  her  as  his  bride.  She,  the  virgin 
pride  of  the  goddess,  yielding  to  the  love  of  the  woman, 
gives  herself  up  to  him.  He  plights  his  troth  with  the 
curse-laden  ring  which  he  has  wrested  from  Fafner. 

Siegfried  goes  forth  in  quest  of  adventure.  On  the 
Rhine  lives  the  Gibichung  Gunther,  his  sister  Gutrune  and 
their  half-brother  Hagen,  none  other  than  the  son  of  the 
Nibelung  Alberich.  Hagen,  knowing  of  Siegfried's  coming, 
plans  his  destruction  in  order  to  regain  the  ring  for  the 
Nibelungs.  Therefore,  craftily  concealing  Briinnhilde' s 
and  Siegfried's  relations  from  Gunther,  he  incites  a  longing 
in  the  latter  to  possess  Briinnhilde  as  his  bride.  Carrying 
out  a  plot  evolved  by  Hagen,  Gutrune  on  Siegfried's  arrival 
presents  to  him  a  drinking-horn  filled  with  a  love-potion. 
Siegfried  drinks,  is  led  through  the  effect  of  the  potion  to 
forget  that  Briinnhilde  is  his  bride,  and,  becoming  enam- 


144  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

cured  of  Gutrune,  asks  her  in  marriage  of  Gunther.  The 
latter  consents,  provided  Siegfried  will  disguise  himself 
in  the  Tarnhelmet  as  Gunther  and  lead  Briinnhilde  to  him 
as  bride.  Siegfried  readily  agrees,  and  in  the  guise  of 
Gunther  overcomes  Briinnhilde  and  delivers  her  to  the 
Gibichung.  But  Briinnhilde,  recognizing  on  Siegfried 
the  ring,  which  her  conquerer  had  drawn  from  her  finger, 
accuses  him  of  treachery  in  delivering  her,  his  own  bride, 
to  Gunther.  The  latter,  unmasked  and  also  suspicious  of 
Siegfried,  conspires  with  Hagen  and  Briinnhilde,  who, 
knowing  naught  of  the  love-potion,  is  roused  to  a  frenzy 
of  hate  and  jealousy  by  Siegfried's  seeming  treachery,  to 
compass  the  young  hero's  death.  Hagen  slays  Siegfried 
during  a  hunt,  and  then  in  a  quarrel  with  Gunther  over  the 
ring  also  kills  the  Gibichung. 

Meanwhile  Briinnhilde  has  learned  through  the  BJiine- 
daughters  of  the  treachery  of  which  she  and  Siegfried  have 
been  the  victims.  All  her  jealous  hatred  of  Siegfried 
yields  to  her  old  love  for  him  and  a  passionate  yearning  to 
join  him  in  death.  She  draws  the  ring  from  his  finger 
and  places  it  on  her  own,  then  hurls  a  torch  upon  the  pyre. 
Mounting  her  steed,  she  plunges  into  the  flames.  One  of 
the  Rhinedaughters,  swimming  in  on  the  rising  waters, 
seizes  the  curse-laden  ring.  Hagen  rushes  into  the  flooding 
Rhine  hoping  to  regain  it,  but  the  other  EJiine daughters 
grasp  him  and  draw  him  down  into  the  flood.  Not  only 
the  flames  of  the  pyre,  but  a  glow  which  perv^ades  the  whole 
horizon  illumine  the  scene.  It  is  Walhalla  being  consumed 
by  fire.  Through  love — the  very  emotion  Alberich  re- 
nounced in  order  to  gain  wealth  and  power — Briinnhilde 
has  caused  the  old  order  of  things  to  pass  away  and  a 
human  era  to  dawn  in  place  of  the  old  mythological  one  of 
the  gods. 

The  sum  of  all  that  has  been  written  concerning  the  book 
of  "The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  is  probably  larger  than  the 


Richard  Wagner  145 

sum  of  all  that  has  been  written  concerning  the  librettos 
used  by  all  other  composers.  What  can  be  said  of  the 
ordinary  opera  libretto  beyond  Voltaire's  remark  that 
"what  is  too  stupid  to  be  spoken  is  sung"?  *  But  "The 
Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  produced  vehement  discussion.  It 
was  attacked  and  defended,  praised  and  ridiculed,  extolled" 
and  condemned.  And  it  survived  all  the  discussion  it 
called  forth.  It  is  the  outstanding  fact  in  Wagner's  career 
that  he  always  triumphed.  He  threw  his  lance  into  the 
midst  of  his  enemies  and  fought  his  way  up  to  it.  No  mat- 
ter how  much  opposition  his  music-dramas  excited,  they 
gradually  found  their  way  into  the  repertoire. 

It  was  contended  on  many  sides  that  a  book  like  "The 
Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  could  not  be  set  to  music.  Cer- 
tainly it  could  not  be  after  the  fashion  of  an  ordinary  opera. 
Perhaps  people  were  so  accustomed  to  the  books  of  non- 
sense which  figtued  as  opera  librettos  that  they  thought 
"The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  was  so  great  a  work  that  its 
action  and  climaxes  were  beyond  the  scope  of  musical  ex- 
pression. For  such,  Wagner  has  placed  music  on  a  higher 
level.  He  has  showTi  that  music  makes  a  great  drama 
greater. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  featvu-es  of  Wagner's  works 
is  the  author's  complete  absorption  of  the  times  of  which 
he  wrote.  He  seems  to  have  gone  back  to  the  very  period 
in  which  the  scenes  of  his  music  dramas  are  laid  and  to  have 
himself  lived  through  the  events  in  his  plots.  Hans  Sachs 
could  not  have  left  a  more  faithful  portrayal  of  life  in  the 
Nuremberg  of  his  day  than  Wagner  has  given  us  in  "Die 
Meistersinger."  In  "The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  he  has 
done  more — he  has  absorbed  an  imaginary  epoch;  lived 
over  the  days  of  gods  and  demigods;  infused  life  into 
mjrthological  figures.  "The  Rhinegold, "  which  is  full  of 
varied  interest  from  its  first  note  to  its  last,  deals  entirely 
with  beings  of  mythology.     They  are  presented  true  to 


146  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

life — ^if  that  expression  may  be  used  in  connection  with 
beings  that  never  lived — that  is  to  say,  they  are  so  vividly 
drawn  that  we  forget  such  beings  never  lived,  and  take  as 
much  interest  in  their  doings  and  saying  as  if  they  were 
lifelike  reproductions  of  historical  characters.  Was  there 
ever  a  love  scene  more  thrilling  than  that  between  Siegmund 
and  Sieglinde?  It  represents  the  gradations  of  the  love 
of  two  souls  from  its  first  awakening  to  its  rapturous  greet- 
ing in  full  self-consciousness.  No  one  stops  to  think  dur- 
ing that  impassioned  scene  that  the  close  relationship 
between  Siegmund  and  Sieglinde  would  in  these  days  have 
been  a  bar  to  their  legal  union.  For  all  we  know,  in  those 
moments  when  the  impassioned  music  of  that  scene  whirls 
us  away  in  its  resistless  current,  not  a  drop  of  related  blood 
courses  through  their  veins.  It  has  been  said  that  we  could 
not  be  interested  in  mythological  beings — that  "The  Ring 
of  the  Nibelung "  lacked  human  interest.  In  reply,  I  say 
that  wonderful  as  is  the  first  act  of  "The  Valkyr,"  there 
is  nothing  in  it  to  compare  in  wild  and  lofty  beauty  with 
the  last  act  of  that  music-drama — especially  the  scene 
between  Brunnhilde  and  Wotan. 

That  there  are  faults  of  dramatic  construction  in  "The 
Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  I  admit.  In  what  follows  I  have 
not  hesitated  to  point  them  out.  But  there  are  faults  of 
construction  in  Shakespeare.  What  would  be  the  critical 
verdict  if  "Hamlet"  were  now  to  have  its  first  perform- 
ance in  the  exact  form  in  which  Shakespeare  left  it?  With 
all  its  faults  of  dramatic  construction  "The  Ring  of  the 
Nibelung"  is  a  remarkable  drama,  full  of  life  and  action 
and  logically  developed,  the  events  leading  up  to  superb 
climaxes.  Wagner  was  doubly  inspired.  He  was  both 
a  great  dramativSt  and  a  great  musician. 

The  chief  faults  of  dramatic  construction  of  which 
Wagner  was  guilty  in  "The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  are 
certain  unduly  prolonged  scenes  which  are  merely  episodi- 


Richard  Wagner  147 

cal — that  is,  unnecessary  to  the  development  of  the  plot 
so  that  they  delay  the  action  and  weary  the  audience  to 
a  point  which  endangers  the  success  of  the  really  sublime 
portions  of  the  score.  In  several  of  these  scenes,  there  is 
a  great  amount  of  narrative,  the  story  of  events  with 
which  we  have  become  familiar  being  retold  in  detail  al- 
though some  incidents  which  connect  the  plot  of  the  parti- 
cular music-drama  with  that  of  the  preceding  one  are  also 
related.  But,  as  narrative  on  the  stage  makes  little  im- 
pression, and,  when  it  is  sung  perhaps  none  at  all,  because 
it  cannot  be  well  understood,  it  would  seem  as  if  prefaces 
to  the  dramas  could  have  taken  the  place  of  these  nar- 
ratives. Certain  it  is  that  these  long  drawn-out  scenes 
did  more  to  retard  the  popular  recognition  of  Wagner's 
genius  than  the  activity  of  hostile  critics  and  musicians. 
Still,  it  shoidd  be  remembered  that  these  music-dramas 
were  composed  for  performance  under  the  circumstances 
which  prevail  at  Bayreuth,  where  the  performances  begin 
in  the  afternoon  and  there  are  long  waits  between  the 
acts,  during  which  you  can  refresh  yourself  by  a  stroll  or 
by  the  more  mundane  pleasures  of  the  table.  Then,  after 
an  hour's  relaxation  of  the  mind  and  of  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing, you  are  ready  to  hear  another  act.  Under  these 
agreeable  conditions  one  remains  sufficiently  fresh  to  enjoy 
the  music  even  of  the  dramatically  faulty  scenes. 

One  of  the  characters  in  "The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung," 
Brtinnhilde,  is  Wagner's  noblest  creation.  She  takes 
upon  herself  the  sins  of  the  gods  and  by  her  expiation  frees 
the  world  from  the  curse  of  lust  for  wealth  and  power.  She 
is  a  perfect  dramatic  incarnation  of  the  profound  and 
beautiful  metaphysical  motive  upon  which  the  plot  of 
"The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  is  based. 

There  now  follow  descriptive  accounts  of  the  stories  and 
music  of  the  four  component  parts  of  this  work  by  Wagner 
— perhaps  his  greatest. 


148  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Das  Rheingold 

THE   RHINEGOLD 

Prologue  in  foxir  scenes  to  the  trilogy  of  music-dramas.  "The  Ring 
of  the  Nibelung,"  by  Richard  Wagner.  "Das  Rheingold"  was  pro- 
duced, Munich,  September  22,  1869.  "  The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  was 
given  complete  for  the  first  time  in  the  Wagner  Theatre,  Bayreuth,  in 
August,  1876.  In  the  first  American  performance  of  "Das  Rheingold," 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York,  January  4,  1889,  Fischer  was 
Wotan,  Alvary  Loge,  Moran-Oldem  Fricka,  and  Kati  Bettaque  Freia. 

Characters 

Wotan   | Baritone-Bass 

DoNNER  I    Gods Baritone-Bass 

Froh       I Tenor 

Loge      J Tenor 

Fasolt  )     Giants Baritone-Bass 

Fafner  I  Bass 

Alberich  )     js^ibeiungs Baritone-Bass 

Mime        )  Tenor 

Fricka  "l  Soprano 

Freia     [    Goddesses     Soprano 

Erda      j  Mezzo-Soprano 

WoGLiNDE    1  Soprano 

Wellgunde  i  /^""^^"    Soprano 

Flosshilde  J  daughters Mezzo-Soprano 

Time — Legendary.  Place — The  bed  of  the  Rhine;  a  mountainous 

district  near  the  Rhine;  the  subterranean 
caverns  of  Nibelheim. 

In  "The  Rhinegold"  we  meet  with  supernatural  beings 
of  German  mythology — the  Rhinedaughters  Woglinde, 
Wellgunde,  and  Flosshilde,  whose  duty  it  is  to  guard  the 
precious  Rhinegold;  Wotan,  the  chief  of  the  gods;  his 
spouse  Fricka;  Loge,  the  God  of  Fire  (the  diplomat  of  Wal- 
halla);  Frein,  the  Goddess  of  Youth  and  Beauty;  her 
brothers  Donner  and  Froh;  Erda,  the  all-wise  woman; 
the  giants  Fafner  and  Fasolt;    Alberich  and  Mime  of  the 


Richard  Wagner 


149 


race  of  Nibelungs,  cunning,  treacherous  gnomes  who  dwell 
in  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 

The  first  scene  of  "Rhinegold"  is  laid  in  the  Rhine,  at 
the  bottom  of  the  river,  where  the  Rhinedaughters  guard 
the  Rhinegold. 

The  work  opens  with  a  wonderfully  descriptive  Prelude, 
which  depicts  with  marvellous  art  (marvellous  because  so 
simple)  the  transition  from  the  quietude  of  the  water- 
depths  to  the  wavy  life  of  the  Rhinedaughters .  The  double 
basses  intone  E  flat.  Only  this  note  is  heard  during  four 
bars.  Then  three  contra  bassoons  add  a  B  flat.  The 
chord,  thus  formed,  sounds  until  the  136th  bar.  With  the 
sixteenth  bar  there  flows  over  this  seemingly  immovable 
triad,  as  the  current  of  a  river  flows  over  its  immovable 
bed,  the  Motive  of  the  Rhine. 


A  horn  intones  this  motive.  Then  one  horn  after  an- 
other takes  it  up  until  its  wave-like  tones  are  heard  on  the 
eight  horns.  On  the  flowing  accompaniment  of  the  'cellos 
the  motive  is  carried  to  the  wood- wind.  It  rises  higher 
and  higher,  the  other  strings  successively  joining  in  the 
accompaniment,  which  now  flows  on  in  gentle  undulations 
until  the  motive  is  heard  on  the  high  notes  of  the  wood- wind, 
while  the  violins  have  joined  in  the  accompaniment.  When 
the  theme  thus  seems  to  have  stirred  the  waters  from  their 
depth  to  their  surface  the  curtain  rises. 

The  scene  shows  the  bed  and  flowing  waters  of  the  Rhine, 
the  light  of  day  reaching  the  depths  only  as  a  greenish 
twilight.  The  current  flows  on  over  rugged  rocks  and 
through  dark  chasms. 


150  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Woglinde  is  circling  gracefully  around  the  central  ridge 
of  rock.  To  an  accompaniment  as  wavy  as  the  waters 
through  which  she  swims,  she  sings : 

Weia!  Waga!  Woge,  du  Welle, 
Walle  zur  Wiege!  Wagala  weia! 
Wallala,  Weiala  weia! 

They  are  sung  to  the  Motive  of  the  Rhinedaughters. 

*J        W»i4    I«d95!      Wo-9«,  du  WeM« .    t»*l-l«  jur  Wiejt!  Wd^-U.im-o!    wol-U-U.wiij.  U     wri.  «!.. 

In  wavy  sport  the  Rhinedaughters  dart  from  cliff  to  cliff. 
Meanwhile  Alherich  has  clambered  from  the  depths  up  to 
one  of  the  cliffs,  and  watches,  while  standing  in  its  shadow, 
the  gambols  of  the  Rhinedaughters.  As  he  speaks  to  them 
there  is  a  momentary  harshness  in  the  music,  whose  flowing 
rhythm  is  broken.  In  futile  endeavours  to  clamber  up  to 
them,  he  inveighs  against  the  "slippery  slime"  which 
causes  him  to  lose  his  foothold. 

Woglinde,  Wellgunde,  and  Flosshilde  in  turn  gambol  al- 
most within  his  reach,  only  to  dart  away  again.  He  curses 
his  own  weakness  in  the  Motive  of  the  Nibelungs'  Servitude. 


Swimming  high  above  him  the  Rhinedaughters  incite 
him  with  gleeful  cries  to  chase  them.  Alherich  tries  to 
ascend,  but  always  slips  and  falls  down.  Then  his  gaze  is 
attracted  and  held  by  a  glow  which  suddenly  pervades 
the  waves  above  him  and  increases  until  from  the  highest 
point  of  the  central  cliff  a  bright,  golden  ray  shoots  through 
the  water.  Amid  the  shimmering  accompaniment  of  the 
violins  is  heard  on  the  horn  the  Rhinegold  Motive. 


Richard  Wagner 


3^' 


With  shouts  of  trimnph  the  Rhinedaughters  swim  around 
the  rock.  Their  cry  "  Rhinegold, "  is  a  characteristic 
motive.  The  Rhinedaughters'  Shout  of  Triumph  and  the 
accompaniment  to  it  are  as  follows: 


As  the  river  glitters  with  golden  light  the  Rhinegold 
Motive  rings  out  brilliantly  on  the  trumpet.  The  Nibelung 
is  fascinated  by  the  sheen.  The  Rhinedaughters  gossip  with 
one  another,  and  Alberich  thus  learns  that  the  light  is  that 
of  the  Rhinegold,  and  that  whoever  shall  shape  a  ring 
from  this  gold  will  become  invested  with  great  power.  We 
hear  The  Ring  Motive. 


Flosshilde  bids  her  sisters  cease  their  prattle,  lest  some 
sinister  foe  should  overhear  them.  Wellgunde  and  Woglinde 
ridicule  their  sister's  anxiety,  saying  that  no  one  would  care 
to  filch  the  gold,  because  it  would  give  power  only  to  him 
who  abjures  or  renounces  love.  At  this  point  is  heard  the 
darkly  prophetic  Motive  of  the  Rentmciation  of  Love. 


^.  J  J' J'  I 'I  f.,r^^^ 


■    Alberich  reflects  on  the  words  of  the  Rhinedaughters. 
The  Ring  Motive  occurs  both  in  voice  and  orchestra  in 


152  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

mysterious  pianissimo  (like  an  echo  of  Alberich's  sinister 
thoughts),  and  is  followed  by  the  Motive  of  Renunciation. 
Then  is  heard  the  sharp,  decisive  rhythm  of  the  Nibelung 
Motive.  Alberich  fiercely  springs  over  to  the  central 
rock.  The  Rhinedaughters  scream  and  dart  away  in  differ- 
ent directions.  Alberich  has  reached  the  summit  of  the 
highest  cliff. 

"Hark,  ye  floods!  Love  I  renounce  forever!"  he  cries, 
and  amid  the  crash  of  the  Rhinegold  Motive  he  seizes  the 
gold  and  disappears  in  the  depths.  With  screams  of  ter- 
ror the  Rhinedaughters  dive  after  the  robber  through  the 
darkened  water,  guided  by  Alberich' s  shrill,  mocking 
laugh. 

There  is  a  transformation.  Waters  and  rocks  sink. 
As  they  disappear,  the  billowy  accompaniment  sinks 
lower  and  lower  in  the  orchestra.  Above  it  rises  once  more 
the  Motive  of  Renunciation.  The  Ring  Motive  is  heard, 
and  then,  as  the  waves  change  into  nebulous  clouds,  the 
billowy  accompaniment  rises  pianissimo  until,  with  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  Ring  Motive,  the  action  passes  to  the  second 
scene.  One  crime  has  already  been  committed — the  theft 
of  the  Rhinegold  by  Alberich.  How  that  crime  and  the 
ring  which  he  shapes  from  the  gold  inspire  other  crimes  is 
told  in  the  course  of  the  following  scenes  of  "Rhinegold." 
Hence  the  significance  of  the  Ring  Motive  as  a  connecting 
link  between  the  first  and  second  scenes. 

Scene  H.  Dawn  illumines  a  castle  with  glittering  tur- 
rets on  a  rocky  height  at  the  back.  Through  a  deep  valley 
between  this  and  the  foreground  flows  the  Rhine. 

The  Walhalla  Motive  new  heard  is  a  motive  of  superb 
beauty.  It  greets  us  again  and  again  in  "Rhinegold" 
and  frequently  in  the  later  music-dramas  of  the  cycle. 
Walhalla  is  the  abode  of  gods  and  heroes.  Its  motive  is 
divinely,  heroically  beautiful.  Though  essentially  broad 
and  stately,   it  often  asstmies  a  tender  mood,   like  the 


Richard  Wagner 


153 


chivalric  gentleness  which  every  hero  feels  toward  woman. 
Thus  it  is  here.  In  crescendo  and  decrescendo  it  rises  and 
falls,  as  rises  and  falls  with  each  breath  the  bosom  of  the 
beautiful  Fricka,  who  slumbers  at  Wotati's  side. 


As  Fricka  awakens,  her  eyes  fall  on  the  castle.  In  her 
surprise  she  calls  to  her  spouse.  Wotan  dreams  on,  the 
Ring  Motive,  and  later  the  Walhalla  Motive,  being  heard 
in  the  orchestra,  for  with  the  ring  Wotan  is  planning  to 
compensate  the  giants  for  building  Walhalla,  instead  of 
rewarding  them  by  presenting  Freia  to  them  as  he  has  pro- 
mised. As  he  opens  his  eyes  and  sees  the  castle  you  hear 
the  Spear  Motive,  which  is  a  characteristic  variation  of 
the  Motive  of  Compact.  For  Wotan  should  enforce,  if 
needful,  the  compacts  of  the  gods  with  his  spear. 

Wotan  sings  of  the  glory  of  Walhalla.  Fricka  reminds 
him  of  his  compact  with  the  giants  to  deliver  over  to  them 
for  their  work  in  building  Walhalla,  Freia,  the  Goddess  of 
Youth  and  Beauty.  This  introduces  on  the  'cellos  and 
double  basses  the  Motive  of  Compact,  a  theme  expressive 
of  the  binding  force  of  law  and  with  the  inherent  dignity 
and  power  of  the  sense  of  justice. 


In  a  domestic  spat  between  Wotan  and  Fricka,  Wotan 
charges  that  she  was  as  anxious  as  he  to  have  Walhalla 
built.  Fricka  answers  that  she  desired  to  have  it  erected 
in  order  to  persuade  him  to  lead  a  more  domestic  life. 
At  Fricka' s  words, 

"Halls,  bright  and  gleaming," 


154 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


the  Fricka   Motive  is  heard,  a  caressing  motive  of  much 
fjrace  and  beautv. 


It  is  also  prominent  in  Wotan's  reply  immediately  fol- 
lowing. Wotan  tells  Fricka  that  he  never  intended  to 
really  give  up  Freia  to  the  giants.  Chromatics,  like  little 
tongues  of  flame,  appear  in  the  accompaniment.  They  are 
suggestive  of  the  Loge  Motive,  for  with  the  aid  of  Lege 
the  God  of  Fire,  Wotan  hopes  to  trick  the  giants  and  save 
Freia. 

"Then  save  her  at  once!"  calls  Fricka,  as  Freia  enters 
in  hasty  flight.     The  Motive  of  Flight  is  as  follows: 


The  following  is  the  Freia  Motive : 

Jh 


With  Freia' s  exclamations  that  the  giants  are  pursuing 
her,  the  first  suggestion  of  the  Giant  Motive  appears  and 
as  these  "great,  hulking  fellows"  enter,  the  heavy,  clumsy 
Giant  Motive  is  heard  in  its  entirety: 


For  the  giants,  Fasolt,  and  Fafner,  have  come  to  demand 
that  Wotan  deliver  up  to  them  Freia,  according  to  his  promise 
when  they  agreed  to  build  Walhalla  for  him.  In  the 
ensuing  scene,  in  which  Wotan  parleys  with  the  Giants, 
the  Giant  Motive,  the  Walhalla  Motive,  the  Motive  of 


Richard  Wagner 


155 


the  Compact,  and  the  first  bar  of  the  Freia  Motive  figure 
until  FasoU's  threatening  words, 

"Peace  wane  when  you  break  your  compact," 

when  there  is  heard  a  version  of  the  Motive  of  Compact 
characteristic  enough  to  be  distinguished  as  the  Motive 
of  Compact  Mrith  the  Giants: 


The  Walhalla,  Giant,  and  Freia  motives  again  are  heard 
tmtil  Fajner  speaks  of  the  golden  apples  which  grow  in 
Freia's  garden.  These  golden  apples  are  the  fruit  of  which 
the  gods  partake  in  order  to  enjoy  eternal  youth.  The 
Motive  of  Eternal  Youth,  which  now  appears,  is  one  of  the 
loveliest  in  the  cycle.  It  seems  as  though  age  could  not 
wither  it,  nor  custom  stale  its  infinite  variety.  Its  first 
bar  is  reminiscent  of  the  Ring  Motive,  for  there  is  subtle 
relationship  between  the  Golden  Apples  of  Freia  and  the 
Rhinegold.     Here  is  the  Motive  of  Eternal  Youth : 


It  is  finely  combined  with  the  Giant  Motive  at  Fafner's 
words : 

"Let  her  forthwith  be  torn  from  them  all." 

Froh  and  Donner,  Freia's  brothers,  enter  hastily  to  save 
their  sister.  Froh  clasps  her  in  his  arms,  while  Donner 
confronts  the  giants,  the  Motive  of  Eternal  Youth  rings 
out  triumphantly  on  the  horns  and  wood- wind.  But  Freia's 
hope  is  short-lived.  For  though  Wotan  desires  to  keep 
Freia  in  Walhalla,  he  dare  not  offend  the  giants.     At  this 


156 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


critical   moment,    however,   he  sees  his  cunning  adviser, 
Loge,  approaching.    These  are  Loge's  characteristic  motives: 


Wotan  upbraids  Loge  for  not  having  discovered  some- 
thing which  the  giants  would  be  willing  to  accept  as  a 
substitute  for  Freia.  Loge  says  he  has  travelled  the  world 
over  without  finding  aught  that  would  compensate  man 
for  the  renunciation  of  a  lovely  woman.  This  leads  to 
Loge's  narrative  of  his  wanderings.  With  great  cunning 
he  tells  Wotan  of  the  theft  of  the  Rhinegold  and  of  the 
wondrous  worth  of  a  ring  shaped  from  the  gold.  Thus  he 
incites  the  listening  giants  to  ask  for  it  as  a  compensation 
for  giving  up  Freia.  Hence  Wagner,  as  Loge  begins  his 
narrative,  has  blended,  with  a  marvellous  sense  of  musical 
beauty  and  dramatic  fitness,  two  phrases:  the  Freia  Motive 
and  the  accompaniment  to  the  Rhinedaughters'  Shout  of 
Triumph  in  the  first  scene.  This  music  continues  until 
Loge  says  that  he  discovered  but  one  person  (Alberich) 
who  was  willing  to  renounce  love.  Then  the  Rhinegold 
Motive  is  sounded  tristly  in  a  minor  key  and  immediately 
afterward  is  heard  the  Motive  of  Renunciation. 

Loge  next  tells  how  Alberich  stole  the  gold.  He  has 
already  excited  the  curiosity  of  the  giants,  and  when 
Fafner  asks  him  what  power  Alberich  will  gain  through  the 
possession  of  the  gold,  he  dwells  upon  the  magical  attri- 
butes of  the  ring  shaped  from  Rhinegold. 


Richard  Wagner  157 

Loge's  diplomacy  is  beginning  to  bear  results.  Fafner 
tells  Fasolt  that  he  deems  the  possession  of  the  gold  more 
important  than  Freia.  Notice  here  how  the  Freia  motive, 
so  prominent  when  the  giants  insisted  on  her  as  their 
compensation,  is  relegated  to  the  bass  and  how  the  Rhine- 
gold  Motive  breaks  in  upon  the  Motive  of  Eternal  Youth, 
as  Fafner  and  Fasolt  again  advance  toward  Wotan,  and  bid 
him  wrest  the  gold  from  Alherich  and  give  it  to  them  as 
ransom  for  Freia.  Wotan  refuses,  for  he  himself  now  lusts 
for  the  ring  made  of  Rhinegold.  The  giants  having 
proclaimed  that  they  will  give  Wotan  until  evening  to 
determine  upon  his  course,  seize  Freia  and  drag  her  away. 
Pallor  now  settles  upon  the  faces  of  the  gods;  they  seem  to 
have  grown  older.  They  are  affected  by  the  absence  of 
Freia,  the  Goddess  of  Youth,  whose  motives  are  but  palely 
reflected  by  the  orchestra.  At  last  Wotan  proclaims  that 
he  will  go  with  Loge  to  Nibelung  and  wrest  the  en- 
tire treasure  of  Rhinegold  from  Alberich  as  ransom  for 
Freia. 

Loge  disappears  down  a  crevice  in  the  side  of  the  rock. 
From  it  a  sulphurous  vapour  at  once  issues.  When  Wotan 
has  followed  Loge  into  the  cleft  the  vapour  fills  the  stage 
and  conceals  the  remaining  characters.  The  vapours 
thicken  to  a  black  cloud,  continually  rising  upward  until 
rocky  chasms  are  seen.  These  have  an  upward  motion, 
so  that  the  stage  appears  to  be  sinking  deeper  and  deeper. 
With  a  moUo  vivace  the  orchestra  dashes  into  the  Motive 
of  Flight.  From  various  distant  points  ruddy  gleams  of 
light  illumine  the  chasms,  and  when  the  Flight  Motive 
has  died  away,  only  the  increasing  clangour  of  the  smithies 
is  heard  from  all  directions.  This  is  the  typical  Nibelung 
Motive,  characteristic  of  Alberich's  Nibelungs  toiling  at 
the  anvil  for  him.     Gradually  the  sounds  grow  fainter. 


158  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Then  as  the  Ring  Motive  resounds  like  a  shout  of  malicious 
triumph  (expressive  of  Alberich's  malignant  joy  at  his 
possession  of  power),  there  is  seen  a  subterranean  cavern, 
apparently  of  illimitable  depth,  from  which  narrow  shafts 
lead  in  all  directions. 

Scene  III.  Alherich  enters  from  a  side  cleft  dragging 
after  him  the  shrieking  Mime.  The  latter  lets  fall  a 
helmet  which  Alherich  at  once  seizes.  It  is  the  Tarn- 
helmet,  made  of  Rhinegold,  the  wearing  of  which  enables 
the  wearer  to  become  invisible  or  assume  any  shape.  As 
Alherich  closely  examines  the  helmet  the  Motive  of  the 
Tamhelmet  is  heard. 


It  is  mysterious,  uncanny.  To  test  its  power  Alherich 
puts  it  on  and  changes  into  a  column  of  vapour.  He  asks 
Mime  if  he  is  visible,  and  when  Mime  answers  in  the  nega- 
tive Alherich  cries  out  shrilly,  "Then  feel  me  instead," 
at  the  same  time  making  poor  Mime  writhe  under  the 
blows  of  a  visible  scourge.  Alherich  then  departs — still 
in  the  form  of  a  vaporous  coltmin — to  announce  to  the 
Nihelungs  that  they  are  henceforth  his  slavish  subjects. 
Mime  cowers  down  with  fear  and  pain. 

Wotan  and  Loge  enter  from  one  of  the  upper  shafts. 
Mime  tells  them  how  Alherich  has  become  all-powerful 
through  the  ring  and  the  Tamhelmet  made  of  the  Rhine- 
gold.  Then  Alherich,  who  has  taken  off  the  Tamhelmet 
and  hung  it  from  his  girdle,  is  seen  in  the  distance,  driving 
a  crowd  of  Nihelungs  before  him  from  the  caves  below. 
They  are  laden  with  gold  and  silver,  which  he  forces  them 
to  pile  up  in  one  place  and  so  form  a  hoard.  He  suddenly 
perceives  Wotan  and  Loge.     After  abusing  Mime  for  per- 


Richard  Wagner  159 

mitting  strangers  to  enter  Nibelheim,  he  commands  the 
Nibelungs  to  descend  again  into  the  cavern  in  search  of 
new  treasure  for  him.  They  hesitate.  You  hear  the  Ring 
Motive.  Alberich  draws  the  ring  from  his  finger,  stretches 
it  threateningly  toward  the  Nibelungs,  and  commands  them 
to  obey  their  master. 

They  disperse  in  headlong  flight,  with  Mime,  into  the 
cavernous  recesses.  Alberich  looks  with  mistrust  upon  Wotan 
and  Logc.  Wotan  tells  him  they  have  heard  report  of  his 
wealth  and  power  and  have  come  to  ascertain  if  it  is  true. 
The  Nibelung  points  to  the  hoard.  He  boasts  that  the 
whole  world  will  come  under  his  sway  (Ring  Motive), 
that  the  gods  who  now  laugh  and  love  in  the  enjoyment  of 
youth  and  beauty  will  become  subject  to  him  (Freia 
Motive);  for  he  has  abjured  love  (Motive  of  Renuncia- 
tion). Hence,  even  the  gods  in  Walhalla  shall  dread  him 
(Walhalla  Motive)  and  he  bids  them  beware  of  the  time 
when  the  night- begotten  host  of  the  Nibelungs  shall-  rise 
from  Nibelheim  into  the  realm  of  daylight.  (Rhinegold 
Motive  followed  by  Walhalla  Motive,  for  it  is  through  the 
power  gained  by  the  Rhinegold  that  Alberich  hopes  to 
possess  himself  of  Walhalla.)  Loge  cunningly  flatters 
Alberich,  and  when  the  latter  tells  him  of  the  Tamhelmet, 
feigns  disbelief  of  Alberich' s  statements.  Alberich,  to 
prove  their  truth,  puts  on  the  helmet  and  transforms 
himself  into  a  huge  serpent.  The  Serpent  Motive  ex- 
presses the  windings  and  writhings  of  the  monster.  The 
serpent  vanishes  and  Alberich  reappears.  When  Loge 
doubts  if  Alberich  can  transform  himself  into  something 
very  small,  the  Nibelung  changes  into  a  toad.  Now  is 
Loge's  chance.  He  calls  Wotan  to  set  his  foot  on  the  toad. 
As  Wotan  does  so,  Loge  puts  his  hand  to  its  head  and  seizes 
the  Tarnhelmet.  Alberich  is  seen  writhing  under  Wotan' s 
foot.  Loge  binds  Alberich;  both  seize  him,  drag  him  to  the 
shaft  from  which  they  descended  and  disappear  ascending. 


i6o  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  scene  changes  in  the  reverse  direction  to  that  in 
which  it  changed  when  Wotan  and  Loge  were  descending 
to  Nibelheim.  The  orchestra  accompanies  the  change  of 
scene.  The  Ring  Motive  dies  away  from  crashing  fortissimo 
to  piano,  to  be  succeeded  by  the  dark  Motive  of  Renuncia- 
tion. Then  is  heard  the  clangour  of  the  Nibelung  smithies. 
The  Giant,  Walhalla,  Loge,  and  Servitude  Motives  follow 
the  last  with  crushing  force  as  Wotan  and  Loge  emerge  from 
the  cleft,  dragging  the  pinioned  Alberich  with  them.  His 
lease  of  power  was  brief.  He  is  again  in  a  condition  of 
servitude. 

Scene  IV.  A  pale  mist  still  veils  the  prospect  as  at  the 
end  of  the  second  scene.  Loge  and  Wotan  place  Alberich 
on  the  ground  and  Loge  dances  around  the  pinioned  Nibe- 
lung, mockingly  snapping  his  fingers  at  the  prisoner.  Wo- 
tan joins  Loge  in  his  mockery  of  Alberich.  The  Nibelung 
asks  what  he  must  give  for  his  freedom.  "Your  hoard  and 
your, glittering  gold,"  is  Wotan' s  answer.  Alberich  assents 
to  the  ransom  and  Loge  frees  the  gnome's  right  hand. 
Alberich  raises  the  ring  to  his  lips  and  murmurs  a  secret 
behest.  The  Nibelungs  emerge  from  the  cleft  and  heap 
up  the  hoard.  Then,  as  Alberich  stretches  out  the  ring 
toward  them,  they  rush  in  terror  toward  the  cleft,  into 
which  they  disappear.  Alberich  now  asks  for  his  freedom, 
but  Loge  throws  the  Tamhelmet  on  to  the  heap.  Wotan 
demands  that  Alberich  also  give  up  the  ring.  At  these 
words  dismay  and  terror  are  depicted  on  the  Nibelung's 
face.  He  had  hoped  to  save  the  ring,  but  in  vain.  Wotan 
tears  it  from  the  gnome's  finger.  Then  Alberich,  impelled 
by  hate  and  rage,  ciirses  the  ring.  The  Motive  of  the 
Curse: 


To  it  should  be  added  the  syncopated  measures  expres- 


Richard  Wagner 


i6i 


sive  of  the  ever-threatening  and  ever-active  Nibelung's 
Hate: 


Amid  heavy  thuds  of  the  Motive  of  Servitude  Alberich 
vanishes  in  the  cleft. 

The  mist  begins  to  rise.  It  grows  lighter.  The  Giant 
Motive  and  the  Motive  of  Eternal  Youth  are  heard,  for 
the  giants  are  approaching  with  Freia.  Donner,  Froh, 
and  Fricka  hasten  to  greet  Wotan.  Fasolt  and  Fajner 
enter  with  Freia.  It  has  grown  clear  except  that  the  mist 
still  hides  the  distant  castle.  Freia's  presence  seems  to 
have  restored  youth  to  the  gods.  Fasolt  asks  for  the  ran- 
som for  Freia.  Wotan  points  to  the  hoard.  With  staves 
the  giants  measure  off  a  space  of  the  height  and 
width  of  Freia.  That  space  must  be  filled  out  with 
treasure. 

Loge  and  Froh  pile  up  the  hoard,  but  the  giants  are  not 
satisfied  even  when  the  Tamhelmet  has  been  added.  They 
wish  also  the  ring  to  fill  out  a  crevice.  Wotan  turns  in 
anger  away  from  them.  A  bluish  light  glimmers  in  the 
rocky  cleft  to  the  right,  and  through  it  Erda  rises.  She 
warns  Wotan  against  retaining  possession  of  the  ring. 
The  Erda  Motive  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Rhine 
Motive. 

The  syncopated  notes  of  the  Nibelung's  Malevolence, 
so  threateningly  indicative  of  the  harm  which  Alberich 
is  plotting,  are  also  heard  in  Erda's  warning. 

Wotan,  heeding  her  words,  throws  the  ring  upon  the 
hoard.  The  giants  release  Freia,  who  rushes  joyfully 
towards  the  gods.  Here  the  Freia  Motive  combined  with 
the  Flight  Motive,  now  no  longer  agitated  but  joyful, 
rings  out  gleefully.  Soon,  however,  these  motives  are 
interrupted  by  the  Giant  and  Nibelung  motives,  and  later 


i62  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

the  Nibelung's  Hate  and  Ring  Motive.  For  Alberich's 
curse  already  is  beginning  its  dread  work.  The  giants 
dispute  over  the  spoils,  their  dispute  waxes  to  strife,  and 
at  last  Fafner  slays  Fasolt  and  snatches  the  ring  from  the 
dying  giant,  while,  as  the  gods  gaze  horror-stricken  upon 
the  scene,  the  Curse  Motive  resounds  with  crushing  force. 

Loge  congratulates  Wotan  on  liaving  given  up  the  curse- 
laden  ring.  But  even  Fricka's  caresses,  as  she  asks  Wotan 
to  lead  her  into  Walhalla,  cannot  divert  the  god's  mind 
from  dark  thoughts,  and  the  Curse  Motive  accompanies 
his  gloomy  reflections — for  the  ring  has  passed  through 
his  hands.  It  was  he  who  wrested  it  from  Alberich — and 
its  curse  rests  on  all  who  have  touched  it. 

Donner  ascends  to  the  top  of  a  lofty  rock.  He  gathers 
the  mists  around  him  until  he  is  enveloped  by  a  black  cloud. 
He  swings  his  hammer.  There  is  a  flash  of  lightning,  a 
crash  of  thunder,  and  lo!  the  cloud  vanishes.  A  rainbow 
bridge  spans  the  valley  to  Walhalla,  which  is  illumined  by 
the  setting  sun. 

Wotan  eloquently  greets  Walhalla,  and  then,  taking 
Fricka  by  the  hand,  leads  the  procession  of  the  gods  into 
the  castle. 

The  music  of  this  scene  is  of  wondrous  eloquence  and 
beauty.  Six  harps  are  added  to  the  ordinary  orchestral 
instruments,  and  as  the  variegated  bridge  is  seen  their 
arpeggios  shimmer  like  the  colours  of  the  rainbow  around 
the  broad,  majestic  Rainbow  Motive: 


Then  the  stately  Walhalla  Motive  resounds  as  the  gods 
gaze,  lost  in  admiration,  at  the  Walhalla.  It  gives  way  to 
the  Ring  Motive  as  Wotan  speaks  of  the  day's  ills;  and 
then  as  he  is  inspired  by  the  idea  of  begetting  a  race  of 


Richard  Wagner  163 

demigods  to  conquer  the  Nibelungs,  there  is  heard  for  the 
first  time  the  Sword  Motive: 


The  cries  of  the  Rhinedaughters  greet  Wotan.  They  beg 
him  to  restore  the  ring  to  them.  But  Wotan  must  remain 
deaf  to  their  entreaties.  He  gave  the  ring,  which  he 
should  have  restored  to  the  Rhinedaughters,  to  the  giants, 
as  ransom  for  Freia. 

The  Walhalla  Motive  swells  to  a  majestic  climax  and 
the  gods  enter  the  castle.  Amid  shimmering  arpeggios  the 
Rainbow  Motive  resounds.  The  gods  have  attained  the 
height  of  their  glor}^ — but  the  Nibelung's  curse  is  still 
potent,  and  it  will  bring  woe  upon  all  who  have  possessed 
or  will  possess  the  ring  until  it  is  restored  to  the  Rhine- 
daughters.  Fasolt  was  only  the  first  victim  of  Alberich's 
curse. 

DIE  WALKURE 

THE   VALKYR 

Music-drama  in  three  acts,  words  and  music  by  Richard  Wagner. 
Produced,  Munich,  June  25,  1870.  New  York,  Academy  of  Music, 
April  2,  1877,  an  incomplete  and  inadequate  performance  with  Pap- 
penheim  as  Brunnhilde,  Pauline  Canissa  Sieglinde,  A.  BischofF  Sieg- 
mund,  Felix  Preusser  Wotan,  A.  Blum  Hunding,  Mme.  Listner  Fricka, 
Frida  de  Gebel,  Gerhilde,  Adolf  Neuendorff ,  conductor.  The  real  first 
performance  in  America  was  conducted  by  Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch  at 
the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  January  30,  1885,  with  Matema,  the 
original  Bayreuth  Brunnhilde  in  that  r61e,  Schott  as  Siegmund,  Seidl- 
Kraus  as  Sieglinde,  Marianne  Brandt  as  Fricka,  Staudigl  as  Wotan,  and 
Koegel  as  Hunding. 

Characters 

Siegmund Tenor 

Hunding , Bass 


1 64  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

WoTAN Baritone-Bass 

SiEGLiNDE Soprano 

Brunnhilde Soprano 

Fricka Mezzo-Soprano 

Valkyrs    (Sopranos  and   Mezzo-Sopranos):  Gerhilde,    Ortlinde,    Wal- 
traute,  Schwertleite,  Helmwige,  Siegrune,  Grimgerde,  Rossweisse. 
Time — Legendary.  Place — Interior  of  Hunding's 

hut;  a  rocky  height;  the 
peak  of  a  rocky  mountain 
(the  Brunnhilde  rock). 

Wotan's  enjoyment  of  Walhalla  was  destined  to  be  short- 
lived. Filled  with  dismay  by  the  death  of  Fasolt  in  the 
combat  of  the  giants  for  the  accursed  ring,  and  impelled 
by  a  dread  presentiment  that  the  force  of  the  curse  would 
be  \'isited  upon  the  gods,  he  descended  from  Walhalla  to 
the  abode  of  the  all-wise  woman,  Erda,  who  bore  him  nine 
daughters.  These  were  the  Valkyrs,  headed  by  Briinn- 
hilde — the  wild  horsewomen  of  the  air,  who  on  winged 
steeds  bore  the  dead  heroes  to  Walhalla,  the  warriors' 
heaven.  With  the  aid  of  the  Valkyrs  and  the  heroes  they 
gathered  to  Walhalla,  Wotan  hoped  to  repel  any  assault 
upon  his  castle  by  the  enemies  of  the  gods. 

But  though  the  host  of  heroes  grew  to  a  goodly  number, 
the  terror  of  Alberich's  curse  still  haunted  the  chief  of  gods. 
He  might  have  freed  himself  from  it  had  he  returned  the 
ring  and  helmet  made  of  Rhinegold  to  the  Rhinedaughters, 
from  whom  Alberich  filched  it;  but  in  his  desire  to  per- 
suade the  giants  to  relinquish  Freia,  whom  he  had  promised 
to  them  as  a  reward  for  building  Walhalla,  he,  having 
wrested  the  ring  from  Alberich,  gave  it  to  the  giants  instead 
of  returning  it  to  the  Rhinedaughters.  He  saw  the  giants 
contending  for  the  possession  of  the  ring  and  saw  Fasolt 
slain — the  first  victim  of  Alberich's  curse.  He  knows  that 
the  giant  Fafner,  having  assumed  the  shape  of  a  huge 
serpent,  now  guards  the  Nibelung  treasure,  which  includes 
the  ring  and  the  Tarnhelmet,  in  a  cave  in  the  heart  of  a 


Richard  Wagner  165 

dense  forest.  How  shall  the  Rhinegold  be  restored  to  the 
Rkinedaughters  ? 

Wotan  hopes  that  this  may  be  consummated  by  a  human 
hero  who,  free  from  the  lust  for  power  which  obtains  among 
the  gods,  shall,  with  a  sword  of  Wotan' s  own  forging,  slay 
Fajner,  gain  possession  of  the  Rhinegold  and  restore  it  to 
its  rightful  owners,  thus  righting  Wotan's  guilty  act  and 
freeing  the  gods  from  the  curse.  To  accomplish  this 
Wotan,  in  human  guise  as  Wdlse,  begets,  in  wedlock  with  a 
hmnan,  the  twins  Siegmund  and  Sieglinde.  How  the 
ciu-se  of  Alberich  is  visited  upon  these  is  related  in  "The 
Valkyr." 

The  dramatis  personae  in  "The  Valkyr"  are  Brunn- 
hilde,  the  valkjT,  and  her  eight  sister  valkyrs;  Fricka, 
Sieglinde,  Siegmund,  Hunding  (the  husband  of  Sieglinde), 
and  Wotan.  The  action  begins  after  the  forced  marriage 
of  Sieglinde  to  Hunding.  The  Walsimgs  are  in  ignorance 
of  the  divinity  of  their  father.  They  know  him  only  as 
Walse. 

Act  I.  In  the  introduction  -to  "The  Rhinegold,"  we 
saw  the  Rhine  flowing  peacefully  toward  the  sea  and  the 
innocent  gambols  of  the  Rkinedaughters.  But  "The 
Valkyr"  opens  in  storm  and  stress.  The  peace  and  hap- 
piness of  the  first  scene  of  the  cycle  seem  to  have  vanished 
from  the  earth  with  Alberich' s  abjuration  of  love,  his  theft 
of  the  gold,  and  Wotan's  equally  treacherous  acts. 

This  "Valkyr"  Vorspiel  is  a  masterly  representation  in 
tone  of  a  storm  gathering  for  its  last  infuriated  onslaught. 
The  elements  are  unleashed.  The  wind  sweeps  through 
the  forest.  Lightning  flashes  in  jagged  streaks  across  the 
black  heavens.  There  is  a  crash  of  thunder  and  the  storm 
has  spent  its  force. 

Two  leading  motives  are  employed  in  this  introduction. 
They  are  the  Storm  Motive  and  the  Donner  Motive. 
The  Storm  Motive  is  as  follows: 


1 66 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


These  themes  are  elemental.  From  them  Wagner  has 
composed  storm  music  of  convincing  power. 

In  the  early  portion  of  this  vorspiel  only  the  string 
instruments  are  used.  Gradually  the  instrumentation 
grows  more  powerful.  With  the  climax  we  have  a  tre- 
mendous ff  on  the  contra  tuba  and  two  tympani,  followed 
by  the  crash  of  the  Donner  Motive  on  the  wind  instruments. 

The  storm  then  gradually  dies  away.  Before  it  has 
quite  passed  over,  the  curtain  rises,  revealing  the  large 
hall  of  Hunding's  dwelling.  This  hall  is  built  around  a 
huge  ash-tree,  whose  trunk  and  branches  pierce  the  roof, 
over  which,  the  foliage  is  supposed  to  spread.  There  are 
walls  of  rough-hewn  boards,  here  and  there  hung  with  large 
plaited  and  woven  hangings.  In  the  right  foreground  is 
a  large  open  hearth;  back  of  it  in  a  recess  is  the  larder, 
separated  from  the  hall  by  a  woven  hanging,  half  drawn. 
In  the  background  is  a  large  door.  A  few  steps  in  the  left 
foreground  lead  up  to  the  door  of  an  inner  room.  The 
fiirniture  of  the  hall  is  primitive  and  rude.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  a  table,  bench,  and  stools  in  front  of  the  ash-tree. 
Only  the  light  of  the  fire  on  the  hearth  illumines  the  room ; 
though  occasionally  its  fitful  gleam  is  slightly  intensified 
by  a  distant  flash  of  lightning  from  the  departing  storm. 

The  door  in  the  background  is  opened  from  without. 
Siegmund,  supporting  himself  with  his  hand  on  the  bolt, 
stands  in  the  entrance.  He  seems  exhausted.  His  ap- 
pearance is  that  of  a  fugitive  who  has  reached  the  limit  of 
his  powers  of  endurance.  Seeing  no  one  in  the  hall,  he 
staggers  toward  the  hearth  and  sinks  upon  a  bearskin  rug 
before  it,  with  the  exclamation: 

Whose  hearth  this  may  be, 
Here  I  must  rest  me. 


Lilli  I^hmann  as  Brunnhilde  in  "Die  Walkure' 


Richard  Wagner 


167 


Wagner's  treatment  of  this  scene  is  masterly.  As  Sieg- 
mund  stands  in  the  entrance  we  hear  the  Siegmimd  Motive. 
This  is  a  sad,  weary  strain  on  'cellos  and  basses.  It  seems 
the  wearier  for  the  burden  of  an  accompanying  figure  on 
the  horns,  beneath  which  it  seems  to  stagger  as  Siegrmind 
staggers  toward  the  hearth.  Thus  the  music  not  only 
reflects  Siegmund's  weary  mien,  but  accompanies  most 
graphically  his  weary  gait.  Perhaps  Wagner's  intention 
was  more  metaphysical.  Maybe  the  burden  beneath 
which  the  Siegmund  Motive  staggers  is  the  curse  oiAlberich. 
It  is  through  that  curse  that  Siegmund's  life  has  been  one 
of  storm  and  stress. 


When  the  storm-beaten  Walsung  has  sunk  upon  the 
rug  the  Siegmund  Motive  is  followed  by  the  Storm  Motive, 
pp — and  the  storm  has  died  away.  The  door  of  the  room 
to  the  left  opens  and  a  young  woman — Sieglinde — appears. 
She  has  heard  someone  enter,  and,  thinking  her  husband 
returned,  has  come  forth  to  meet  him — not  impelled  to 
this  by  love,  but  by  fear.  For  Hunding  had,  while  her 
father  and  kinsmen  were  away  on  the  hunt,  laid  waste 
their  dwelling  and  abducted  her  and  forcibly  married  her. 
Ill-fated  herself,  she  is  moved  to  compassion  at  sight  of 
the  storm -driven  fugitive  before  the  hearth,  and  bends 
over  him. 

Her  compassionate  action  is  accompanied  by  a  new 
motive,  which  by  Wagner's  commentators  has  been  en- 
titled the  Motive  of  Compassion.  But  it  seems  to  me  to 
have  a  further  meaning  as  expressing  the  sympathy  be- 
tween two  souls,  a  tie  so  subtle  that  it  is  at  first  invisible 
even  to  those  whom  it  unites.  Siegmund  and  Sieglinde, 
it  will  be  remembered,  belong  to  the  same  race ;  and  though 
they  are  at  this  point  of  the  action  unknown  to  one  another, 


i68  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

yet,  as  Sieglinde  bends  over  the  hunted,  storm-beaten 
Siegmund,  that  subtle  sympathy  causes  her  to  regard  him 
with  more  soHcitude  than  would  be  awakened  by  any  other 
unfortunate  stranger.  Hence  I  have  called  this  motive 
the  Motive  of  Sympathy — taking  sympathy  in  its  double 
meaning  of  compassion  and  affinity  of  feeling: 


The  beauty  of  this  brief  phrase  is  enhanced  by  its  unpre- 
tentiotisness.  It  wells  up  from  the  orchestra  as  spontane- 
ously as  pity  mingled  with  sympathetic  sorrow  wells  up 
from  the  heart  of  a  gentle  woman.  As  it  is  Siegmund  who 
has  awakened  these  feelings  in  Sieglinde,  the  Motive  of  Sym- 
pathy is  heard  simultaneously  with  the  Siegmund  Motive. 

Siegmund,  suddenly  raising  his  head,  ejaculates,  "Water, 
water!"  Sieglinde  hastily  snatches  up  a  drinking-horn 
and,  having  quickly  filled  it  at  a  spring  near  the  house, 
swiftly  returns  and  hands  it  to  Siegmund.  As  though  new 
hope  were  engendered  in  Siegmund' s  breast  by  Sieglinde" s 
gentle  ministration,  the  Siegmund  Motive  rises  higher 
and  higher,  gathering  passion  in  its  upward  sweep  and  then, 
combined  again  with  the  Motive  of  Sympathy,  sinks  to  an 
expression  of  heartfelt  gratitude.  This  passage  is  scored 
entirely  for  strings.  Yet  no  composer,  except  Wagner, 
has  evoked  from  a  full  orchestra  sounds  richer  or  more 
sensuously  beautiful. 

Having  quaffed  from  the  projEf ered  cup  the  stranger  lifts  a 
searching  gaze  to  her  features,  as  if  they  awakened  within 
him  memories  the  significance  of  which  he  himself  cannot 
fathom.  She,  too,  is  strangely  affected  by  his  gaze.  How 
has  fate  interwoven  their  lives  that  these  two  people,  a  man 
and  a  woman,  looking  upon  each  other  apparently  for  the 
first  time,  are  so  thrilled  by  a  mysterious  sense  of  affinity? 


Richard  Wagner         T 


169 


Here  occurs  the  Love  Motive  played  throughout  as  a 
violoncello  solo,  with  accompaniment  of  eight  violoncellos 
and  two  double  basses;  exquisite  in  tone  colour  and  one  of 
the  most  tenderly  expressive  phrases  ever  penned. 


The  Love  Motive  is  the  mainspring  of  this  act.  For 
this  act  tells  the  story  of  love  from  its  inception  to  its  con- 
summation. Similarly  in  the  course  of  this  act  the  Love 
Motive  rises  by  degrees  of  intensity  from  an  expression  of 
the  first  tender  presentiment  of  affection  to  the  very  ecstasy 
of  love. 

Siegmund  asks  with  whom  he  has  found  shelter.  Sieg- 
linde  replies  that  the  house  is  Hunding's,  and  she  his  wife, 
and  requests  Siegmund  to  await  her  husband's  return. 

Weaponless  am  I: 
The  wounded  guest, 
He  will  surely  give  shelter, 

is  Siegmund's  reply.  With  anxious  celerity,  Sieglinde 
asks  him  to  show  her  his  wounds.  But,  refreshed  by  the 
draught  of  cool  spring  water  and  with  hope  revived  by  her 
sympathetic  presence,  he  gathers  force  and,  raising  himself 
to  a  sitting  posture,  exclaims  that  his  wounds  are  but  slight ; 
his  frame  is  still  firm,  and  had  sword  and  shield  held  half 
so  well,  he  would  not  have  fled  from  his  foes.  His  strength 
was  spent  in  flight  through  the  storm,  but  the  night  that 
sank  on  his  vision  has  yielded  again  to  the  sunshine  of 
Sieglinde's  presence.  At  these  words  the  Motive  of  Sym- 
pathy rises  like  a  sweet  hope.  Sieglinde  fills  the  drinking- 
horn  with  mead  and  offers  it  to  Siegmund.  He  asks  her 
to  take  the  first  sip.  She  does  so  and  then  hands  it  to  him. 
His  eyes  rest  upon  her  while  he  drinks.  As  he  returns  the 
drinking-horn  to  her  there  are  traces  of  deep  emotion  in 


I70  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

his  mien.  He  sighs  and  gloomily  bows  his  head.  The 
action  at  this  point  is  most  expressively  accompanied  by 
the  orchestra.  Specially  noteworthy  is  an  impassioned 
upward  sweep  of  the  IMotive  of  Sympathy  as  Siegmund 
regards  Sieglinde  with  traces  of  deep  emotion  in  his  mien. 

In  a  voice  that  trembles  with  emotion,  he  says:  "You 
have  harboured  one  whom  misfortune  follows  wherever  he 
wends  his  footsteps.  Lest  through  me  misfortune  enter 
this  house,  I  will  depart."  With  firm,  determined  strides 
he  already  has  reached  the  door,  when  she,  forgetting  all 
in  the  vague  memories  that  his  presence  have  stirred  within 
her,  calls  after  him: 

"Tarry!  You  cannot  bring  sorrow  to  the  house  where 
sorrow  already  reigns!" 

Her  words  are  followed  by  a  phrase  freighted  as  if  with 
sorrow,   the  Motive  of  the  Walsung  Race,   or  Walsung 


Motive:  Siegmund  returns  to  the  hearth,  while  she,  as  if 
shamed  by  her  outburst  of  feeling,  allows  her  eyes  to  sink 
toward  the  ground.  Leaning  against  the  hearth,  he  rests 
his  calm,  steady  gaze  upon  her,  until  she  again  raises  her 
eyes  to  his,  and  the}^  regard  each  other  in  long  silence  and 
with  deep  emotion.  The  woman  is  the  first  to  start. 
She  hears  Hunding  leading  his  horse  to  the  stall,  and  soon 
afterward  he  stands  upon  the  threshold  looking  darkly 
upon  his  wafe  and  the  stranger.  Hunding  is  a  man  of  great 
strength  and  stature,  his  eyes  heavy-browed,  his  sinister 
features  framed  in  thick  black  hair  and  beard,  a  sombre, 
threatful  personality  boding  little  good  to  whomever 
crosses  his  path. 

With  the  approach  of  Hunding  there  is  a  sudden  change 
in  the  character  of  the  music.  Like  a  premonition  of 
Hunding's   entrance   we  hear  the   Hunding    Motive,   pp. 


Richard  Wagner 


171 


Then  as  Hunding,  armed  with  spear  and  shield,  stands  upon 
the  threshold,  this  Hunding  Motive — as  dark,  forbidding, 
and  portentous  of  woe  to  the  two  Walsungs  as  Hunding' s 
sombre  visage — resounds  with  dread  power  on  the  tubas: 


Although  weaponless,  and  Hunding  armed  with  spear 
and  shield,  the  fugitive  meets  his  scrutiny  without  flinch- 
ing, while  the  woman,  anticipating  her  husband's  inquiry, 
explains  that  she  had  discovered  him  lying  exhausted  at 
the  hearth  and  given  him  shelter.  With  an  assumed  gra- 
ciousness  that  makes  him,  if  anything,  more  forbidding, 
Hunding  orders  her  prepare  the  meal.  While  she  does  so 
he  glances  repeatedly  from  her  to  the  stranger  whom  she 
has  harboured,  as  if  comparing  their  features  and  finding 
in  them  something  to  arouse  his  suspicions.  "How  like 
unto  her,"  he  mutters. 

"Your  name  and  story?"  he  asks,  after  they  have  seated 
themselves  at  the  table  ifi  front  of  the  ash-tree,  and  when 
the  stranger  hesitates,  Hunding  points  to  the  woman's  eager, 
inquiring  look. 

"Guest,"  she  iu*ges,  little  knowing  the  suspicions  her 
husband  harbours,  "gladly  would  I  know  whence  you  come." 

Slowly,  as  if  oppressed  by  heavy  memories,  he  begins 
his  story,  carefully,  however,  continuing  to  conceal  his 
name,  since  for  all  he  knows,  Hunding  may  be  one  of  the 
enemies  of  his  race.  Amid  incredible  hardships,  surrounded 
by  enemies  against  whom  he  and  his  kin  constantly  were 
obliged  to  defend  themselves,  he  grew  up  in  the  forest. 
He  and  his  father  returned  from  one  of  their  hunts  to  find 
the  hut  in  ashes,  his  mother  a  corpse,  and  no  trace  of  his 
twin  sister.  In  one  of  the  combats  with  their  foes  he 
became  separated  from  his  father. 


172  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

At  this  point  you  hear  the  Walhalla  Motive,  for  Siegmund's 
father  was  none  other  than  Wotan,  known  to  his  human 
descendants,  however,  only  as  Walse.  In  Wotan' s  narrative 
in  the  next  act  it  will  be  discovered  that  Wotan  pur- 
posely created  these  misfortunes  for  Siegmund,  in  order 
to  strengthen  him  for  his  task. 

Continuing  his  narrative  Siegmund  says  that,  since  losing 
track  of  his  father,  he  has  wandered  from  place  to  place, 
ever  with  misfortune  in  his  wake.  That  very  day  he  has 
defended  a  maid  whom  her  brothers  wished  to  force  into 
marriage.  But  when,  in  the  combat  that  ensued,  he  had 
slain  her  brothers,  she  turned  upon  him  and  denounced  him 
as  a  murderer,  while  the  kinsmen  of  the  slain,  summoned 
to  vengeance,  attacked  him  from  all  quarters.  He  fought 
until  shield  and  sword  were  shattered,  then  fled  to  find 
chance  shelter  in  Hunding's  dwelling. 

The  story  of  Siegmund  is  told  in  melodious  recitative. 
It  is  not  a  melody  in  the  old-fashioned  meaning  of  the  term, 
but  it  fairly  teems  with  melodiousness.  It  will  have  been 
observed  that  incidents  very  different  in  kind  are  related 
by  Siegmund.  It  would  be  impossible  to  treat  this  narra- 
tive with  sufficient  variety  of  expression  in  a  melody.  But 
in  Wagner's  melodious  recitative  the  musical  phrases  re- 
flect every  incident  narrated  by  Siegmund.  For  instance, 
when  Siegmund  tells  how  he  went  hunting  with  his  father 
there  is  joyous  freshness  and  abandon  in  the  music,  which, 
however,  suddenly  sinks  to  sadness  as  he  narrates  how 
they  returned  and  found  the  Walsung  dwelling  devastated 
by  enemies.  We  hear  also  the  Hunding  Motive  at  this 
point,  which  thus  indicates  that  whose  who  brought  this 
misfortune  upon  the  Walsungs  were  none  other  than 
Hunding  and  his  kinsmen.  As  Siegmund  tells  how,  when 
he  was  separated  from  his  father,  he  sought  to  mingle 
with  men  and  women,  you  hear  the  Love  Motive,  while 
his  description  of  his  latest  combat  is  accompanied, by  the 


Photo  by  White 


Fremstad  as  Brunnhilde  in  "  Die  Walkiire" 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Fremstad  as  Sieglinde  in  "Die  Walkure" 


Richard  Wagner  r  '  I73 

rhythm  of  the  Hunding  Motive.  Those  whom  Siegmund 
slew  were  Hunding's  kinsmen.  Thus  Siegmund's  dark 
fate  has  driven  him  to  seek  shelter  in  the  house  of  the  very 
man  who  is  the  arch-enemy  of  his  race  and  is  bound  by  the 
laws  of  kinship  to  avenge  on  Siegmund  the  death  of  kinsmen. 
As  Siegmund  concludes  his  narrative  the  Walsung  Motive 
is  heard.  Gazing  with  ardent  longing  toward  Sieglinde, 
he  says: 

Now  know'st  thou,  questioning  wife. 
Why  "Peaceful"  is  not  my  name. 

These  words  are  sung  to  a  lovely  phrase.  Then,  as 
Siegmund  rises  and  strides  over  to  the  hearth,  while  Sieg- 
linde, pale  and  deeply  affected  by  his  tale,  bows  her  head, 
there  is  heard  on  the  horns,  bassoons,  violas,  and  'cellos  a 
motive  expressive  of  the  heroic  fortitude  of  the  Walsungs 
in  struggling  against  their  fate.  It  is  the  Motive  of  the 
Walsimg's  Heroism,  a  motive  steeped  in  the  tragedy  of 
futile  struggle  against  destiny. 


I|'l|l|^|lft^ 


The  sombre  visage  at  the  head  of  the  table  has  grown 
even  darker  and  more  threatening.  Hunding  arises. 
"I  know  a  ruthless  race  to  whom  nothing  is  sacred,  and 
hated  of  all,"  he  says.  "Mine  were  the  kinsmen  you  slew. 
I,  too,  was  summoned  from  my  home  to  take  blood  ven- 
geance upon  the  slayer.  Returning,  I  find  him  here. 
You  have  been  offered  shelter  for  the  night,  and  for  the 
m'ght  you  are  safe.  But  to-morrow  be  prepared  to  defend 
yourself." 

Alone,  unarmed,  and  in  the  house  of  his  enemy!  And 
yet  the  same  roof  harbours  a  friend — the  woman.  What 
strange  affinity  has  brought  them  together  under  the  eye 
of  the  pitiless   savage  with  whom  she  has  been  forced 


174  '  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

into  marriage?  The  embers  on  the  hearth  collapse.  The 
glow  that  for  a  moment  pervades  the  room  seems  to  his 
excited  senses  a  reflection  from  the  eyes  of  the  woman 
to  whom  he  has  been  so  unaccountably  yet  so  strongly 
drawn.  Even  the  spot  on  the  old  ash-tree,  where  he  saw 
her  glance  linger  before  she  left  the  room,  seems  to  have 
caught  its  sheen.  Then  the  embers  die  out.  All  grows 
dark. 

The  scene  is  eloquently  set  to  music.  Siegmund's 
gloomy  thoughts  are  accompanied  by  the  threatening 
rhythm  of  the  Hunding  Motive  and  the  Sword  Motive  in 
a  minor  key,  for  Siegmund  is  still  weaponless. 

A  sword  my  father  did  promise 

Walse!     Walse!     Where  is  thy  sword! 

The  Sv/ord  Motive  rings  out  like  a  shout  of  triumph.  As 
the  embers  of  the  fire  collapse,  there  is  seen  in  the  glare, 
that  for  a  moment  falls  upon  the  ash-tree,  the  hilt  of  a 
sword  whose  blade  is  buried  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree  at  the 
point  upon  which  Sieglinde's  look  last  rested.  While  the 
Motive  of  the  Sword  genth''  rises  and  falls,  like  the  coming 
and  going  of  a  lovely  memory,  Siegmund  apostrophizes 
the  sheen  as  the  reflection  of  Sieglinde's  glance.  And  al- 
though the  embers  die  out,  and  night  falls  upon  the  scene, 
in  Siegmund's  thoughts  the  memory  of  that  pitying, 
loving  look  glimmers  on. 

Is  it  his  excited  fancy  that  makes  him  hear  the  door  of 
the  inner  chamber  softly  open  and  light  footsteps  coming 
in  his  direction?  No;  for  he  becomes  conscious  of  a  form, 
her  form,  dimly  limned  upon  the  darkness.  He  springs 
to  his  feet.  Sieglinde  is  by  his  side.  She  has  given  Hund- 
ing a  sleeping-potion.  She  will  point  out  a  weapon  to 
Siegmund — a  sword.  If  he  can  wield  it  she  will  call  him 
the  greatest  hero,   for   only  the  mightiest   can  wield  it. 


Richard  Wagner  175 

The  music  quickens  with  the  subdued  excitement  in  the 
breasts  of  the  two  Walsungs.  You  hear  the  Sword  Motive 
and  above  it,  on  horns,  clarinet,  and  oboe,  a  new  motive — 
that  of  the  Walsungs'  Call  to  Victory : 


for  Sieglinde  hopes  that  with  the  sword  the  stranger,  who 
has  awakened  so  quickly  love  in  her  breast,  will  overcome 
Hunding.  This  motive  has  a  resistless,  onward  sweep. 
Sieglinde,  amid  the  strains  of  the  stately  Walhalla  Motive, 
followed  by  the  Sword  Motive,  narrates  the  story  of  the 
sword.  While  Hunding  and  his  kinsmen  were  feasting  in 
honoiir  of  her  forced  marriage  with  him,  an  aged  stranger 
entered  the  hall.  The  men  knew  him  not  and  shrank  from 
his  fiery  glance.  But  upon  her  his  look  rested  with  tender 
compassion.  With  a  mighty  thrust  he  buried  a  sword  up 
to  its  hilt  in  the  tnmk  of  the  ash-tree.  Whoever  drew  it 
from  its  sheath  to  him  it  should  belong.  The  stranger 
went  his  way.  One  after  another  the  strong  men  tugged 
at  the  hilt — but  in  vain.  Then  she  knew  who  the  aged 
stranger  was  and  for  whom  the  sword  was  destined. 

The  Sword  Motive  rings  out  like  a  joyous  shout,  and 
Sieglinde' s  voice  mingles  with  the  triumphant  notes  of  the 
Walstmg's  Call  to  Victory  as  she  turns  to  Siegmund: 

O,  found  I  in  thee 
The  friend  in  need! 

The  Motive  of  the  Walsungs'  heroism,  now  no  longer 
full  of  tragic  import,  but  forceful  and  defiant — and  Sieg- 
mund holds  Sieglinde  in  his  embrace. 

There  is  a  rush  of  wind.  The  woven  hangings  flap  and 
fall.  As  the  lovers  turn,  a  glorious  sight  greets  their  eyes. 
The  landscape  is  illumined  by  the  moon.     Its  silver  sheen 


xy6 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


flows  down  the  hills  and  quivers  along  the  meadows  whose 
grasses  tremble  in  the  breeze.  All  nature  seems  to  be 
throbbing  in  unison  with  the  hearts  of  the  lovers,  and, 
turning  to  the  woman,  Siegmund  greets  her  with  the  Love 
Song: 


The  Love  Motive,  impassioned,  irresistible,  sweeps 
through  the  harmonies — and  Love  and  Spring  are  united. 
The  Love  Motive  also  pulsates  through  Sieglinde's  ecstatic 
reply  after  she  has  given  herself  fully  up  to  Siegmund  in 
the  Flight  Motive — for  before  his  coming  her  woes  have 
fled  as  winter  flies  before  the  coming  of  spring.  With 
Siegmund' s  exclamation: 

Oh,  wondrous  vision! 
Rapturous  woman! 

there  rises  from  the  orchestra  like  a  vision  of  loveliness  the 
Motive  of  Freia,  the  Venus  of  German  mythology.  In 
its  embrace  it  folds  this  pulsating  theme: 


It  throbs  on  like  a  love-kiss  until  it  seemingly  yields  to 
the  blandishments  of  this  caressing  phrase: 


This  throbbing,  pulsating,  caressing  music  is  succeeded 
by  a  moment  of  repose.  The  woman  again  gazes  search- 
ingly  into  the  man's  features.     She  has  seen  his  face  before. 


Richard  Wagner  177 

When?  Now  she  remembers.  It  is  when  she  has  seen 
her  own  reflection  in  a  brook!  And  his  voice?  It  seems 
to  her  like  an  echo  of  her  own.  And  his  glance;  has  it 
never  before  rested  on  her?  She  is  sure  it  has,  and  she 
will  tell  him  when. 

She  repeats  how,  while  Hunding  and  his  kinsmen  were 
feasting  at  her  marriage,  an  aged  man  entered  the  hall  and, 
drawing  a  sword  thrust  it  to  the  hilt  in  the  ash-tree.  The 
first  to  draw  it  out,  to  him  it  should  belong.  One  after 
another  the  men  strove  to  loosen  the  sword,  but  in  vain. 
Once  the  aged  man's  glance  rested  on  her  and  shone  with 
the  same  light  as  now  shines  in  his  who  has  come  to  her 
through  night  and  storm.  He  who  thrust  the  sword  into 
the  tree  was  of  her  own  race,  the  Walsungs.     Who  is  he? 

"I,  too,  have  seen  that  light,  but  in  your  eyes!"  exclaimed 
the  fugitive.  "I,  too,  am  of  your  race.  I,  too,  am  a 
Walsung,  my  father  none  other  than  Walse  himself." 

"Was  Walse  your  father?"  she  cries  ecstatically.  "For 
you,  then,  this  sword  was  thrust  in  the  tree !  Let  me  name 
you,  as  I  recall  you  from  far  back  in  my  childhood,  Sieg- 
miind — Siegmund — Siegmund  !  " 

"Yes,  I  am  Siegmund;  and  you,  too,  I  now  know  well. 
You  are  Sieglinde.  Fate  has  willed  that  we  two  of  our 
unhappy  race,  shall  meet  again  and  save  each  other  or 
perish  together." 

Then,  leaping  upon  the  table,  he  grasps  the  sword-hilt 
which  protrudes  from  the  trunk  of  the  ash-tree  where  he 
has  seen  that  strange  glow  in  the  light  of  the  dying  embers. 
A  mighty  tug,  and  he  draws  it  from  the  tree  as  a  blade 
from  its  scabbard.  Brandishing  it  in  triumph,  he  leaps  to 
the  floor  and,  clasping  Sieglinde,  rushes  forth  with  her  into 
the  night. 

And  the  music?  It  fairly  seethes  with  excitement. 
As  Siegmund  leaps  upon  the  table,  the  Motive  of  the  Wal- 
sung's  Heroism  rings  out  as  if  in  defiance  of  the  enemies  of 


178  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

the  race.  The  Sword  Motive — and  he  has  grasped  the 
hilt;  the  Motive  of  Compact,  ominous  of  the  fatahty 
which  hangs  over  the  Walsungs;  the  Alotive  of  Renuncia- 
tion, with  its  threatening  import;  then  the  Sword  Motive 
— brilliant  like  the  glitter  of  refulgent  steel — and  Siegmund 
has  unsheathed  the  sword.  The  Walsungs'  Call  to  Victory, 
like  a  song  of  triumph;  a  superb  upward  sweep  of  the 
Sword  Motive;  the  Love  Motive,  now  rushing  onward  in 
the  very  ecstasy  of  passion,  and  Siegmund  holds  in  his 
embrace  Sieglinde,  his  bride — of  the  same  doomed  race  as 
himself ! 

Act  II.  In  the  Vorspiel  the  orchestra,  with  an  upward 
rush  of  the  Sword  Motive,  resolved  into  9-8  time,  the 
orchestra  dashes  into  the  Motive  of  Flight.  The  Sword 
Motive  in  this  9-8  rhythm  closely  resembles  the  Motive 
of  the  Valkyr's  Ride,  and  the  Flight  Motive  in  the  version 
in  which  it  appears  is  much  like  the  Valkyr's  Shout.  The 
Ride  and  the  Shout  are  heard  in  the  course  of  the  Vorspiel, 
the  former  with  tremendous  force  on  trumpets  and  trom- 
bones as  the  curtain  rises  on  a  wild,  rocky  mountain  pass, 
at  the  back  of  which,  through  a  natiiral  rock-formed  arch, 
a  gorge  slopes  downward. 

In  the  foreground  stands  Wotan,  armed  with  spear, 
shield,  and  helmet.  Before  him  is  Brunnhilde  in  the 
superb  costiime  of  the  Valkyr.  The  stormy  spirit  of  the 
Vorspiel  pervades  the  music  of  Wotan' s  command  to 
Brunnhilde  that  she  bridle  her  steed  for  battle  and  spur 
it  to  the  fray  to  do  combat  for  Siegmund  against  Hunding. 
Brunnhilde  greets  Wotan's  command  with  the  weirdly 
joyous  Shout  of  the  Valkyrs 

Hojotoho!     Heiaha-ha. 


i^ " '' '\'    ,'  ■  II 


Photo  by  While 


Weil  as  Wotan  in  "Die  Walkiire" 


Richard  Wagner  179 

It  is  the  cry  of  the  wild  horsewomen  of  the  air,  coursing 
through  storm-clouds,  their  shields  flashing  back  the 
lightning,  their  voices  mingling  with  the  shrieks  of  the 
tempest.  Weirder,  wilder  joy  has  never  found  expression 
in  music.  One  seems  to  see  the  steeds  of  the  air  and  streaks 
of  lightning  playing  around  their  riders,  and  to  hear  the 
whistling  of  the  ^vind. 

The  accompanying  figure  is  based  on  the  Motive  of  the 
Ride  of  the  Valkyrs: 


Brunnhilde,  having  leapt  from  rock  to  rock  to  the  high- 
est peak  of  the  mountain,  again  faces  Wotan,  and  with 
delightful  banter  calls  to  him  that  Fricka  is  approaching 
in  her  ram-drawn  chariot.  Fricka  has  appeared,  descended 
from  her  chariot,  and  advances  toward  Wotan,  Brunnhilde 
having  meanwhile  disappeared  behind  the  mountain 
height. 

Fricka  is  the  protector  of  the  marriage  vow,  and  as  siich 
she  has  come  in  anger  to  demand  from  Wotan  vengeance  in 
behalf  of  Hunding.  As  she  advances  hastily  toward  Wotan, 
her  angry,  passionate  demeanour  is  reflected  by  the  or- 
chestra, and  this  effective  musical  expression  of  Fricka's 
ire  is  often  heard  in  the  course  of  the  scene.  When  near 
Wotan  she  moderates  her  pace,  and  her  angry  demeanour 
gives  way  to  sullen  dignity. 

Wotan,  though  knowing  well  what  has  brought  Fricka 
upon  the  scene,  feigns  ignorance  of  the  cause  of  her  agita- 
tion and  asks  what  it  is  that  harasses  her.  Her  reply  is 
preceded  by  the  stern  Hunding  motive.  She  tells  Wotan 
that  she,  as  the  protectress  of  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage 
vow,  has  heard  Hunding' s  voice  calling  for  vengeance  upon 
the  Walsung  twins.     Her  words,  "  His  voice  for  vengeance 


i8o  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

is  raised,"  are  set  to  a  phrase  strongly  suggestive  oi  Alberich' s 
curse.  It  seems  as  though  the  avenging  Nibelung  were 
pursuing  Wotan's  children  and  thus  striking  a  blow  at 
Wotan  himself  through  Fricka.  The  Love  Motive  breathes 
tlirough  Wotan's  protest  that  Sitgmund  and  Sieglinde 
only  yielded  to  the  music  of  the  spring  night.  Wotan 
argues  that  Siegmund  and  Sieglinde  are  true  lovers,  and 
Fricka  should  smile  instead  of  venting  her  wrath  on  them. 
The  motive  of  the  Love  Song,  the  Love  Motive,  and  the 
caressing  phrase  heard  in  the  love  scene  are  beautifully 
blended  with  Wotan's  words.  In  strong  contrast  to  these 
motives  is  the  music  in  Fricka's  outburst  of  wrath,  intro- 
duced by  the  phrase  reflecting  her  ire,  which  is  repeated 
several  times  in  the  course  of  this  episode.  Wotan 
explains  to  her  why  he  begat  the  Walsung  race  and  the 
hopes  he  has  founded  upon  it.  But  Fricka  mistrusts  him. 
What  can  mortals  accomplish  that  the  gods,  who  are 
far  mightier  than  mortals,  cannot  accomplish?  Hunding 
must  be  avenged  on  Siegmund  and  Sieglinde.  Wotan 
must  withdraw  his  protection  from  Siegmund.  Now  ap- 
pears a  phrase  which  expresses  Wotan's  impotent  wrath 
— impotent  because  Fricka  brings  forward  the  unanswer- 
able argiiment  that  if  the  Walsungs  go  unpunished  by 
her,  as  guardian  of  the  marriage  vow,  she,  the  Queen  of  the 
Gods,  will  be  held  up  to  the  scorn  of  mankind. 

Wotan  would  fain  save  the  Walsungs.  But  Fricka's 
argument  is  conclusive.  He  cannot  protect  Siegmund 
and  Sieglinde,  because  their  escape  from  punishment  would 
bring  degradation  upon  the  queen-goddess  and  the  whole 
race  of  the  gods,  and  result  in  their  immediate  fall.  Wotan's 
wrath  rises  at  the  thought  of  sacrificing  his  beloved  children 
to  the  vengeance  of  Hunding,  but  he  is  impotent.  His 
far-reaching  plans  are  brought  to  nought.  He  sees  the 
hope  of  having  the  Ring  restored  to  the  Rhinedaughters 
by  the  voluntary  act  of  a  hero  of  the  Walsung  race  vanish. 


Richard  Wagner  i8i 

The  curse  of  Alherich  hangs  over  him  like  a  dark,  threatening 
cloud.     The  Motive  of  Wo  tan's  Wrath  is  as  follows: 


Briinnhilde's  joyous  shouts  are  heard  from  the  height. 
Wotan  exclaims  that  he  had  stmimoned  the  Valkyr  to  do 
battle  for  Siegmund.  In  broad,  stately  measures,  Fricka 
proclaims  that  her  honour  shall  be  guarded  by  Briinnhilde's 
shield  and  demands  of  Wotan  an  oath  that  in  the  coming 
combat  the  Walsimg  shall  fall.  Wotan  takes  the  oath  and 
throws  himself  dejectedly  down  upon  a  rocky  seat.  Fricka 
strides  toward  the  back.  She  pauses  a  moment  with  a 
gesture  of  queenly  command  before  Brtinnhilde,  who  has 
led  her  horse  down  the  height  and  into  a  cave  to  the  right, 
then  departs. 

In  this  scene  we  have  witnessed  the  spectacle  of  a  mighty 
god  vainly  struggling  to  avert  rtiin  from  his  race.  That  it 
is  due  to  irresistible  fate  and  not  merely  to  Fricka  that 
Wotan' s  plans  succumb,  is  made  clear  by  the  darkly  ominous 
notes  of  Alberich's  Curse,  which  resound  as  Wotan,  wrapt 
in  gloomy  brooding,  leans  back  against  the  rocky  seat,  and 
also  when,  in  a  paroxysm  of  despair,  he  gives  vent  to  his 
feelings,  a  passage  which,  for  overpowering  intensity  of 
expression,  stands  out  even  from  among  Wagner's  writings. 
The  final  words  of  this  outburst  of  grief: 

The  saddest  I  among  all  men, 

are  set  to  this  variant  of  the  Motive  of  Renunciation;  the 
meaning  of  this  phrase  having  been  expanded  from  the 
renimciation  of  love  by  Alherich  to  cover  the  renunciation 
of  happiness  which  is  forced  upon  Wotan  by  avenging  fate: 


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Briinnhilde  casts  away  shield,  spear,  and  helmet,  and 
sinking  down  at  Wotan's  feet  looks  up  to  him  with  affec- 
tionate anxiety.  Here  we  see  in  the  Valkyr  the  touch  of 
tenderness,  without  which  a  truly  heroic  character  is  never 
complete. 

Musically  it  is  beautifully  expressed  by  the  Love  Motive, 
which,  when  Wotan,  as  if  awakening  from  a  reverie,  fondly 
strokes  her  hair,  goes  over  into  the  Siegmund  Motive. 
It  is  over  the  fate  of  his  beloved  Walsungs  Wotan  has  been 
brooding.     Immediately  following  Briinnhilde' s  words, 

What  an  I  were  I  not  thy  will, 

is  a  wonderfully  soft  yet  rich  melody  on  four  horns.  It  is  one 
of  those  beautiful  details  in  which  Wagner's  works  abound. 

In  Wotan' s  narrative,  which  now  follows,  the  chief  of  the 
gods  tells  Briinnhilde  of  the  events  which  have  brought 
this  sorrow  upon  him,  of  his  failure  to  restore  the  stolen 
gold  to  the  RJiinedaughters ;  of  his  dread  of  Alberich's 
curse;  how  she  and  her  sister  Valkyrs  were  bom  to  him  by 
Erda;  of  the  necessity  that  a  hero  should  without  aid  of 
the  gods  gain  the  Ring  and  Tarnhelmet  from  Fafner  and 
restore  the  Rhinegold  to  the  Rhinedaughters;  how  he  begot 
the  Walsungs  and  inured  them  to  hardships  in  the  hope 
that  one  of  the  race  would  free  the  gods  from  Alberich's 
ctirse. 

The  motives  heard  in  Wotan's  narrative  will  be  re- 
cognized, except  one,  which  is  new.  This  is  expressive  of 
the  stress  to  which  the  gods  are  subjected  through  Wotan's 
crime.  It  is  first  heard  when  Wotan  tells  of  the  hero  who 
alone  can  regain  the  ring.  It  is  the  Motive  of  the  Gods' 
Stress. 


Richard  Wagner  183 

Excited  by  remorse  and  despair  Wotan  bids  farewell  to 
the  glory  of  the  gods.  Then  he  in  terrible  mockery  blesses 
the  Nibelung's  heir — for  Alberich  has  wedded  and  to  him 
has  been  born  a  son,  upon  whom  the  Nibelung  depends 
to  continue  his  death  struggle  with  the  gods.  Terrified 
by  this  outburst  of  wrath,  Brilnnhilde  asks  what  her  duty 
shall  be  in  the  approaching  combat.  Wotan  commands 
her  to  do  Fricka's  bidding  and  withdraw  protection  from 
Siegmund.  In  vain  Brilnnhilde  pleads  for  the  Walsung 
whom  she  knows  Wotan  loves,  and  wished  a  victor  until 
Fricka  exacted  a  promise  from  him  to  avenge  Hunding. 
But  her  pleading  is  in  vain.  Wotan  is  no  longer  the  all- 
powerful  chief  of  the  gods — through  his  breach  of  faith 
he  has  become  the  slave  of  fate.  Hence  we  hear,  as  Wotan 
rushes  away,  driven  by  chagrin,  rage,  and  despair,  chords 
heavy  with  the  crushing  force  of  fate. 

Slowly  and  sadly  Brilnnhilde  bends  down  for  her  weapons, 
her  actions  being  accompanied  by  the  YaSkyr  Motive. 
Bereft  of  its  stormy  impetuosity  it  is  as  trist  as  her 
thoughts.  Lost  in  sad  reflections,  which  find  beautiful 
expression  in  the  orchestra,  she  turns  toward  the  back- 
ground. 

Suddenly  the  sadly  expressive  phrases  are  interrupted 
by  the  Motive  of  Flight.  Looking  down  into  the  valley 
the  Valkyr  perceives  Siegmund  and  Sieglinde  approaching 
in  hasty  flight.  She  then  disappears  in  the  cave.  With 
a  superb  crescendo  the  Motive  of  Flight  reaches  its  climax 
and  the  two  Walsungs  are  seen  approaching  through  the 
natural  arch.  For  hours  they  have  toiled  forward;  often 
Sieglinde's  limbs  have  threatened  to  fail  her,  yet  never 
have  the  fugitives  been  able  to  shake  off  the  dread  sound 
of  Hunding  winding  his  horn  as  he  called  upon  his  kinsmen 
to  redouble  their  efforts  to  overtake  the  two  Walsungs. 
Even  now,  as  they  come  up  the  gorge  and  pass  under  a 
rocky  arch  to  the  height  of  the  divide,  the  pursuit  can  be 


184  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

heard.  They  are  human  quarry  of  the  hunt.  Terror  has 
begun  to  unsettle  Sieglinde's  reason.  When  Siegmund 
bids  her  rest  she  stares  wildly  before  her,  then  gazes  with 
growing  rapture  into  his  eyes  and  throws  her  arms  around 
his  neck,  only  to  shriek  suddenly:  "Away,  away!"  as 
she  hears  the  distant  horn-calls,  then  to  grow  rigid  and 
stare  vacantly  before  her  as  Siegmund  announces  to  her 
that  here  he  proposes  to  end  their  flight,  here  await 
Hunding,  and  test  the  temper  of  Wdlses  sword.  Then  she 
tries  to  thrust  him  away.  Let  him  leave  her  to  her  fate 
and  save  himself.  But  a  moment  later,  although  she  still 
clings  to  him,  she  apparently  is  gazing  into  vacancy  and 
crying  out  that  he  has  deserted  her.  At  last,  utterly  over- 
come by  the  strain  of  flight  with  the  avenger  on  the  trail, 
she  faints,  her  hold  on  Siegmund  relaxes,  and  she  would 
have  fallen  had  he  not  caught  her  form  in  his  arms.  Slowly 
he  lets  himself  down  on  a  rocky  seat,  drawing  her  with 
him,  so  that  when  he  is  seated  her  head  rests  on  his  lap. 
Tenderly  he  looks  down  upon  the  companion  of  his  flight, 
and,  while,  like  a  mournful  memory,  the  orchestra  intones 
the  Love  Motive,  he  presses  a  kiss  upon  her  brow — she  of 
his  own  race,  like  him  doomed  to  misfortune,  dedicated 
to  death,  should  the  sword  which  he  has  unsheathed  from 
Hunding's  ash-tree  prove  traitor.  As  he  looks  up  from 
Sieglinde  he  is  startled.  For  there  stands  on  the  rock 
above  them  a  shining  apparition  in  flowing  robes,  breast- 
plate, and  helmet,  and  leaning  upon  a  spear.  It  is  BrUnn- 
hilde,  the  Valkyr,  daughter  of  Wotan. 

The   Motive   of   Fate — so  full   of    solemn    import  —  is 
heard. 


While  her  earnest  look  rests  upon  him,  there  is  heard  the 
Motive  of  the  Death-Song,  a  tristly  prophetic  strain. 


Richard  Wagner 


185 


Briinnhilde  advances  and  then,  pausing  again,  leans 
with  one  hand  on  her  charger's  neck,  and,  grasping  shield 
and  spear  with  the  other,  gazes  upon  Siegmund.  Then 
there  rises  from  the  orchestra,  in  strains  of  rich,  soft,  allur- 
ing beauty,  an  inversion  of  the  Walhalla  Motive.  The 
Fate,  Death-Song  and  Walhalla  motives  recur,  and  Sieg- 
mundy  raising  his  eyes  and  meeting  Briinnhilde's  look, 
questions  her  and  receives  her  answers.  The  episode  is 
so  fraught  with  solemnity  that  the  shadow  of  death  seems 
to  have  fallen  upon  the  scene.  The  solemn  beauty  of  the 
music  impresses  itself  the  more  upon  the  listener,  because 
of  the  agitated,  agonized  scene  which  preceded  it.  To 
the  Walsung,  who  meets  her  gaze  so  calmly,  Briinnhilde 
speaks  in  solemn  tones: 

"  Siegmund,  look  on  me.  I  am  she  whom  soon  you  must 
prepare  to  follow."  Then  she  paints  for  him  in  glowing 
colours  the  joys  of  Walhalla,  where  Wdlse,  his  father, 
is  awaiting  him  and  where  he  will  have  heroes  for  his 
companions,  himself  the  hero  of  many  valiant  deeds. 
Siegmund  listens  unmoved.  In  reply  he  frames  but  one 
question:  "When  I  enter  Walhalla,  will  Sieglinde  be  there 
to  greet  me?" 

When  Briinnhilde  answers  that  in  Walhalla  he  will  be 
attended  by  valk)n-s  and  wishmaidens,  but  that  Sieglinde 
will  not  be  there  to  meet  him,  he  scorns  the  delights  she 
has  held  out.  Let  her  greet  Wotan  from  him,  and  Wdlse, 
his  father,  too,  as  well  as  the  wishmaidens.  He  will 
remain  with  Sieglinde. 

Then  the  radiant  Valkyr,  moved  by  Siegmund's  calm 
determination  to  sacrifice  even  a  place  among  the  heroes 
of  Walhalla  for  the  woman  he  loves,  makes  known  to  him 
the  fate  to  which  he  has  been  doomed.     Wotan  desired 


i86  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

to  give  him  victor}'-  over  Hunding,  and  she  had  been  sum- 
moned by  the  chief  of  the  gods  and  commanded  to  hover 
above  the  combatants,  and  by  shielding  Siegmund  from 
Hunding's  thrusts,  render  the  Walsung's  victory  certain. 
But  Wotan's  spouse,  Fricka,  who,  as  the  first  among  the 
goddesses,  is  guardian  of  the  marriage  vows,  has  heard 
Hunding's  voice  caUing  for  vengeance,  and  has  demanded 
that  vengeance  be  his.  Let  Siegmund  therefore  prepare 
for  Walhalla,  but  let  him  leave  Sieglinde  in  her  care.  She 
will  protect  her. 

"No  other  living  being  but  I  shall  touch  her,"  exclaims 
the  Walsung,  as  he  draws  his  sword.  "If  the  Walsung 
sword  is  to  be  shattered  on  Hunding's  spear,  to  which  I  am 
to  fall  a  victim,  it  first  shall  biu"y  itself  in  her  breast  and 
save  her  from  a  worse  fate!  "  He  poises  the  sword  ready 
for  the  thrust  above  the  unconscious  Sieglinde. 

"Hold!"  cries  Briinnhilde,  thrilled  by  his  heroic  love. 
"  Whatever  the  consequences  which  Wotan,  in  his  wrath, 
shall  visit  upon  me,  to-day.  for  the  first  time  I  disobey 
him.  Sieglinde  shall  live,  and  with  her  Siegmund!  Yours 
the  victory  over  Hunding.  Now  Walsung,  prepare  for 
battle!" 

Hunding's  hom-calls  sound  nearer  and  nearer.  Siegmund 
judges  that  he  has  ascended  the  other  side  of  the  gorge, 
intending  to  cross  the  rocky  arch.  Already  Briinnhilde 
has  gone  to  take  her  place  where  she  knows  the  combatants 
must  meet.  With  a  last  look  and  a  last  kiss  for  Sieglinde, 
Siegmund  gently  lays  her  down  and  begins  to  ascend  toward 
the  peak.  Mist  gathers;  storm-clouds  roll  over  the  moun- 
tain; soon  he  is  lost  to  sight.  Slowly  Sieglinde  regains 
her  senses.  She  looks  for  Siegmund.  Instead  of  seeing 
him  bending  over  her  she  hears  Hunding's  voice  as  if  from 
among  the  clouds,  calling  him  to  combat ;  then  Siegmund' s 
accepting  the  challenge.  She  staggers  toward  the  peak. 
Suddenly  a  bright  light  pierces  the  clouds.     Above  her 


Richard  Wagner  187 

she  sees  the  men  fighting,  Briinnhilde  protecting  Siegmund 
who  is  aiming  a  deadly  stroke  at  Hunding. 

At  that  moment,  however,  the  light  is  diffused  with  a 
reddish  glow.  In  it  Wotan  appears.  As  Siegmund's 
sword  cuts  the  air  on  its  errand  of  death,  the  god  interposes 
his  spear,  the  sword  breaks  in  two  and  Hunding  thrusts 
his  spear  into  the  defenceless  Walsung's  breast.  The 
second  victim  of  Alberich's  curse  has  met  his  fate. 

With  a  wild  shriek,  Sieglinde  falls  to  the  ground,  to  be 
caught  up  by  Briinnhilde  and  swung  upon  the  Valkyr's 
charger,  which,  urged  on  by  its  mistress,  now  herself  a 
fugitive  from  Wotan's  anger,  dashes  down  the  defile  in 
headlong  flight  for  the  Valkyr  rock. 

Act  III.  The  third  act  opens  with  the  famous  "  Ride  of 
the  Valkyrs,"  a  nimiber  so  familiar  that  detailed  reference 
to  it  is  scarcely  necessary.  The  wild  maidens  of  Walhalla 
coursing  upon  winged  steeds  through  storm-clouds,  their 
weapons  flashing  in  the  gleam  of  lightning,  their  weird 
laughter  mingling  with  the  crash  of  thunder,  have  come  to 
hold  tryst  upon  the  Valkyr  rock. 

When  eight  of  the  Valkyrs  have  gathered  upon  the  rocky 
svmmiit  of  the  mountain,  they  espy  Briinnhilde  approaching. 
It  is  with  savage  shouts  of  "Hojotoho!  Heiha!"  those  who 
already  have  reached  their  savage  eyrie,  watch  for  the  coming 
of  their  wild  sisters.  Fitful  flashes  of  lightning  herald  their 
approach  as  they  storm  fearlessly  through  the  wind  and 
cloud,  their  weird  shouts  mingling  with  the  clash  of  thunder. 
' '  Hojotoho !  Heihe !— Hojotoho !  Heiha ! ' ' 

But,  strange  burden!  Instead  of  a  slain  hero  across  her 
pommel,  Briinnhilde  bears  a  woman,  and  instead  of  urging  her 
horse  to  the  highest  crag,  she  alights  below.  The  Valkyrs 
hasten  down  the  rock,  and  there  the  wild  sisters  of  the  air 
stand,  curiously  awaiting  the  approach  of  Briinnhilde. 

In  frantic  haste  the  Valkyr  tells  her  sisters  what  has 
transpired,   and  how  Wotan  is  pursuing  her  to  punish  her 


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The  Complete  Opera  Book 


for  her  disobedience.  One  of  the  Valkyrs  ascends  the  rock 
and,  looking  in  the  direction  from  which  Brilnnhilde  has 
come,  calls  out  that  even  now  she  can  descry  the  red  glow 
behind  the  storm-clouds  that  denotes  Wotan's  approach. 
Quickly  Brilnnhilde  bids  Sieglinde  seek  refuge  in  the  forest 
beyond  the  Valkyr  rock.  The  latter,  who  has  been  lost 
in  gloomy  brooding,  starts  at  her  rescuer's  supplication 
and  in  strains  replete  with  mournful  beauty  begs  that  she 
may  be  left  to  her  fate  and  follow  Siegmund  in  death.  The 
glorious  prophecy  in  which  Brilnnhilde  now  foretells  to 
Sieglinde  that  she  is  to  become  the  mother  of  Siegfried,  is 
based  upon  the  Siegfried  Motive : 


Sieglinde,  in  joyous  frenzy,  blesses  Brilnnhilde  and  hastens 
to  find  safety  in  a  dense  forest  to  the  eastward,  the  same 
forest  in  which  Fafner,  in  the  form  of  a  serpent,  guards  the 
Rhinegold  treasures. 

Woian,  in  hot  pursuit  of  Brilnnhilde,  reaches  the  mountain 
summit.  In  vain  her  sisters  entreat  him  to  spare  her.  He 
harshly  threatens  them  unless  they  cease  their  entreaties, 
and  with  wild  cries  of  fear  they  hastily  depart. 

In  the  ensuing  scene  between  Wotan  and  Brilnnhilde,  in 
which  the  latter  seeks  to  justify  her  action,  is  heard  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  themes  of  the  cycle. 

It  is  the  Motive  of  Briinnhilde's  Pleading,  which  finds 
its  loveliest  expression  when  she  addresses  Wotan  in  the 
passage  beginning: 


Thou,  who  this  love  within  my  breast  inspired. 

hh  F  ....  I  r  r  I  r- 1  .  .  I  f 


Richard  Wagner  189 

Brunnhilde  is  Wotan's  favourite  daughter,  but  instead 
of  the  loving  pride  with  which  he  always  has  been  wont  to 
regard  her,  his  features  are  dark  with  anger  at  her  dis- 
obedience of  his  command.  He  had  decreed  Siegmund' s 
death.  She  has  striven  to  give  victory  to  the  Walsung. 
Throwing  herself  at  her  father's  feet,  she  pleads  that  he 
himself  had  intended  to  save  Siegmund  and  had  been  turned 
from  his  ptirpose  only  by  Fricka's  interference,  and  that  he 
had  yielded  only  most  grudgingly  to  Fricka's  insistent  behest. 
Therefore,  when  she,  his  daughter,  profoundly  moved  by 
Siegmund' s  love  for  Sieglinde,  and  her  sympathies  aroused 
by  the  sad  plight  of  the  fugitives,  disregarded  his  command, 
she  nevertheless  acted  in  accordance  with  his  real  inclina- 
tions. But  Wotan  is  obdurate.  She  has  revelled  in  the 
very  feelings  which  he  was  obliged,  at  Fricka's  behest,  to 
forego — admiration  for  Siegmund's  heroism  and  sympathy 
for  him  in  his  misfortune.  Therefore  she  must  be  punished. 
He  will  cause  her  to  fall  into  a  deep  sleep  upon  the  Valkyr 
rock,  which  shall  become  the  Brunnhilde  rock,  and  to  the 
first  man  who  finds  her  and  awakens  her,  she,  no  longer  a 
Valkyr,  but  a  mere  woman,  shall  fall  prey. 

This  great  scene  between  Wotan  and  Brunnhilde  is 
introduced  by  an  orchestral  passage.  The  Valkyr  lies  in 
penitence  at  her  father's  feet.  In  the  expressive  orchestral 
measures  the  Motive  of  Wotan's  Wrath  mingles  with  that 
of  Brunnhilde's  Pleading.  The  motives  thus  form  a  pre- 
lude to  the  scene  ia  which  the  Valkyr  seeks  to  appease  her 
father's  anger,  not  through  a  specious  plea,  but  by  laying 
bare  the  promptings  of  a  noble  heart,  which  forced  her, 
against  the  chief  god's  command,  to  intervene  for  Siegmund. 
The  Motive  of  Brunnhilde's  Pleading  is  heard  in  its  simplest 
form  at  Briinnhilde's  words: 

Was  it  so  shameful  what  I  have  done, 

and  it  may  be  noticed  that  as  she  proceeds  the  Motive  of 


190  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Wotan's  Wrath,  heard  in  the  accompaninient,  grows  less 
stern,  until  with  her  plea, 

Soften  thy  wrath, 

it  assumes  a  tone  of  regretful  sorrow. 

Wotan's  feelings  toward  Brilnnhilde  have  softened  for 
the  time  from  anger  to  grief  that  he  must  mete  out  punish- 
ment for  her  disobedience.  In  his  reply  excitement  sub- 
sides to  gloom.  It  would  be  difficult  to  point  to  other 
music  more  touchingly  expressive  of  deep  contrition  than 
the  phrase  in  which  Briinnhilde  pleads  that  Wotan  himself 
taught  her  to  love  Siegmund.  It  is  here  that  the  Motive 
of  Briinnhilde's  Pleading  assumes  the  form  in  the  notation 
given  above.  Then  we  hear  from  Wotan  that  he  had 
abandoned  Siegmund  to  his  fate,  because  he  had  lost  hope  in 
the  cause  of  the  gods  and  wished  to  end  his  woe  in  the 
wreck  of  the  world.  The  weird  terror  of  the  Curse  Motive 
hangs  over  this  outburst  of  despair.  In  broad  and  beauti- 
ful strains  Wotan  then  depicts  Briinnhilde  yielding  to  her 
emotions  when  she  intervened  for  Siegmund. 

Briinnhilde  makes  her  last  appeal.  She  tells  her  father 
that  Sieglinde  has  found  refuge  in  the  forest,  and  that 
there  she  will  give  birth  to  a  son,  Siegfried, — the  hero  for 
whom  the  gods  have  been  waiting  to  overthrow  their 
enemies.  If  she  must  suffer  for  her  disobedience,  let 
Wotan  surround  her  sleeping  form  with  a  fiery  circle  which 
only  such  a  hero  will  dare  penetrate.  The  Motive  of 
Briinnhilde's  Pleading  and  the  Siegfried  Motive  vie  with 
each  other  in  giving  expression  to  the  beauty,  tenderness, 
and  majesty  of  this  scene. 

Gently  the  god  raises  her  and  tenderly  kisses  her  brow; 
and  thus  bids  farewell  to  the  best  beloved  of  his  daughters. 
Slowly  she  sinks  upon  the  rock.  He  closes  her  helmet 
and  covers  her  with  her  shield.  Then,  with  his  spear,  he 
invokes  the  god  of  fire.     Tongues  of  flame  leap  from  the 


Richard  Wagner  191 

crevices  of  the  rock.  Wildly  fluttering  fire  breaks  out  on 
all  sides.  The  forest  beyond  glows  like  a  furnace,  with 
brighter  streaks  shooting  and  throbbing  through  the  mass, 
as  Wotan,  with  a  last  look  at  the  sleeping  form  of  Briinn- 
hilde,  vanishes  beyond  the  fiery  circle. 

A  majestic  orchestral  passage  opens  Wotan' s  farewell 
to  Briinnhilde.  In  all  music  for  bass  voice  this  scene  has 
no  peer.  Such  tender,  mournful  beauty  has  never  found 
expression  in  music — and  this,  whether  we  regard  the  vocal 
part  or  the  orchestral  accompaniment  in  which  the  lovely 
Slumber  Motive: 


As  Wotan  leads  Briinnhilde  to  the  rock,  upon  which  she 
sinks,  closes  her  helmet,  and  covers  her  with  her  shield,  then 
invokes  Loge,  and,  after  gazing  fondly  upon  the  slumber- 
ing Valkyr,  vanishes  amid  the  magic  flames,  the  Slumber 
Motive,  the  Magic  Fire  Motive,  and  the  Siegfried  Motive 
combine  to  place  the  music  of  the  scene  with  the  most 
brilliant  and  beautiful  portion  of  our  heritage  from  the 
great  master-musician.  But  here,  too,  ltu*ks  Destiny. 
Towards  the  close  of  this  glorious  finale  we  hear  again 
the  ominous  muttering  of  the  Motive  of  Fate.  Briinnhilde 
may  be  saved  from  ignominy,  Siegfried  may  be  born  to 
Sieglindt — but  the  crushing  weight  of  Alberich's  curse 
still  rests  upon  the  race  of  the  gods. 

SIEGFRIED 

Music-drama  in  three  acts,  by  Richard  Wagner.  Produced,  Bay- 
reuth,  August  16,  1876.  London,  by  the  Carl  Rosa  Company,  1898, 
in  English.  New  York,  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  November  9, 
1887,  with  Lehmann  {Briinnhilde),  Fischer  {Wotan),  Alvary  {Sieg- 
fried), and  Seidl-Kraus  {Forest  bird). 


192  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Characters 

Siegfried Tenor 

Mime Tenor 

WoTAN  (disguised  as  the  Wanderer) Baritone-Bass 

Alberich Baritone-Bass 

Fafner Bass 

Erda Contralto 

Forest  Bird Soprano 

Brunnhilde Soprano     ' 

Time — Legendary.  Place — A  rocky  cave  in  the  forest;  deep  in 

the  forest ;  wild  region  at  foot  of  a  rocky 
mount;  the  Brunnhilde-rock. 

The  Nibelungs  were  not  present  in  the  dramatic  action 
of  "The  Valkyr,"  though  the  sinister  influence  of  Alberich 
shaped  the  tragedy  oi' Siegmund' s  death.  In  "Siegfried" 
several  characters  of  "The  Rhinegold,"  who  do  not  take 
part  in  "The  Valkyr,"  reappear.  These  are  the  Nibelungs 
Alberich  and  Mime;  the  giant  Fafner,  who  in  the  guise  of 
a  serpent  guards  the  Ring,  the  Tarnhelmet,  and  the  Nibelung 
hoard  in  a  cavern,  and  Erda. 

Siegfried  has  been  born  of  Sieglinde,  who  died  in  giving 
birth  to  him.  This  scion  of  the  Walsung  race  has  been 
reared  by  Mime,  who  found  him  in  the  forest  by  his  dead 
mother's  side.  Mime  is  plotting  to  obtain  possession  of 
the  ring  and  of  Fafner' s  other  treasures,  and  hopes  to  be 
aided  in  his  designs  by  the  lusty  youth.  Wotan,  disguised 
as  a  wanderer,  is  watching  the  course  of  events,  again 
hopeful  that  a  hero  of  the  Walsting  race  will  free  the  gods 
from  Alberich' s  curse.  Surrounded  by  magic  fire,  Brunn- 
hilde still  lies  in  deep  slumber  on  the  Brunnhilde  Rock. 

The  Vor spiel  of  "Siegfried"  is  expressive  of  Mime's 
planning  and  plotting.  It  begins  with  music  of  a  myste- 
rious brooding  character.  Mingling  with  this  is  the 
Motive  of  the  Hoard,  familiar  from  "The  Rhinegold." 
Then  is  heard  the  Nibelung  Motive.  After  reaching  a 
forceful  climax  it  passes  over  to  the  Motive  of  the  Ring, 


Richard  Wagner  193 

which  rises  from  pianissimo  to  a  crashing  climax.  The 
ring  is  to  be  the  prize  of  all  Mime's  plotting.  He  hopes 
to  weld  the  pieces  of  Siegmund's  sword  together,  and  that 
with  this  sword  Siegfried  will  slay  Fafner.  Then  Mime 
will  slay  Siegfried  and  possess  himself  of  the  ring.  Thus 
it  is  to  serve  his  own  ends  only,  that  Mime  is  craftily  rearing 
Siegfried. 

The  opening  scene  shows  Mime  forging  a  sword  at  a 
natural  forge  formed  in  a  rocky  cave.  In  a  soliloquy  he 
discloses  the  purpose  of  his  labours  and  laments  that 
Siegfried  shivers  every  sword  which  has  been  forged  for 
him.  Could  he  (Mime)  but  unite  the  pieces  of  Siegmund's 
sword!  At  this  thought  the  Sword  Motive  rings  out  bril- 
liantly, and  is  jubilantly  repeated,  accompanied  by  a 
variant  of  the  Walhalla  Motive.  For  if  the  pieces  of  the 
sword  were  welded  together,  and  Siegfried  were  with  it  to 
slay  Fafner,  Mime  could  surreptitiously  obtain  possession 
of  the  ring,  slay  Siegfried,  rtile  over  the  gods  in  Walhalla, 
and  circumvent  Alberich's  plans  for  regaining  the  hoard. 

Mime  is  still  at  work  when  Siegfried  enters,  clad  in  a  wild 
forest  garb.  Over  it  a  silver  horn  is  slung  by  a  chain. 
The  sturdy  youth  has  captured  a  bear.  He  leads  it  by  a 
bast  rope,  with  which  he  gives  it  full  play  so  that  it  can 
make  a  dash  at  Mime.  As  the  latter  flees  terrified  behind 
the  forge,  Siegfried  gives  vent  to  his  high  spirits  in  shouts 
of  laughter.  Musically  his  buoyant  nature  is  expressed 
by  a  theme  inspired  by  the  fresh,  joyful  spirit  of  a  wild, 
woodland  life.  It  may  be  called,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
Siegfried  Motive,  the  Motive  of  Siegfried  the  Fearless. 


It  per\''ades  with  its  joyous  impetuosity  the    ensuing 
scene,  in  which  Siegfried  has  his  sport  with  Mime,  until 


194 


Complete  Opera  Book 


tiring  of  it,  he  loosens  the  rope  from  the  bear's  neck  and 
drives  the  animal  back  into  the  forest.  In  a  pretty,  grace- 
ful phrase  Siegfried  tells  how  he  blew  his  horn,  hoping  it 
would  be  answered  by  a  pleasanter  companion  than  Mime. 
Then  he  examines  the  sword  which  Mime  has  been  forging. 
The  Siegfried  Motive  resounds  as  he  inveighs  against  the 
weapon's  weakness,  then  shivers  it  on  the  anvil.  The 
orchestra,  with  a  rush,  takes  up  the  Motive  of  Siegfried  the 
Impetuous. 


^^^^^^^m 


This  is  a  theme  full  of  youthful  snap  and  dash.  Mime 
tells  Siegfried  how  he  tenderly  reared  him  from  infancy. 
The  musio  here  is  as  simple  and  pretty  as  a  folk-song,  for 
Mime's  reminiscences  of  Siegfried's  infancy  are  set  to  a 
charming  melody,  as  though  Mime  were  recalling  to  Sieg- 
fried's memory  a  cradle  song  of  those  days.  But  Siegfried 
grows  impatient.  If  Mime  really  tended  him  so  kindly  out 
of  pure  affection,  why  should  Mime  be  so  repulsive  to  him; 
and  yet  why  should  he,  in  spite  of  Mime's  repulsiveness, 
always  return  to  the  cave?  The  dwarf  explains  that  he  is 
to  Siegfried  what  the  father  is  to  the  fledgling.  This  leads 
to  a  beautiful  lyric  episode.  Siegfried  says  that  he  saw 
the  birds  mating,  the  deer  pairing,  the  she-wolf  nursing  her 
cubs.  Whom  shall  he  call  Mother?  Who  is  Mime's  wife? 
This  episode  is  pervaded  by  the  lovely  Motive  of  Love-Life. 


Richard  Wagner  195 

Mime  endeavours  to  persuade  Siegfried  that  he  is  his 
father  and  mother  in  one.  But  Siegfried  has  noticed  that 
the  young  of  birds  and  deer  and  wolves  look  like  the 
parents.  He  has  seen  his  featiu-es  reflected  in  the  brook, 
and  knows  he  does  not  resemble  the  hideous  Mime.  The 
notes  of  the  Love-Life  Motive  pervade  this  episode.  When 
Siegfried  speaks  of  seeing  his  own  likeness,  we  also  hear  the 
Siegfried  Motive.  Mime,  forced  by  Siegfried  to  speak  the 
truth,  tells  of  Sieglinde's  death  while  giving  birth  to  Sieg- 
fried. Throughout  this  scene  we  find  reminiscences  of 
the  first  act  of  "The  Valkyr,"  the  Walsimg  Motive,  the 
Motive  of  Sympathy,  and  the  Love  Motive.  Finally, 
when  Mime  produces  as  evidence  of  the  truth  of  his  words 
the  two  pieces  of  Siegmund's  sword,  the  Sword  Motive  rings 
out  brilliantly.  Siegfried  exclaims  that  Mime  must  weld 
the  pieces  into  a  trusty  weapon.  Then  follows  Siegfried's 
"Wander  Song,"  so  full  of  joyous  abandon.  Once  the 
sword  welded,  he  will  leave  the  hated  Mime  for  ever. 
As  the  fish  darts  through  the  water,  as  the  bird  flies  so 
free,  he  will  flee  from  the  repulsive  dwarf.  With  I'oyous 
exclamations  he  runs  from  the  cave  into  the  forest. 

The  frank,  boisterous  nature  of  Siegfried  is  charmingly 
portrayed.  His  buoyant  vivacity  finds  capital  expression 
in  the  Motives  of  Siegfried  the  Fearless,  Siegfried  the 
Impetuous,  and  his  "Wander  Song,"  while  the  vein  of  ten- 
derness in  his  character  seems  to  run  through  the  Love- 
Life  Motive.  His  harsh  treatment  of  Mime  is  not  brutal; 
for  Siegfried  frankly  avows  his  loathing  for  the  dwarf,  and 
we  feel,  knowing  Mime's  plotting  against  the  young  Wal- 
simg, that  Siegfried's  hatred  is  the  spontaneous  aversion 
of  a  frank  nature  for  an  insidious  one. 

Mime  has  a  gloomy  soliloquy.  It  is  interrupted  by  the 
entrance  of  Wotan,  disguised  as  a  wanderer.  At  the  mo- 
ment Mime  is  in  despair  because  he  cannot  weld  the  pieces 


196  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

of  Siegmund's  sword.  When  the  Wanderer  departs,  he 
has  prophesied  that  only  he  who  does  not  know  what  fear 
is — only  a  fearless  hero — can  weld  the  fragments,  and  that 
through  this  fearless  hero  Mime  shall  lose  his  life.  This 
prophecy  is  reached  through  a  somewhat  ciu"ious  process 
which  must  be  unintelligible  to  any  one  who  has  not  made 
a  study  of  the  libretto.  The  Wanderer,  seating  himself, 
wagers  his  head  that  he  can  correctly  answer  any  three 
questions  which  Mime  may  put  to  him.  Mime  then  asks: 
"  What  is  the  race  bom  in  the  earth's  deep  bowels? "  The 
Wanderer  answers:  "  The  Nibelungs."  Mime'  ssecond  ques- 
tion is:  What  race  dwells  on  the  earth's  back?  The 
Wanderer  replies:  "  The  race  of  giants."  Mime  finally  asks: 
"What  race  dwells  on  cloudy  heights?"  The  Wanderer 
answers:  "  The  race  of  the  gods."  The  Wanderer,  having 
thus  answered  correctly  Mime's  three  questions,  now  put 
three  questions  to  Mime:  "What  is  that  noble  race  which 
Wotan  ruthlessly  dealt  with,  and  yet  which  he  deemeth 
most  dear?"  Mime  answers  correctly:  "The  Walsungs." 
Then  the  Wanderer  asks:  "What  sword  must  Siegfried 
then  strike  with,  dealing  to  Fafner  death?"  Mime  answers 
correctly:  "With  Siegmund's  sword."  "Who,"  asks  the 
Wanderer,  "can  weld  its  fragments?"  Mime  is  terrified, 
for  he  cannot  answer.  Then  Wotan  utters  the  prophecy  of 
the  fearless  hero. 

The  scene  is  musically  most  eloquent.  It  is  introduced 
by  two  motives,  representing  Wotan  as  the  Wanderer. 
The  mysterious  chords  of  the  former  seem  characteristic 
of  Wotan's  disguise. 

The  latter,  with  its  plodding,  heavily-tramping  move- 
ment, is  the  motive  of  Wotan's  wandering. 

The  third  new  motive  found  in  this  scene  is  character- 
istically expressive  of  the  Cringing  Mime. 


Richard  Wagner  197 

Several  motives  familiar  from  "The  Rhinegold"  and 
"The  Valkyr"  are  heard  here.  The  Motive  of  Compact 
so  powerfully  expressive  of  the  binding  force  of  law,  the 
Nibelung  and  Walhalla  motives  from  "The  Rhinegold," 
and  the  Walsungs '  Heroism  motives  from  the  first  act  of 
"The  Valk3nr,"  are  among  these. 

When  the  Wanderer  has  vanished  in  the  forest  Mime 
sinks  back  on  his  stool  in  despair.  Staring  after  Wotan 
into  the  sunlit  forest,  the  shimmering  rays  flitting  over 
the  soft  green  mosses  with  every  movement  of  the  branches 
and  each  tremor  of  the  leaves  seem  to  him  like  flickering 
flames  and  treacherous  will-o'-the-wisps.  We  hear  the 
Loge  Motive  {Loge  being  the  god  of  fire)  familiar  from 
"The  Rhinegold"  and  the  finale  of  "The  Valkyr."  At 
last  Mime  rises  to  his  feet  in  terror.  He  seems  to  see 
Fafner  in  his  serpent's  guise  approaching  to  devour  him, 
and  in  a  paroxysm  of  fear  he  falls  with  a  shriek  behind  the 
anvil.  Just  then  Siegfried  bursts  out  of  the  thicket,  and 
with  the  fresh,  buoyant  "Wander  Song"  and  the  Motive 
of  Siegfried  the  Fearless,  the  weird  mystery  which  hung 
over  the  former  scene  is  dispelled.  Siegfried  looks  about 
him  for  Mime  until  he  sees  the  dwarf  lying  behind  the 
anvil. 

Laughingly  the  young  Walsung  asks  the  dwarf  if  he  has 
thus  been  welding  the  sword.  "  The  sword  ?  The  sword  ? " 
repeats  Mime  confusedly,  as  he  advances,  and  his  mind 
wanders  back  to  Wotan's  prophecy  of  the  fearless  hero. 
Regaining  his  senses  he  tells  Siegfried  there  is  one  thing 
he  has  yet  to  learn,  namely,  to  be  afraid;  that  his  mother 
charged  him  (Mime)  to  teach  fear  to  him  (Siegfried). 
Mime  asks  Siegfried  if  he  has  never  felt  his  heart  beating 
when  in  the  gloaming  he  heard  strange  sounds  and  saw 
weirdly  glimmering  lights  in  the  forest.  Siegfried  replies 
that  he  never  has.  He  knows  not  what  fear  is.  If  it  is 
necessary  before  he  goes  forth  in  quest  of  adventiire  to  learn 


198  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

what  fear  is  he  would  like  to  be  taught.  But  how  can 
Mime  teach  him? 

The  Magic  Fire  Motive  and  Briinnhilde's  Slumber  Motive 
familiar  from  Wotan's  Farewell,  and  the  Magic  Fire  scene 
in  the  third  act  of  "The  Valk}^-"  are  heard  here,  the 
former  depicting  the  weirdly  glimmering  lights  with  which 
Mime  has  sought  to  infuse  dread  into  Siegfried's  breast, 
the  latter  prophesying  that,  penetrating  fearlessly  the 
fiery  circle,  Siegfried  will  reach  Brunnhilde.  Then  Mime 
tells  Siegfried  of  Fafner,  thinking  thus  to  strike  terror  into 
the  young  Walsung's  breast.  But  far  from  it!  Siegfried 
is  incited  by  Mime's  words  to  meet  Fafner  in  combat. 
Has  Mime  welded  the  fragments  of  Siegmund's  sword, 
asks  Siegfried.  The  dwarf  confesses  his  impotency. 
Siegfried  seizes  the  fragments.  He  will  forge  his  own  sword. 
Here  begins  the  great  scene  of  the  forging  of  the  sword. 
Like  a  shout  of  victory  the  Motive  of  Siegfried  the  Fearless 
rings  out  and  the  orchestra  fairly  glows  as  Siegfried  heaps 
a  great  mass  of  coal  on  the  forge-hearth,  and,  fanning  the 
heat,  begins  to  file  away  at  the  fragments  of  the  sword. 

The  roar  of  the  fire,  the  sudden  intensity  of  the  fierce 
white  heat  to  which  the  young  Walsung  fans  the  glow — 
these  we  would  respectively  hear  and  see  were  the  music 
given  without  scenery  or  action,  so  graphic  is  Wagner's 
score.  The  Sword  Motive  leaps  like  a  brilliant  tongue  of 
flame  over  the  heavy  thuds  of  a  forceful  variant  of  the 
Motive  of  Compact,  till  brightly  gleaming  runs  add  to  the 
brilliancy  of  the  score,  which  reflects  all  the  quickening, 
quivering  effulgence  of  the  scene.  How  the  music  flows 
like  a  fiery  flood  and  how  it  hisses  as  Siegfried  pours  the 
molten  contents  of  the  crucible  into  a  mould  and  then 
plunges  the  latter  into  water!  The  glowing  steel  lies  on  the 
anvil  and  Siegfried  swings  the  hammer.  With  every  stroke 
his  joyous  excitement  is  intensified.  At  last  the  work  is 
done.     He   brandishes   the   sword   and   with    one   stroke 


Richard  Wagner  199 

splits  the  anvil  from  top  to  bottom.  With  the  crash  of 
the  Sword  Motive,  united  with  the  Motive  of  Siegfried 
the  Feariess,  the  orchestra  dashes  into  a  furious  prestissimo, 
and  Siegfried  shouting  with  glee,  holds  aloft  the  sword! 

Act  II.  The  second  act  opens  with  a  darkly  portentous 
Vorspiel.  On  the  very  threshold  of  it  we  meet  Fafncr  in 
his  motive,  which  is  so  clearly  based  on  the  Giant  Motive 
that  there  is  no  necessity  for  quoting  it.  Through  themes 
which  are  familiar  from  earlier  portions  of  the  work,  the 
Vorspiel  rises  to  a  crashing  fortissimo. 

The  curtain  lifts  on  a  thick  forest.  At  the  back  is  the 
entrance  to  Fafner's  cave,  the  lower  part  of  which  is  hidden 
by  rising  ground  in  the  middle  of  the  stage,  which  slopes 
down  toward  the  back.  In  the  darkness  the  outlines  of  a 
figure  are  dimly  discerned.  It  is  the  Nibelung  Alberich, 
haunting  the  domain  which  hides  the  treasures  of  which 
he  was  despoiled.  From  the  forest  comes  a  gust  of  wind. 
A  bluish  light  gleams  from  the  same  direction.  Wotan, 
still  in  the  guise  of  a  Wanderer,  enters. 

The  ensuing  scene  between  Alberich  and  the  Wanderer 
is,  from  a  dramatic  point  of  view,  episodical.  Suffice  it 
to  say  that  the  fine  self-poise  of  Wotan  and  the  maliciously 
restless  character  of  Alberich  are  superbly  contrasted. 
When  Wotan  has  departed  the  Nibelung  slips  into  a  rocky 
crevice,  where  he  remains  hidden  when  Siegfried  and  Mime 
enter.  Mime  endeavours  to  awaken  dread  in  Siegfried's 
heart  by  describing  Fafner's  terrible  form  and  powers. 
But  Siegfried's  courage  is  not  weakened.  On  the  contrary, 
with  heroic  impetuosity,  he  asks  to  be  at  once  confronted 
with  Fafner.  Mime,  well  knowing  that  Fafner  will  soon 
awaken  and  issue  from  his  cave  to  meet  Siegfried  in  mortal 
combat,  lingers  on  in  the  hope  that  both  may  fall,  until 
the  young  Walsung  drives  him  away. 

Now  begins  a  beautiful  lyric  episode.  Siegfried  reclines 
under  a  linden-tree,  and  looks  up  through  the  branches.  The 


200  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

rustling  of  the  trees  is  heard.  Over  the  tremulous  whispers 
of  the  orchestra — known  from  concert  programs  as  the 
"Waldweben"  (forest-weaving) — rises  a  lovely  variant  of 
the  Walsung  Motive.  Siegfried  is  asking  himself  how  his 
mother  may  have  looked,  and  this  variant  of  the  theme 
which  was  first  heard  in  "The  Valkyr,"  when  Sieglinde 
told  Siegmtind  that  her  home  was  the  home  of  woe,  rises 
like  a  memory  of  her  image.  Serenely  the  sweet  strains 
of  the  Love-Life  Motive  soothe  his  sad  thoughts.  Sieg- 
fried, once  more  entranced  by  forest  sounds,  listens  intently. 
Birds'  voices  greet  him.  A  little  feathery  songster,  whose 
notes  mingle  with  the  rustling  leaves  of  the  linden-tree, 
especially  charms  him. 

The  forest  voices — the  humming  of  insects,  the  piping 
of  the  birds,  the  amorous  quiver  of  the  branches — quicken 
his  half-defined  aspirations.  Can  the  little  singer  explain 
his  longing?  He  listens,  but  cannot  catch  the  meaning 
of  the  song.  Perhaps,  if  he  can  imitate  it  he  may  under- 
stand it.  Springing  to  a  stream  hard  by,  he  cuts  a  reed 
with  his  sword  and  quickly  fashions  a  pipe  from  it.  He 
blows  on  it,  but  it  sounds  shrill.  He  listens  again  to  the 
birds.  He  may  not  be  able  to  imitate  his  song  on  the 
reed,  but  on  his  silver  horn  he  can  wind  a  woodland  tune. 
Putting  the  horn  to  his  lips  he  makes  the  forest  ring  with 
its  notes: 


The  notes  of  the  horn  have  awakened  Fafner  who  now, 
in  the  giiise  of  a  huge  serpent  or  dragon,  crawls  toward 
Siegfried.  Perhaps  the  less  said  about  the  combat  between 
Siegfried  and  Fafner  the  better.  This  scene,  which  seems 
very  spirited  in  the  libretto,  is  ridiculous  on  the  stage. 
To  make  it  effective  it  should  be  carried  out  very  far  back 
— best  of  all  out  of  sight — so  that  the  magnificent  music 


Richard  Wagner  201 

will  not  be  marred  by  the  sight  of  an  impossible  monster. 
The  music  is  highly  dramatic.  The  exultant  force  of  the 
Motive  of  Siegfried  the  Fearless,  which  rings  out  as  Sieg- 
fried rushes  upon  Fafner,  the  crashing  chord  as  the  serpent 
roars  when  Siegfried  buries  the  sword  in  its  heart,  the  rearing, 
plunging  music  as  the  monster  rears  and  plunges  with  agony 
— these  are  some  of  the  most  graphic  features  of  the  score. 

Siegfried  raises  his  fingers  to  his  lips  and  licks  the  blood 
from  them.  Immediately  after  the  blood  has  touched  his 
lips  he  seems  to  understand  the  bird,  which  has  again 
begun  its  song,  while  the  forest  voices  once  more  weave 
their  tremulous  melody.  The  bird  tells  Siegfried  of  the 
ring  and  helmet  and  of  the  other  treasures  in  Fafner's 
cave,  and  Siegfried  enters  it  in  quest  of  them.  With  his 
disappearance  the  forest-weaving  suddenly  changes  to  the 
harsh,  scolding  notes  heard  in  the  beginning  of  the  Nibel- 
heim  scene  in  "The  Rhinegold."  Mime  slinks  in  and  tim- 
idly looks  about  him  to  make  sure  of  Fafner's  death.  At 
the  same  time  Alberich  issues  forth  from  the  crevice  in 
which  he  was  concealed.  This  scene,  in  which  the  two 
Nibelungs  berate  each  other,  is  capitally  treated,  and  its 
humour  affords  a  striking  contrast  to  the  preceding  scenes. 

As  Siegfried  comes  out  of  the  cave  and  brings  the  ring 
and  helmet  from  darkness  to  the  light  of  day,  there  are 
heard  the  Ring  Motive,  the  Motive  of  the  Rhinedaughters' 
Shout  of  Triumph,  and  the  Rhinegold  Motive.  The  forest- 
weaving  again  begins,  and  the  birds  bid  the  young  Walsung 
beware  of  Mime.  The  dwarf  now  approaches  Siegfried 
with  repulsive  sycophancy.  But  under  a  smiling  face 
lurks  a  plotting  heart.  Siegfried  is  enabled  through  the 
supernatural  gifts  with  which  he  has  become  endowed  to 
fathom  the  purpose  of  the  dwarf,  who  unconsciously  dis- 
closes his  scheme  to  poison  Siegfried.  The  young  Walsung 
slays  Mime,  who,  as  he  dies,  hears  Alberich' s  mocking  laugh. 
Though  the  Motive  of  Siegfried  the  Fearless  predominates 


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at  this  point,  we  also  hear  the  Nibelung  Motive  and  the 
Motive  of  the  Curse — indicating  Alberich's  evil  intent 
toward  Siegfried. 

Siegfried  again  reclines  under  the  linden.  His  soul  is 
tremulous  with  an  undefined  longing,  As  he  gazes  in 
almost  painful  emotion  up  to  the  branches  and  asks  if  the 
bird  can  tell  him  where  he  can  find  a  friend,  his  being 
seems  stirred  by  awakening  passion. 

The  music  quickens  with  an  impetuous  phrase,  which 
seems  to  define  the  first  joyous  thrill  of  passion  in  the 
youthful  hero.     It  is  the  Motive  of  Love's  Joy: 


It  is  interrupted  by  a  beautiful  variant  of  the  Motive  of 
Love-Life,  which  continues  until  above  the  forest-weaving 
the  bird  again  thrills  him  with  its  tale  of  a  glorious  maid 
who  has  so  long  slumbered  upon  the  fire-guarded  rock. 
With  the  Motive  of  Love's  Joy  coursing  through  the  or- 
chestra, Siegfried  bids  the  feathery  songster  continue,  and, 
finally,  to  guide  him  to  Brilnnhilde.  In  answer,  the  bird 
flutters  from  the  linden  branch,  hovers  over  Siegfried,  and 
hesitatingly  flies  before  him  until  it  takes  a  definite  course 
toward  the  background.  Siegfried  follows  the  little  singer, 
the  Motive  of  Love's  Joy,  succeeded  by  that  of  Siegfried 
the  Fearless,  bringing  the  act  to  a  close. 

Act  III.  The  third  act  opens  with  a  stormy  introduction 
in  which  the  Motive  of  the  Ride  of  the  Valkyrs  accompanies 
the  Motive  of  the  Gods'  Stress,  the  Compact,  and  the 
Erda  motives.  The  introduction  reaches  its  climax  with 
the  Motive  of  the  Dusk  of  the  Gods: 


Richard  Wagner 


303 


(vnptdaU  T 


Then  to  the  sombre,  questioning  phrase  of  the  Motive  of 
Fate,  the  action  begins  to  disclose  the  significance  of  this  Vor» 
spiel.  A  wild  region  at  the  foot  of  a  rocky  mountain  is  seen. 
It  is  night.  A  fierce  storm  rages.  In  dire  distress  and  fearful 
that  through  Siegfried  and  Briinnhilde  the  rulership  of  the 
world  may  pass  from  the  gods  to  the  human  race,  Wotan  sum- 
mons Erda  from  her  subterranean  dwelling.  But  Erda  has 
no  counsel  for  the  storm-driven,  conscience-stricken  god. 

The  scene  reaches  its  climax  in  Wotan' s  noble  renuncia- 
tion of  the  empire  of  the  world.  Weary  of  strife,  weary  of 
struggling  against  the  decree  of  fate,  he  renounces  his  sway. 
Let  the  era  of  human  love  supplant  this  dynasty,  sweeping 
away  the  gods  and  the  Nibelungs  in  its  mighty  current. 
It  is  the  last  defiance  of  all-conquering  fate  by  the  ruler  of  a 
mighty  race.  After  a  powerful  struggle  against  irresistible 
forces,  Wotan  comprehends  that  the  twilight  of  the  gods 
will  be  the  dawn  of  a  more  glorious  epoch.  A  phrase  of 
great  dignity  gives  force  to  Wotan' s  utterances.  It  is  the 
Motive  of  the  World's  Heritage: 


Siegfried  enters,  guided  to  the  spot  by  the  bird;  Wotan 
checks  his  progress  with  the  same  spear  which  shivered 


204  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Siegmund's  sword.  Siegfried  must  fight  his  way  to  Briinn- 
hilde.  With  a  mighty  blow  the  young  Walsung  shatters 
the  spear  and  Wotan  disappears  'mid  the  crash  of  the  Motive 
of  Compact — for  the  spear  with  which  it  was  the  chief 
god's  duty  to  enforce  compacts  is  shattered.  Meanwhile 
the  gleam  of  fire  has  become  noticeable.  Fiery  clouds 
float  down  from  the  mountain.  Siegfried  stands  at  the 
rim  of  the  magic  circle.  Winding  his  horn  he  plunges  into 
the  seething  flames.  Around  the  Motive  of  Siegfried  the 
Fearless  and  the  Siegfried  Motive  flash  the  Magic  Fire  and 
Loge  motives. 

The  flames,  having  flashed  forth  with  dazzling  brilliancy, 
gradually  pale  before  the  red  glow  of  dawn  till  a  rosy  mist 
envelops  the  scene.  When  it  rises,  the  rock  and  Briinn- 
hilde  in  deep  slumber  under  the  fir-tree,  as  in  the  finale 
of  "The  Valkyr,"  are  seen.  Siegfried  appears  on  the 
height  in  the  background.  As  he  gazes  upon  the  scene 
there  are  heard  the  Fate  and  Slumber  motives  and  then 
the  orchestra  weaves  a  lovely  variant  of  the  Freia  Motive. 
This  is  followed  by  the  softly  caressing  strains  of  the  Fricka 
Motive.  Fricka  sought  to  make  Wotan  faithful  to  her  by 
bonds  of  love,  and  hence  the  Fricka  Motive  in  this  scene 
does  not  reflect  her  personality,  but  rather  the  awakening 
of  the  love  which  is  to  thrill  Siegfried  when  he  has  beheld 
Briinnhilde' s  features.  As  he  sees  Briinnhilde's  charger 
slumbering  in  the  grove  we  hear  the  Motive  of  the  Valkyr's 
Ride,  and  when  his  gaze  is  attracted  by  the  sheen  of  Briinn- 
hilde's armour,  the  theme  of  Wotan's  Farewell.  Approach- 
ing the  armed  slumberer  under  the  fir-tree,  Siegfried  raises 
the  shield  and  discloses  the  figure  of  the  sleeper,  the  face 
being  almost  hidden  by  the  helmet. 

Carefully  he  loosens  the  helmet.  As  he  takes  it  of! 
Briinnhilde's  face  is  disclosed  and  her  long  curls  flow  down 
over  her  bosom.  Siegfried  gazes  upon  her  enraptured. 
Drawing  his  sword  he  cuts  the  rings  of  mail  on  both  sides, 


Richard  Wagner 


205 


gently  lifts  off  the  corselet  and  greaves,  and  Briinnhilde, 
in  soft  female  drapery,  lies  before  him.  He  starts 
back  in  wonder.  Notes  of  impassioned  import — the  Motive 
of  Love's  Joy — express  the  feelings  that  well  up  from  his 
heart  as  for  the  first  time  he  beholds  a  woman.  The 
fearless  hero  is  infused  with  fear  by  a  slumbering  woman. 
The  Walsung  Motive,  afterwards  beautifully  varied  with 
the  Motive  of  Love's  Joy,  accompanies  his  utterances, 
the  climax  of  his  emotional  excitement  being  expressed  in 
a  majestic  crescendo  of  the  Freia  Motive.  A  sudden  feel- 
ing of  awe  gives  him  at  least  the  outward  appearance  of 
calmness.  With  the  Motive  of  Fate  he  faces  his  destiny; 
and  then,  while  the  Freia  Motive  rises  like  a  vision  of 
loveliness,  he  sinks  over  Briinnhilde,  and  with  closed  eyes 
presses  his  lips  to  hers. 

Briinnhilde  awakens.  Siegfried  starts  up.  She  rises,  and 
with  a  noble  gesture  greets  in  majestic  accents  her  return  to 
the  sight  of  earth.  Strains  of  loftier  eloquence  than  those 
of  her  greeting  have  never  been  composed.  Briinnhilde 
rises  from  her  magic  slumbers  in  the  majesty  of  womanhood: 


With  the  Motive  of  Fate  she  asks  who  is  the  hero  who 
has  awakened  her.  The  superb  Siegfried  Motive  gives 
back  the  proud  answer.  In  rapturous  phrases  they  greet 
one  another.     It  is  the  Motive  of  Love's  Greeting, 


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which  unites  their  voices  in  impassioned  accents  until, 
as  if  this  motive  no  longer  sufficed  to  express  their  ecstasy, 
it  is  followed  by  the  Motive  of  Love's  Passion,    • 


which,  with  the  Siegfried  Motive,  rises  and  falls  with  the 
heaving  of  Brunnhilde's  bosom. 

These  motives  course  impetuously  through  this  scene. 
Here  and  there  we  have  others  recalling  former  portions 
of  the  cycle — the  Walsung  Motive,  when  Brtinnhilde 
refers  to  Siegfried's  mother,  Sieglinde;  the  Motive  of 
Brunnhilde's  Pleading,  when  she  tells  him  of  her  de- 
fiance of  Wotan's  behest;  a  variant  of  the  Walhalla 
Motive  when  she  speaks  of  herself  in  Walhalla;  and  the 
Motive  of  the  World's  Heritage,  with  which  Siegfried 
claims  her,  this  last  leading  over  to  a  forceful  climax  of  the 
Motive  of  Brunnhilde's  Pleading,  which  is  followed  by  a 
lovely,  tranquil  episode  introduced  by  the  Motive  of 
Love's  Peace, 


succeeded  by  a  motive,  ardent  yet  tender — the  Motive  of 
Siegfried  the  Protector: 


Richard  Wagner 

*J^ 

207 

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These  motives  accompany  the  action  most  expressively. 
Brunnhilde  still  hesitates  to  cast  off  for  ever  the  supernatural 
characteristics  of  the  Valkyr  and  give  herself  up  entirely 
to  Siegfried.  The  young  hero's  growing  ecstasy  finds 
expression  in  the  Motive  of  Love's  Joy.  At  last  it  awakens 
a  responsive  note  of  purely  human  passion  in  Brunnhilde 
and,  answering  the  proud  Siegfried  Motive  with  the  jubi- 
lant Shout  of  the  Valkyrs  and  the  ecstatic  measures  of 
Love's  Passion,  she  proclaims  herself  his. 

With  a  love  duet — nothing  puny  and  purring,  but  raptur- 
ous and  proud — the  music-drama  comes  to  a  close.  Sieg- 
fried, a  scion  of  the  Walsung  race  has  won  Brunnhilde  for 
his  bride,  and  upon  her  finger  has  placed  the  ring  fashioned 
of  Rhinegold  by  Alberich  in  the  caverns  of  Niebelheim,  the 
abode  of  the  Niebelungs.  Clasping  her  in  his  arms  and 
drawing  her  to  his  breast,  he  has  felt  her  splendid  physical 
being  thrill  with  a  passion  wholly  responsive  to  his.  Will 
the  gods  be  saved  through  them,  or  does  the  curse  of 
Alberich  still  rest  on  the  ring  worn  by  Briinnhilde  as  a 
pledge  of  love? 

GOTTERDAMMERUNG 

DUSK  OF  THE  GODS 


Music-drama  in  a  prologue  and  three  acts,  words  and  music  by 
Richard  Wagner.     Produced,  Bayreuth,  August  17,  1876. 

New  York,  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  January  25,  1888,  with  Leh- 
mann     (Brunnhilde),    Seidl-Kraus     (Gutrune),    Niemann    (Siegfried), 


2o8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Robinson  {Gunther),  and  Fischer  (Hagen).  Other  performances  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House  have  had,  among  others,  Alvary  and  J6an 
de  Reszke  as  Siegfried  and  Edouard  de  Reszke  as  Hagen. 

Characters 

Siegfried Tenor 

Gunther Baritone 

Alberich Baritone 

Hagen Bass 

BrOnnhilde Soprano 

Gutrune Soprano 

Waltraute Mezzo-Soprano 

First,  Second,  and  Third  Norn 

Contralto,   Mezzo- Soprano,   and  Soprano 

Woglinde,  Wellgunde,  and  Flosshilde 

Sopranos  and  Mezzo-Soprano 
Vassals  and  Women. 
Time — Legendary.     Place — On  the  Brunnhilde-Rock ;  Gunther's  castle 

on  the  Rhine;  wooded  district  by  the 

Rhine. 


THE  PROLOGUE 

The  first  scene  of  the  prologue  is  a  weird  conference  of 
the  three  grey  sisters  of  fate — the  Norns  who  wind  the 
skein  of  life.  They  have  met  on  the  Valkyrs'  rock  and 
•  their  words  forebode  the  end  of  the  gods.  At  last  the 
skein  they  have  been  winding  breaks — the  final  catastrophe 
is  impending. 

An  orchestral  interlude  depicts  th^  transition  from  the 
unearthly  gloom  of  the  Norn  scene  to  break  of  day,  the 
climax  being  reached  in  a  majestic  burst  of  music  as  Sieg- 
fried and  Brilnnhilde,  he  in  full  armour,  she  leading  her 
steed  by  the  bridle,  issue  forth  from  the  rocky  cavern  in 
the  backgroimd.  This  climax  owes  its  eloquence  to  three 
motives — that  of  the  Ride  of  the  Valkyrs  and  two  new 


Richard  Wagner         ^T 


209 


motives,  the  one  as  lovely  as  the  other  is  heroic,  the  Brunn- 
hilde  Motive, 


and  the  Motive  of  Siegfried  the  Hero : 


The  Brunnhilde  Motive  expresses  the  strain  of  pure, 
tender  womanhood  in  the  nattire  of  the  former  Valkyr, 
and  proclaims  her  womanly  ecstasy  over  wholly  requited 
love.  The  motive  of  Siegfried  the  Hero  is  clearly  developed 
from  the  motive  of  Siegfried  the  Fearless.  Fearless  youth 
has  developed  into  heroic  man.  In  this  scene  Brunnhilde 
and  Siegfried  plight  their  troth,  and  Siegfried  having  given 
to  Brunnhilde  the  fatal  ring  and  having  received  from  her 
the  steed  Grane,  which  once  bore  her  in  her  wild  course 
through  the  storm-clouds,  bids  her  farewell  and  sets  forth 
in  quest  of  further  adventure.  In  this  scene,  one  of 
Wagner's  most  beautiful  creations,  occur  the  two  new 
motives  already  quoted,  and  a  third — the  Motive  of 
Briinnhilde's  Love. 


n  I /.^i.L''^^ 


s 


^^ 


? 


A  strong,  deep  woman's  nature  has  given  herself  up  to 
love.  Her  passion  is  as  strong  and  deep  as  her  nature. 
It  is  not  a  surface-heat  passion.  It  is  love  rising  from  the 
depths  of  a  heroic  woman's  soul.     The  grandeur  of  her 


14 


210  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

ideal  of  Siegfried,  her  thoughts  of  him  as  a  hero  winning 
fame,  her  pride  in  his  prowess,  her  love  for  one  whom  she 
deems  the  bravest  among  men,  culminate  in  the  Motive 
of  Brunnhilde's  Love. 

Siegfried  disappears  with  the  steed  behind  the  rocks  and 
Briinnhilde  stands  upon  the  cliff  looking  down  the  valley- 
after  him;  his  horn  is  heard  from  below  and  Briinnhilde 
with  rapturous  gesture  waves  him  farewell.  The  or- 
chestra accompanies  the  action  with  the  Briinnhilde 
Motive,  the  Motive  of  Siegfried  the  Fearless,  and  finally 
with  the  theme  of  the  love-duet  with  which  "Siegfried" 
closed. 

The  curtain^then  falls,  and  between  the  prologue  and  the 
first  act  an  orchestral  interlude  describes  Siegfried's  voyage 
down  the  Rhine  to  the  castle  of  the  Gibichungs  where  dwell 
Gunther,  his  sister  Gutrune,  and  their  half-brother  Hagen, 
the  son  of  Alberich.  Through  Hagen  the  curse  hurled  by 
Alberich  in  "The  Rhinegold"  at  all  into  whose  possession 
the  ring  shall  come,  is  to  be  worked  out  to  the  end  of  its 
fell  purpose — Siegfried  betrayed  and  destroyed  and  the 
rule  of  the  gods  brought  to  an  end  by  Brunnhilde's  ex- 
piation. 

In  the  interlude  between  the  prologue  and  the  first  act 
we  first  hear  the  brilliant  Motive  of  Siegfried  the  Fearless 
and  then  the  gracefully  flowing  Motives  of  the  Rhine,  and 
of  the  Rhinedaughters'  Shout  of  Triumph  with  the 
Motives  of  the  Rhinegold  and  Ring.  Hagen' s  malevolent 
plotting,  of  which  we  are  soon  to  learn  in  the  first  act  is 
foreshadowed  by  the  sombre  harmonies  which  suddenly 
pervade  the  music. 

Act  I.  On  the  river  lies  the  hall  of  the  Gibichungs, 
where  house  Gunther,  his  sister  Gutrune,  and  Hagen,  their 
half-brother.  Gutrune  is  a  maiden  of  fair  mien,  Gunther 
a  man  of  average  strength  and  coiirage,  Hagen  a  sinister 
plotter,    large  of  stature  and   sombre  of  visage.      Long 


Copynyiil  p'nulu  by  Duponl 

Edouard  de  Reszke  as  Hagen  in  "  Gotterdammemng ' 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Jean  de  Reszke  as  Siegfried  in  "  Gotterdammerung  " 


Richard  Wagner  211 

he  has  planned  to  possess  himself  of  the  ring  fash- 
ioned of  Rhinegold.  He  is  aware  that  it  was  guarded 
by  the  dragon,  has  been  taken  from  the  hoard  by 
Siegfried,  and  by  him  given  to  Briinnhilde.  And  now 
observe  the  subtle  craft  with  which  he  prepares  to  com- 
pass his  plans. 

A  descendant,  through  his  father,  Alberich,  the  Nibelung, 
of  a  race  which  practised  the  black  art,  he  plots  to  make 
Siegfried  forget  Briinnhilde  through  a  love-potion  to  be 
administered  to  him  by  Gutrune.  Then,  when  under  the 
fiery  influence  of  the  potion  and  all  forgetful  of  Briinnhilde, 
Siegfried  demands  Gutrune  to  wife,  the  price  demanded  will 
be  that  he  win  Briinnhilde  as  bride  for  Gunther.  Before 
Siegfried  comes  in  sight,  before  Gunther  and  Gutrune  so 
much  as  even  know  that  he  is  nearing  the  hall  of  the  Gibi- 
chungs,  Hagen  begins  to  lay  the  foundation  for  this  seem- 
ingly impossible  plot.  For  it  is  at  this  opportune 
moment  Gunther  chances  to  address  him: 

"Hark,  Hagen,  and  let  your  answer  be  true.  Do  I 
head  the  race  of  the  Gibichungs  with  honour?" 

"Aye,"  replies  Hagen,  "and  yet,  Gunther,  you  remain 
unwived  while  Gutrune  still  lacks  a  husband."  Then  he 
tells  Gunther  of  Briinnhilde — "a  circle  of  flame  surrounds 
the  rock  on  which  she  dwells,  but  he  who  can  brave  that 
fire  may  win  her  for  wife.  If  Siegfried  does  this  in  your 
stead,  and  brings  her  to  you  as  bride,  will  she  not  be  yours?" 
Hagen  craftily  conceals  from  his  half-brother  and  from 
Guirune  the  fact  that  Siegfried  already  has  won  Briinnhilde 
for  himself;  but  having  aroused  in  Gunther  the  desire  to 
possess  her,  he  forthwith  unfolds  his  plan  and  reminds 
Gutrune  of  the  magic  love-potion  which  it  is  in  her  power 
to  administer  to  Siegfried. 

At  the  very  beginning  of  this  act  the  Hagen  Motive  is 
heard.  Particularly  noticeable  in  it  are  the  first  two  sharp, 
decisive  chords.     They  recur  with  dramatic  force  in  the 


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third  act  when  Hagen  slays  Siegfried.     The  Hagen  Motive 
is  as  follows: 


This  is  followed  by  the   Gibichung  Motive,  the  two 
motives  being  frequently  heard  in  the  opening  scene. 


Added  to  these  is  the  Motive  of  the  Love  Potion  which  is 
to  cause  Siegfried  to  forget  Briinnhilde,  and  conceive  a 
violent  passion  for  Gutrune. 


Whatever  hesitation  may  have  been  in  Gutrune' s  mind, 
because  of  the  trick  which  is  involved  in  the  plot,  vanishes 
when  soon  afterwards  Siegfried's  horn-call  announces  his 
approach  from  the  river,  and,  as  he  brings  his  boat  up  to 
the  bank,  she  sees  this  hero  among  men  in  all  his  youthful 
strength  and  beauty.  She  hastily  withdraws,  to  carry  out 
her  part  in  the  plot  that  is  to  bind  him  to  her. 

The    three    men    remain    to    parley.      Hagen    skilfully 


Richard  Wagner 


213 


questions  Siegfried  regarding  his  combat  with  the  dragon. 
Has  he  taken  nothing  from  the  hoard  ? 

"Only  a  ring,  which  I  have  left  in  a  woman's  keep," 
answers  Siegfried;  "and  this."  He  points  to  a  steel  net- 
work that  hangs  from  his  girdle. 

"Ha,"  exclaims  Hagen,  " the  Tamhelmet !  I  recognize 
it  as  the  artful  work  of  the  Nibelungs.  Place  it  on  your 
head  and  it  enables  you  to  assume  any  guise."  He  then 
flings  open  a  door  and  on  the  platform  of  a  short  flight  of 
steps  that  leads  up  to  it,  stands  Gutrunc,  in  her  hand  a 
drinking-horn  which  she  extends  toward  Siegfried. 

"Welcome,  guest,  to  the  house  of  the  Gibichungs.  A 
daughter  of  the  race  extends  to  you  this  greeting."  And 
so,  while  Hagen  looks  grimly  on,  the  fair  Gutrune  offers 
Siegfried  the  draught  that  is  to  transform  his  whole  nature. 
Courteously,  but  without  regarding  her  with  more  than 
friendly  interest,  Siegfried  takes  the  horn  from  her  hands 
and  drains  it.  As  if  a  new  element  coursed  through  his 
veins,  there  is  a  sudden  change  in  his  manner.  Handing 
the  horn  back  to  her  he  regards  her  with  fiery  glances, 
she  blushingly  lowering  her  eyes  and  \\dthdrawing  to  the 
inner  apartment.    New  in  this  scene  is  the  Gutrune  Motive : 


"Gunther,  your  sister's  name?  Have  you  a  wife?" 
Siegfried  asks  excitedly. 

"I  have  set  my  heart  on  a  woman,"  replies  Gunther, 
"but  may  not  win  her.  A  far-off  rock,  fire-encircled,  is 
her  home." 


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"A  far-off  rock,  fire  encircled,"  repeats  Siegfried,  as  if 
striving  to  remember  something  long  forgotten;  and  when 
Gunther  utters  Briinnhilde's  name,  Siegfried  shows  by  his 
mien  and  gesture  that  it  no  longer  signifies  aught  to  him. 
The  love-potion  has  caused  him  to  forget  her. 

"I  will  press  through  the  circle  of  flame,"  he  exclaims. 
"I  will  seize  her  and  bring  her  to  you — if  you  will  give  me 
Gutrune  for  wife." 

And  so  the  unhallowed  bargain  is  struck  and  sealed  with 
the  oath  of  blood-brotherhood,  and  Siegfried  departs  with 
Gunther  to  capture  Brilnnhilde  as  bride  for  the  Gibichung. 
The  compact  of  blood-brotherhood  is  a  most  sacred  one. 
Siegfried  and  Gunther  each  with  his  sword  draws  blood 
from  his  arm,  which  he  allows  to  mingle  with  wine  in  a 
drinking-horn  held  by  Hagen;  each  lays  two  fingers  upon 
the  horn,  and  then,  having  pledged  blood-brotherhood, 
drinks  the  blood  and  wine.  This  ceremony  is  significantly 
introduced  by  the  Motive  of  the  Curse  followed  by  the 
Motive  of  Compact.  Phrases  of  Siegfried's  and  Gunther's 
pledge  are  set  to  a  new  motive  whose  forceful  simplicity 
effectively  expresses  the  idea  of  truth.  It  is  the  Motive 
of  the  Vow. 


Abruptly  following  Siegfried's  pledge: 

Thus  I  drink  thee  troth, 

are  those  two  chords  of  the  Hagen  Motive  which  are  heard 
again  in  the  third  act  when  the  Nibelung  has.slain  Siegfried. 
It  should  perhaps  be  repeated  here  that  Gunther  is  not  aware 


Richard  Wagner  215 

of  the  union  which  existed  between  BrUnnhilde  and  Sieg- 
fried, Hagen  having  concealed  this  from  his  half-brother, 
who  believes  that  he  will  receive  the  Valkyr  in  all  her 
goddess-like  virginity. 

When  Siegfried  and  Gunther  have  departed  and  Gutrune, 
having  sighed  her  farewell  after  her  lover,  has  retired, 
Hagen  broods  with  wicked  glee  over  the  successful  inaugura- 
tion of  his  plot.  During  a  brief  orchestral  interlude  a  drop- 
curtain  conceals  the  scene  which,  when  the  curtain  again 
rises,  has  changed  to  the  Valkjr's  rock,  where  sits  BrUnn- 
hilde, lost  in  contemplation  of  the  Ring,  while  the  Motive 
of  Siegfried  the  Protector  is  heard  on  the  orchestra  like 
a  blissful  memory  of  the  love  scene  in  "Siegfried." 

Her  rapturous  reminiscences  are  interrupted  by  the 
sounds  of  an  approaching  storm  and  from  the  dark  cloud 
there  issues  one  of  the  Valkyrs,  Waltraute,  who  comes  to 
ask  of  BrUnnhilde  that  she  cast  back  the  ring  Siegfried  has 
given  her — the  ring  cursed  by  Alberich — into  the  Rhine, 
and  thus  lift  the  curse  from  the  race  .of  gods.  But  BrUnn- 
hilde refuses: 

More  than  Walhalla's  welfare, 
More  than  the  good  of  the  gods, 
The  ring  I  guard. 

It  is  dusk.  The  magic  fire  rising  from  the  valley  throws 
a  glow  over  the  landscape.  The  notes  of  Siegfried's  horn 
are  heard.  BrUnnhilde  joyously  prepares  to  meet  him. 
Suddenly  she  sees  a  stranger  leap  through  the  flames.  It 
is  Siegfried,  but  through  the  Tarnhelmet  (the  motive  of 
which,  followed  by  the  Gunther  Motive  dominates  the 
first  part  of  the  scene)  he  has  assumed  the  guise  of  the 
Gibichung.  In  vain  BrUnnhilde  seeks  to  defend  herself 
with  the  might  which  the  ring  imparts.  She  is  powerless 
against  the  intruder.  As  he  tears  the  ring  from  her  finger, 
the  Motive  of  the  Curse   resounds  with  tragic  import, 


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followed  by  trist  echoes  of  the  Motive  of  Siegfried  the 
Protector  and  of  the  Brunnhilde  Motive,  the  last  being 
succeeded  by  the  Tarnhelmet  Motive  expressive  of  the 
evil  magic  which  has  wrought  this  change  in  Siegfried. 
Brunnhilde  in  abject  recognition  of  her  impotence,  enters 
the  cavern.  Before  Siegfried  follows  her  he  draws  his 
sword  Nothung  (Needful)  and  exclaims: 

Now,  Nothung,  witness  thou,  that  chaste  my  wooing  is; 

To  keep  my  faith  with  my  brother,  separate  me  from  his  bride. 

Phrases  of  the  pledge  of  Brotherhood  followed  by  the 
Brunnhilde,  Gutrune,  and  Sword  motives  accompany  his 
words.  The  thuds  of  the  typical  Nibelung  rhythm  resound, 
and  lead  to  the  last  crashing  chord  of  this  eventful  act. 

Act  II.  The  ominous  Motive  of  the  Nibelung's  Male- 
volence introduces  the  second  act.  The  curtain  rises  upon 
the  exterior  of  the  hall  of  the  Gibichungs.  To  the  right 
is  the  open  entrance  to  the  hall,  to  the  left  the  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  from  which  rises  a  rocky  ascent  toward  the  back- 
ground. It  is  night.  Hagen,  spear  in  hand  and  shield 
at  side,  leans  in  sleep  against  a  pillar  of  the  hall.  Through 
the  weird  moonlight  Alberich  appears.  He  urges  Hagen  to 
murder  Siegfried  and  to  seize  the  ring  from  his  finger.  After 
hearing  Hagen' s  oath  that  he  will  be  faithful  to  the  hate  he 
has  inherited,  Alberich  disappears.  The  weirdness  of  the 
surroundings,  the  monotony  of  Hagen" s  answers,  uttered 
seemingly  in  sleep,  as  if,  even  when  the  Nibelung  slumbered, 
his  mind  remained  active,  imbue  this  scene  with  mystery. 

A  charming  orchestral  interlude  depicts  the  break  of 
day.  Its  serene  beauty  is,  however,  broken  in  upon  by 
the  Motive  of  Hagen' s  Wicked  Glee,  which  I  quote,  as  it 
frequently  occurs  in  the  course  of  succeeding  events. 


Richard  Wagner  217 

All  night  Hagen  has  watched  by  the  bank  of  the  river  for 
the  return  of  the  men  from  the  quest.  It  is  daylight  when 
Siegfried  returns,  tells  him  of  his  success,  and  bids  him 
prepare  to  receive  Gunther  and  Briinnhilde.  On  his  finger 
he  wears  the  ring — the  ring  made  of  Rhinegold,  and  cursed 
by  Albcrich — the  same  with  which  he  pledged  his  troth  to 
Briinnhilde,  but  which  in  the  struggle  of  the  night,  and 
disguised  by  the  Tamhelmet  as  Gunther,  he  has  torn  from 
her  finger — the  very  ring  the  possession  of  which  Hagen 
craves,  and  for  which  he  is  plotting.  Gutrune  has  joined 
them.     Siegfried  leads  her  into  the  hall. 

Hagen,  placing  an  ox-horn  to  his  lips,  blows  a  loud  call 
toward  the  four  points  of  the  compass,  summoning  the 
Gibichung  vassals  to  the  festivities  attending  the  double 
wedding — Siegfried  and  Gutrune,  Gunther  and  Brilnnnhilde; 
and  when  the  Gibichung  brings  his  boat  up  to  the  bank, 
the  shore  is  crowded  with  men  who  greet  him  boisterously, 
while  Briinnhilde  stands  there  pale  and  with  downcast 
eyes.  But  as  Siegfried  leads  Gtitrune  forward  to  meet 
Gunther  and  his  bride,  and  Gunther  calls  Siegfried  by  name, 
Briinnhilde  starts,  raises  her  eyes,  stares  at  Siegfried  in 
amazement,  drops  Gunther's  hand,  advances,  as  if  by  sud- 
den impulse,  a  step  toward  the  man  who  awakened  her 
from  her  magic  slumber  on  the  rock,  then  recoils  in  horror, 
her  eyes  fixed  upon  him,  while  all  look  on  in  wonder.  The 
Motive  of  Siegfried  the  Hero,  the  Sword  Motive,  and  the 
Chords  of  the  Hagen  Motive  emphasize  with  a  tumultuous 
crash  the  dramatic  significance  of  the  situation.  There  is 
a  sudden  hush — Briinnhilde  astounded  and  dumb,  Sieg- 
fried unconscious  of  guilt  quietly  self-possessed,  Gunther, 
Gutrune,  and  the  vassals  silent  with  amazement — it  is 
during  this  moment  of  tension  that  we  hear  the  motive 
which  expresses  the  thought  uppermost  in  Briinnhilde, 
the  thought  which  would  find  expression  in  a  burst  of  frenzy 
were  not  her  wrath  held  in  check  by  her  inability  to  quite 


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grasp  the  meaning  of  the  situation  or  to  fathom  the  depth 
of  the  treachery  of  which  she  has  been  the  victim.  This 
is  the  Motive  of  Vengeance : 


"What  troubles  Briinnhilde?"  composedly  asks  Siegfried, 
from  whom  all  memory  of  his  first  meeting  with  the  rock 
maiden  and  his  love  for  here  have  been  effaced  by  the  po- 
tion. Then,  observing  that  she  sways  and  is  about  to  fall, 
he  supports  her  with  his  arm. 

"Siegfried  knows  me  not!"  she  whispers  faintly,  as  she 
looks  up  into  his  face. 

"There  stands  your  husband,"  is  Siegfried's  reply,  as 
he  points  to  Gimther.  The  gesture  discloses  to  Briinnhilde' s 
sight  the  ring  upon  his  finger,  the  ring  he  gave  her,  and 
which  to  her  horror  Gunther,  as  she  supposed,  had  wrested 
from  her.  In  the  flash  of  its  precious  metal  she  sees  the 
whole  significance  of  the  wretched  situation  in  which  she 
finds  herself,  and  discovers  the  intrigue,  the  trick,  of  which 
she  has  been  the  victim.  She  knows  nothing,  however,  of 
the  treachery  Hagen  is  plotting,  or  of  the  love-potion  that 
has  aroused  in  Siegfried  an  uncontrollable  passion  to  possess 
Gutrune,  has  caused  him  to  forget  her,  and  led  him  to  win 
her  for  Gunther.  There  at  Gutrune's  side,  and  about  to 
wed  her,  stands  the  man  she  loves.  To  Briinnhilde, 
infuriated  with  jealousy,  her  pride  wounded  to  the  quick, 
Siegfried  appears  simply  to  have  betrayed  her  to  Gunther 
through  infatuation  for  another  woman. 

"The  ring,"  she  cries  out,  "was  taken  from  me  by  that 
man,"  pointing  to  Gunther.     "How  came  it  on  your  finger? 


Richard  Wagner  219 

Or,  if  it  is  not  the  ring" — again  she  addresses  Gunther — 
"where  is  the  one  you  tore  from  my  hand?" 

Gunther,  knowing  nothing  about  the  ring,  plainly  is 
perplexed.  "Ha,"  cries  out  Briinnhilde  in  uncontrollable 
rage,  "then  it  was  Siegfried  disguised  as  you  and  not  you 
yourself  who  won  it  from  me!  Know  then,  Gunther,  that 
you,  too,  have  been  betrayed  by  him.  For  this  man  who 
would  wed  your  sister,  and  as  part  of  the  price  bring  me  to 
you  as  bride,  was  wedded  to  me!" 

In  all  but  Hagen  and  Siegfried,  Briinnhilde' s  words 
arouse  consternation.  Hagen,  noting  their  effect  on 
Gunther,  from  whom  he  craftily  has  concealed  Siegfried's 
true  relation  to  Briinnhilde,  sees  in  the  episode  an  added 
opportunity  to  mould  the  Gibichung  to  his  plan  to  do  away 
with  Siegfried.  The  latter,  through  the  effect  of  the  potion, 
is  rendered  wholly  unconscious  of  the  truth  of  what  Briinn- 
hilde has  said.  He  even  has  forgotten  that  he  ever  has 
parted  with  the  ring,  and,  when  the  men,  jealous  of  Gun- 
ther's  honour,  crowd  about  him,  and  Gunther  and  Gutrune 
in  intense  excitement  wait  on  his  reply,  he  calmly  proclaims 
that  he  found  it  among  the  dragon's  treasure  and  never 
has  parted  with  it.  To  the  truth  of  this  assertion,  to  a 
denial  of  all  Briinnhilde  has  accused  him  of,  he  announces 
himself  ready  to  swear  at  the  point  of  any  spear  which  is 
offered  for  the  oath,  the  strongest  manner  in  which  the 
asseveration  can  be  made  and,  in  the  belief  of  the  time, 
rendering  his  death  certain  at  the  point  of  that  very  spear 
should  he  swear  falsely. 

How  eloquent  the  music  of  these  exciting  scenes ! — Crash- 
ing chords  of  the  Ring  Motive  followed  by  that  of  the  Curse, 
as  Briinnhilde  recognizes  the  ring  on  Siegfried's  finger, 
the  Motive  of  Vengeance,  the  Walhalla  Motive,  as  she 
invokes  the  gods  to  witness  her  humiliation,  the  touchingly 
pathetic  Motive  of  Brunnhilde's  Pleading,  as  she  vainly 
strives  to  awaken  fond  memories  in  Siegfried;  then  again 


220  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

the  Motive  of  Vengeance,  as  the  oath  is  about  to  be  taken, 
the  Murder  Motive  and  the  Hagen  Motive  at  the  taking  of 
the  oath,  for  the  spear  is  Hagen' s;  and  in  Briinnhildc' ^  assev- 
eration, the  Valkyr  music  coursing  through  the  orchestra. 

It  is  Hagen  who  offers  his  weapon  for  the  oath.  "Guar- 
dian of  honour,  hallowed  weapon,"  swears  Siegfried,  "where 
steel  can  pierce  me,  there  pierce  me;  where  death  can 
be  dealt  me,  there  deal  it  me,  if  ever  I  was  wed  to  Briinn- 
hilde,  if  ever  I  have  wronged  Gutrune's  brother." 

At  his  words,  Brilnnhilde,  livid  with  rage,  strides  into 
the  circle  of  men,  and  thrusting  Siegfried's  fingers  away 
from  the  spearhead,  lays  her  own  upon  it. 

"Guardian  of  honour,  hallowed  weapon,"  she  cries, 
"I  dedicate  your  steel  to  his  destruction.  I  bless  your 
point  that  it  may  blight  him.  For  broken  are  all  his 
oaths,  and  perjured  now  he  proves  himself." 

Siegfried  shrugs  his  shoulders.  To  him  Briinnhilde's 
imprecations  are  but  the  ravings  of  an  overwrought  brain. 
"Gunther,  look  to  your  lady.  Give  the  tameless  mountain 
maid  time  to  rest  and  recover,"  he  calls  out  to  Gutrune's 
brother.  "And  now,  men,  follow  us  to  table,  and  make 
merry  at  our  wedding  feast!  "  Then  with  a  laugh  and  in 
highest  spirits,  he  throws  his  arm  about  GiUrune  and  draws 
her  after  him  into  the  hall,  the  vassals  and  women  follow- 
ing them. 

But  Brunnhilde,  Hagen,  and  Gunther  remain  behind; 
Brilnnhilde  half  stunned  at  sight  of  the  man  with  whom 
she  has  exchanged  troth,  gaily  leading  another  to  mar- 
riage, as  though  his. vows  had  been  mere  chaff;  Gunther, 
suspicious  that  his  honour  wittingly  has  been  betrayed  by 
Siegfried,  and  that  Briinnhilde's  words  are  true;  Hagen, 
in  whose  hands  Gunther  is  like  clay,  waiting  the  opportu- 
nity to  prompt  both  Brilnnhilde  and  his  half-brother  to 
vengeance. 

"Coward,"  cries  Brilnnhilde  to  Gunther,  "to  hide  behind 


Richard  Wagner  221 

another  in  order  to  undo  me!  Has  the  race  of  the  Gibi- 
chungs  fallen  so  low  in  prowess?" 

"Deceiver,  and  yet  deceived!  Betrayer,  and  yet  myself 
betrayed,"  wails  Gunihtr.  "Hagen,  wise  one,  have  you  no 
counsel?" 

"No  counsel,"  grimly  answers  Ilagen,  "save  Siegfried's 
death." 

"His  death!" 

"Aye,  all  these  things  demand  his  death." 

"But,  Gutrune,  to  whom  I  gave  him,  how  would  we 
stand  with  her  if  we  so  avenged  ourselves?"  For  even  in 
his  injured  pride  Gunther  feels  that  he  has  had  a  share  in 
what  Siegfried  has  done. 

But  Hagen  is  prepared  with  a  plan  that  will  free  Gunther 
and  himself  of  all  accusation.  "To-morrow,"  he  suggests, 
"we  will  go  on  a  great  hunt.  As  Siegfried  boldly  rushes 
ahead  we  will  fell  him  from  the  rear,  and  give  out  that  he 
was  killed  by  a  wild  boar." 

"So  be  it,"  exclaims  Briinnhilde;  "let  his  death  atone 
for  the  shame  he  has  wrought  me.  He  has  violated  his 
oath;  he  shall  die!" 

At  that  moment  as  they  turn  toward  the  hall,  he  whose 
death  they  have  decreed,  a  wreath  of  oak  on  his  brow  and 
leading  Gutrune,  whose  hair  is  bedecked  with  flowers, 
steps  out  on  the  threshold  as  though  wondering  at  their 
delay  and  virges  them  to  enter.  Gunther,  taking  Briinn- 
hilde by  the  hand,  follows  him  in.  Hagen  alone  remains 
behind,  and  with  a  look  of  grim  triumph  watches  them  as 
they  disappear  within.  And  so,  although  the  valley  of 
the  Rhine  re-echoes  with  glad  sounds,  it  is  the  Murder 
Motive  that  brings  the  act  to  a  close. 

Act  HI.  How  picturesque  the  mise-en-scbne  of  this  act 
— a  clearing  in  the  forest  primeval  near  a  spot  where  the 
bank  of  the  Rhine  slopes  toward  the  river.  On  the  shore, 
above  the  stream,  stands  Siegfried.     Baffled  in  the  pursuit 


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of  game,  he  is  looking  for  Gunther,  Hagen,  and  his  other 
comrades  of  the  hunt,  in  order  to  join  them. 

One  of  the  loveliest  scenes  of  the  trilogy  now  ensues. 
The  Rhinedaughlers  swim  up  to  the  bank  and,  circling 
gracefully  in  the  current  of  the  river,  endeavour  to  coax 
from  him  the  ring  of  Rhinegold.  It  is  an  episode  full  of 
whimsical  badinage  and,  if  anything,  more  charming  even 
than  the  opening  of  "Rhinegold." 

Siegfried  refuses  to  give  up  the  ring.  The  Khinedaughters 
swim  off  leaving  him  to  his  fate. 

Here  is  the  principal  theme  of  their  song  in  this  scene: 


Distant  hunting-horns  are  heard.  Gunther,  Hagcn,  and 
their  attendants  gradually  assemble  and  encamp  them- 
selves. Hagen  fills  a  drinking-horn  and  hands  it  to  Sieg- 
fried whom  he  persuades  to  relate  the  story  of  his  life. 
This  Siegfried  does  in  a  wonderfully  picturesque,  musical, 
and  dramatic  story  in  which  motives,  often  heard  before, 
charm  us  anew. 

In  the  course  of  his  narrative  he  refreshes  himself  by 
a  draught  from  the  drinking-horn  into  which  meanwhile 
Hagen  has  pressed  the  juice  of  an  herb.  Through  this 
the  effect  of  the  love -potion  is  so  far  counteracted  that 
tender  memories  of  Briinnhilde  well  up  within  him  and  he 
tells  with  artless  enthusiasm  how  he  penetrated  the  circle 
of  flame  about  the  Valkyr,  found  Briinnhilde  slumbering 
there,  awoke  her  with  his  kiss,  and  won  her.  Gunther 
springs  up  aghast  at  this  revelation.  Now  he  knows  that 
Briinnhilde' s  accusation  is  true. 


Richard  Wagner 


2i$ 


Two  ravens  fly  overhead.  As  Siegfried  turns  to  look 
after  them  the  Motive  of  the  Curse  resounds  and  Hagen 
plunges  his  spear  into  the  young  hero's  back.  Gunther 
and  the  vassals  throw  themselves  upon  Hagen.  The 
Siegfried  Motive,  cut  short  with  a  crashing  chord,  the  two 
murderous  chords  of  the  Hagen  Motive  forming  the 
bass — and  Siegfried,  who  with  a  last  effort  has  heaved  his 
shield  aloft  to  hurl  it  at  Hagen,  lets  it  fall,  and,  col- 
lapsing, drops  upon  it.  So  overpowered  are  the  wit- 
nesses— even  Gunther — by  the  suddenness  and  enormity 
of  the  crime  that,  after  a  few  disjointed  exclamations, 
they  gather,  bowed  with  grief,  around  Siegfried.  Hagen, 
with  stony  indifference  turns  away  and  disappears  over 
the  height. 

With  the  fall  of  the  last  scion  of  the  Walsung  race  we 
hear  a  new  motive,  simple  yet  indescribably  fraught  with 
sorrow,  the  Death  Motive. 


Siegfried,  supported  by  two  men,  rises  to  a  sitting  posture, 
and  with  a  strange  rapture  gleaming  in  his  glance,  intones 
his  death-song.  It  is  an  ecstatic  greeting  to  Briinnhilde. 
" Brunnhilde ! "  he  exclaims,  "thy  wakener  comes  to  wake 
thee  with  his  kiss."  The  ethereal  harmonies  of  the  Motive 
of  Brunnhilde's  Awakening,  the  Motive  of  Fate,  the  Sieg- 
fried Motive  swelling  into  the  Motive  of  Love's  Greeting 
and  dying  away  through  the  Motive  of  Love's  Passion  to 
Siegfried's  last  whispered  accents — "Brunnhilde  beckonq 
to  me" — in  the  Motive  of  Fate — and  Siegfried  sinks  back 
in  death. 


224  ^^®  Complete  Opera  Book 

Full  of  pathos  though  this  episode  be,  it  but  brings  us 
to  the  threshold  of  a  scene  of  such  overwhelming  power 
that  it  may  without  exaggeration  be  singled  out  as  the 
supreme  musico-dramatic  climax  of  all  that  Wagner 
wrought,  indeed  of  all  music.  Siegfried's  last  ecstatic 
greeting  to  his  Valkyr  bride  has  made  us  realize  the  black- 
ness of  the  treachery  which  tore  the  j^oung  hero  and  Briinn- 
hilde  asunder  and  led  to  his  death;  and  now  as  we  are 
bowed  down  with  a  grief  too  deep  for  utterance — like  the 
grief  with  which  a  nation  gathers  at  the  grave  of  its  noblest 
hero — Wagner  voices  for  us,  in  music  of  overwhelmingly 
tragic  power,  feelings  which  are  beyond  expression  in  human 
speech.  This  is  not  a  "funeral  march,"  as  it  is  often  ab- 
surdly called — it  is  the  awful  mystery  of  death  itself 
expressed  in  music. 

Motionless  with  grief  the  men  gather  around  Siegfried's 
corpse.  Night  falls.  The  moon  casts  a  pale,  sad  light 
over  the  scene.  At  the  silent  bidding  of  Gimiher  the 
vassals  raise  the  body  and  bear  it  in  solemn  procession  over 
the  rocky  height.  Meanwhile  with  majestic  solemnity 
the  orchestra  voices  the  funeral  oration  of  the  "world's 
greatest  hero."  One  by  one,  but  tragically  interrupted 
by  the  Motive  of  Death,  we  hear  the  motives  which  tell 
the  story  of  the  Walsung's  futile  struggle  with  destiny— 
the  Walsung  Motive,  the  Motive  of  the  Walsung's  Heroism, 
the  Motive  of  Sympathy,  and  the  Love  Motive,  the 
Sword  Motive,  the  Siegfried  Motive,  and  the  Motive 
of  Siegfried  the  Hero,  around  which  the  Death  Motive 
swirls  and  crashes  like  a  black,  death-dealing,  all-wreck- 
ing flood,  forming  an  overwhelmingly  powerful  climax 
that  dies  away  into  the  Briinnhilde  Motive  with  which, 
as  with  a  heart-broken  sigh,  the  heroic  dirge  is  brought  to 
a  close. 

Meanwhile  the  scene  has  changed  to  the  Hall  of  the  Gibi- 
chungs  as  in  the  first  act.     Gutrune  is  listening  through  the 


Richard  Wagner  225 

night  for  some  sound  which  may  announce  the  return  of 
the  hunt. 

Men  and  women  bearing  torches  precede  in  great  agita- 
tion the  funeral  train.  Hagen  grimly  announces  to  Gutrune 
that  Siegfried  is  dead.  Wild  with  grief  she  overwhelms 
Gunther  with  violent  accusations.  He  points  to  Hagen 
whose  sole  reply  is  to  demand  the  ring  as  spoil.  Gunther 
refuses.  Hagen  draws  his  sword  and  after  a  brief  combat 
slays  Gunther.  He  is  about  to  snatch  the  ring  from  Sieg- 
fried's finger,  when  the  corpse's  hand  suddenly  raises  itself 
threateningly,  and  all — even  Hagen — fall  back  in  con- 
sternation. 

Brilnnhilde  advances  solemnly  from  the  back.  While 
watching  on  the  bank  of  the  Rhine  she  has  learned  from  the 
Rhinedaughters  the  treachery  of  which  she  and  Siegfried 
have  been  the  victims.  Her  mien  is  ennobled  by  a  look 
of  tragic  exaltation.  To  her  the  grief  of  Gutrtme  is  but 
the  whining  of  a  child.  When  the  latter  realizes  that 
it  was  Briinnhilde  whom  she  caused  Siegfried  to  for- 
get through  the  love-potion,  she  falls  fainting  over 
Gunther's  body.  Hagen  leaning  on  his  spear  is  lost  in 
gloomy  brooding. 

Briinnhilde  turns  solemnly  to  the  men  and  women  and 
bids  them  erect  a  funeral  pyre.  The  orchestral  harmonies 
shimmer  with  the  Magic  Fire  Motive  through  which  courses 
the  Motive  of  the  Ride  of  the  Valkyrs.  Then,  her  coun- 
tenance transfigiired  by  love,  she  gazes  upon  her  dead  hero 
and  apostrophizes  his  memory  in  the  Motive  of  Love's 
Greeting.  From  him  she  looks  upward  and  in  the  Walhalla 
Motive  and  the  Motive  of  Briinnhilde's  Pleading  passion- 
ately inveighs  against  the  injustice  of  the  gods.  The 
Curse  Motive  is  followed  by  a  wonderfully  beautiful  com- 
bination of  the  Walhalla  Motive  and  the  Motive  of  the 
Gods'  Stress  at  Brunnhilde's  words : 

Rest  thee!     Rest  thee!     O,  God! 
1$ 


226  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

For  with  the  fading  away  of  Walhalla,  and  the  inaugu- 
ration of  the  reign  of  human  love  in  place  of  that  of  lust 
and  greed — a  change  to  be  wrought  by  the  approaching 
expiation  of  Brilnnhildc  for  the  crimes  which  began  with  the 
wresting  of  the  Rhinegold  from  the  Rhinedaughters — Wotan's 
stress  will  be  at  an  end.  Brunnhilde  having  told  in  the 
graceful,  rippling  Rhine  music  how  she  learned  of  Hagen's 
treachery  through  the  Rhinedaughters,  places  upon  her 
finger  the  ring.  Then  turning  toward  the  pyre  upon  which 
Siegfried's  body  rests,  she  snatches  a  huge  firebrand  from 
one  of  the  men,  and  flings  it  upon  the  pyre,  which  kindles 
brightly.  As  tthe  moment  of  her  immolation  approaches 
the  Motive  of  Ekpiation  begins  to  dominate  the  scene. 

Brunnhilde  mounts  her  Valkyr  charger,  Grane,  who  oft 
bore  her  through  the  clouds,  while  lightning  flashed  and 
thunder  reverberated.  With  one  leap  the  steed  bears  her 
into  the  blazing  pyre. 

The  Rhine  overflows.  Borne  on  the  flood,  the  Rhine- 
daughters  swim  to  the  pyre  and  draw,  from  Brunnhilde' s 
finger,  the  ring.  Hagen,  seeing  the  object  of  all  his 
plotting  in  their  possession,  plunges  after  them.  Two 
of  them  encircle  him  with  their  arms  and  draw  him 
down  with  them  into  the  flood.  The  third  holds  up  the 
ring  in  triumph. 

In  the  heavens  is  perceived  a  deep  glow.  It  is  Gotter- 
dammerung — the  dusk  of  the  gods.  An  epoch  has  come  to 
a  close.  Walhalla  is  in  flames.  Once  more  its  stately 
motive  resounds,  only  to  crumble,  like  a  ruin,  before  the 
onsweeping  power  of  the  motive  of  expiation.  The  Sieg- 
fried Motive  with  a  crash  in  the  orchestra ;  once  more  then 
the  Motive  of  Expiation.  The  sordid  empire  of  the  gods 
has  passed  away.  A  new  era,  that  of  human  love,  has 
dawned  through  the  expiation  of  Brunnhilde.  As  in  "The 
Flying  Dutchman  "  and  "  Tannhauser,"  it  is  through  woman 
that  comes  redemption. 


Richard  Wagner  227 

TRISTAN  UND  ISOLDE 

TRISTAN  AND  ISOLDE 

Music-drama  in  three  acts,  words  and  music  by  Richard  Wagner, 
who  calls  the  work,  "eine  Handlung"  (an  action).  Produced,  under 
the  direction  of  Hans  von  Bulow,  Munich,  June  10,  1865.  First 
London  production,  June  20,  1882.  Produced,  December  i,  1886, 
with  Anton  Seidl  as  conductor,  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
New  York,  with  Niemann  {Tristan),  Fischer  {King  Markc),  Lehmann 
{Isolde),  Robinson  {Kurwenal),  von  Milde  {Melot),  Brandt  {Brangdne), 
Kemlitz  (a  Shepherd),  Alvary  (a  Sailor),  Sanger  (a  Helmsman).  Jean 
de  Reszke  is  accounted  the  greatest  Tristan  heard  at  the  Metropolitan. 
Nordica,  Temina,  Fremstad,  and  Gadski  are  other  Isoldes,  who  have 
been  heard  at  that  house.  Edouard  de  Reszke  sang  King  Marke,  and 
Bispham  Kurwenal. 

Characters 

Tristan,  a  Cornish  knight,  nephew  to  King  Marke Tenor 

King  Marke,  of  Cornwall Bass 

Isolde,  an  Irish  princess Soprano 

Kurwenal,  one  of  Tristan's  retainers Baritone 

Melot,  a  courtier Baritone 

Brangane,  Isolde's  attendant Mezzo-Soprano 

A  Shepherd .^.  Tenor 

A  Sailor '^enor 

A  Helmsman baritone 

Sailors,  Knights,  Esquires,  and  Men-at-Arms. 
Time — Legendary.     Place — A  ship.at  sea;  outside  King  Marke' s  palace> 

Cornwall;     the     platform    at     Kareol, 

Tristan's  castle. 

Wagner  was  obliged  to  remodel  the  "Tristan"  legend 
thoroughly  before  it  became  available  for  a  modem  drama. 
He  has  shorn  it  of  all  unnecessary  incidents  and  worked 
over  the  main  episodes  into  a  concise,  vigorous,  swiftly 
moving  drama,  admirably  adapted  for  the  stage.  He  shows 
keen  dramatic  insight  in  the  manner  in  which  he  adapts 
the  love-potion  of  the  legends  to  his  purpose.  In  the 
legends  the  love  of  Tristan  and  Isolde  is  merely  "chemical" 
— entirely  the  result  of  the  love-philtre.     Wagner,  however, 


228  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

presents  them  from  the  outset  as  enamoured  of  one  another, 
so  that  the  potion  simply  quickens  a  passion  already  active. 

To  the  courtesy  of  G.  Schirmer,  Inc.,  publishers  of  my 
Wagner's  Music  Dramas  Analysed,  I  am  indebted,  as  I  have 
already  stated  elsewhere,  for  permission  to  use  material 
from  that  book.  I  have  there  placed  a  brief  summary  of 
the  story  of  "Tristan  and  Isolde"  before  the  descriptive 
accoimt  of  the  "book"  and  music,  and,  accordingly  do  so 
here. 

In  the  Wagnerian  version  the  plot  is  briefly  as  follows: 
Tristan,  having  lost  his  parents  in  infancy,  has  been  reared 
at  the  court  of  his  uncle,  Marke,  King  of  Cornwall.  He  has 
slain  in  combat  Morold,  an  Irish  knight,  who  had  come 
to  Cornwall,  to  collect  the  tribute  that  country  had  been 
paying  to  Ireland.  Morold  was  affianced  to  his  cousin 
Isolde,  daughter  of  the  Irish  king.  Tristan,  having  been 
dangerously  wounded  in  the  combat,  places  himself,  with- 
out disclosing  his  identity,  under  the  care  of  Morold's 
affianced,  Isolde,  who  comes  of  a  race  skilled  in  magic  arts. 
She  discerns  who  he  is;  but,  although  she  is  aware  that 
che  is  harbouring  the  slayer  of  her  affianced,  she  spares  him 
and  careftdly  tends  him,  for  she  has  conceived  a  deep  pas- 
sion for  him.  Tristan  also  becomes  enamoured  of  her,  but 
both  deem  their  love  unrequited.  Soon  after  Tristan's 
return  to  Cornwall,  he  is  dispatched  to  Ireland  by  Marke, 
that  he  may  win  Isolde  as  Queen  for  the  Cornish  king. 

The  music-drama  opens  on  board  the  vessel  in  which 
Tristan  bears  Isolde  to  Cornwall.  Deeming  her  love  for 
Tristan  unrequited  she  determines  to  end  her  sorrow  by 
quaffing  a  death-potion;  and  Tristan,  feeling  that  the  wo- 
man he  loves  is  about  to  be  wedded  to  another,  readily 
consents  to  share  it  with  her.  But  Brangdne,  Isolde's 
companion,  substitutes  a  love-potion  for  the  death-draught. 
This  rouses  their  love  to  resistless  passion.  Not  long 
after  they  reach  Cornwall,  they  are  surprised  in  the  castle 


Copyright  photo  by  Dui)ont 


Nordica  as  Isolde 


Richard  Wagner  229 

garden  by  the  King  and  his  suite,  and  Tristan  is  severely 
wounded  by  Melot,  one  of  Markers  knights.  Kurwenal, 
Tristan's  faithful  retainer,  bears  him  to  his  native  place, 
Kareol.  Hither  Isolde  follows  him,  arriving  in  time  to 
fold  him  in  her  arms  as  he  expires.  She  breathes  her  last 
over  his  corpse. 

THE  VORSPIEL 

All  who  have  made  a  study  of  opera,  and  do  not  regard 
it  merely  as  a  form  of  amusement,  are  agreed  that  the  score 
of  "Tristan  and  Isolde"  is  the  greatest  setting  of  a  love- 
story  for  the  lyric  stage.  In  fact  to  call  it  a  love-story 
seems  a  slight.  It  is  a  tale  of  tragic  passion,  culminating  in 
death,  unfolded  in  the  surge  and  palpitation  of  immortal 
music.  !(^ 

This  passion  smouldered  in  the  heart  of  the  man  and 
woman  of  this  epic  of  love.  It  could  not  burst  into  clear 
flame  because  over  it  lay  the  pall  of  duty — a  knight's  ,to  his 
king,  a  wife's  to  her  husband.  They  elected  to  die;  drank, 
as  they  thought,  a  death  potion.  Instead  it  was  a  magic 
love-philtre,  craftily  substituted  by  the  woman's  confidante. 
Then  love,  no  longer,  vague  and  hesitating,  but  roused  by 
sorcerous  means  to  the  highest  rapture,  found  expression 
in  the  complete  abandonment  of  the  lovers  to  their  ecstasy 
— ^and  their  fate. 

What  precedes  the  draught  of  the  potion  in  the  drama, 
is  narrative,  explanatory  and  prefatorial.  Once  Tristan 
and  Isolde  have  shared  the  goblet,  passion  is  unleashed. 
The  goal  is  death. 

The  magic  love-philtre  is  the  excitant  in  this  story  of 
rapture  and  gloom.  The  Vor spiel  therefore  opens  most 
fittingly  with  a  motive  which  expresses  the  incipient  effect 
of  the  potion  upon  Tristan  and  Isolde.  It  clearly  can  be 
divided  into  two  parts,  one  descending,  the  other  ascend- 


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The  Complete  Opera  Book 


ing  chromatically.  The  potion  overcomes  the  restraining 
influence  of  duty  in  two  beings  and  leaves  them  at  the 
mercy  of  their  passions.  The  first  part,  with  its  descend- 
ing chromatics,  is  pervaded  by  a  certain  trist  mood, 
as  if  Tristan  were  still  vaguely  forewarned  by  his  conscience 
of  the  impending  tragedy.  The  second  soars  ecstatically 
upward.  It  is  the  woman  yielding  unquestioningly  to  the 
rapture  of  requited  love.  Therefore,  while  the  phrase  may 
be  called  the  Motive  of  the  Love-Potion,  or,  as  Wolzogen 
calls  it,  of  Yearning,  it  seems  best  to  divide  it  into  the 
Tristan  and  Isolde  Motives  (A  and  B). 


The  two  motives  having  been  twice  repeated,  there  is  a 
fermate.  Then  the  Isolde  Motive  alone  is  heard,  so  that 
the  attention  of  the  hearer  is  fixed  upon  it.  For  in  this 
tragedy,  as  in  that  of  Eden,  it  is  the  woman  who  takes 
the  first  decisive  step.  After  another  'fermate,  the  last 
two  notes  of  the  Isolde  Motive  are  twice  repeated,  dying 
away  to  pp.     Then  a  variation  of  the  Isolde  Motive  leads 


with  an  impassioned  upward  sweep  into  another  version, 


>ro<.     Richard  Wagner        pj- 


231 


full  of  sensuous  yearning,  and  distinct   enough  to  form  a 
new  motive,  the  Motive  of  the  Love  Glance. 


This  occurs  again  and  again  in  the  course  of  the  Vor spiel. 
Though  readily  recognized,  it  is  sufficiently  varied  with 
each  repetition  never  to  allow  the  emotional  excitement 
to  subside.  In  fact,  the  Vorspiel  gathers  impetus  as  it 
proceeds,  until,  with  an  inversion  of  the  Love  Glance 
Motive,  borne  to  a  higher  and  higher  level  of  exaltation 
by  upward  rushing  runs,  it  reaches  its  climax  in  a  paroxysm 


of  love,  to  die  away  with  repetitions  of  the  Tristan,  the 
Isolde,  and  the  Love  Glance  motives. 

In  the  themes  it  employs  this  prelude  tells,  in  music,  the 
story  of  the  love  of  Tristan  and  Isolde.  We  have  the  motives 
of  the  hero  and  heroine  of  the  drama,  and  the  Motive  of  the 
Love  Glance.  When  as  is  the  case  in  concerts,  the  finale  of 
the  work,  "Isolde's  Love-Death,"  is  linked  to  the  Vorspiel, 
we  are  entrusted  with  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  music- 
drama,  forming  an  eloquent  epitome  of  the  tragic  story. 

Act  I.  Wagner  wisely  refrains  from  actually  placing 
before  us  on  the  stage,  the  events  that  transpired  in  Ireland 
before  Tristan  was  despatched  thither  to  bring  Isolde  as  a 
bride  to  King  Marke.  The  events,  which  led  to  the  two 
meetings  between  Tristan  and  Isolde,  are  told  in  Isolde's 
narrative,  which  forms  an  important  part  of  the  first  act. 
This  act  opens  aboard  the  vessel  in  which  Tristan  is  con- 
veying Isolde  to  Cornwall. 


232 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


The  opening  scene  shows  Isolde  reclining  on  a  couch,  her 
face  hid  in  soft  pillows,  in  a  tent-like  apartment  on  the 
forward  deck  of  a  vessel.  It  is  hung  with  rich  tapestries, 
which  hide  the  rest  of  the  ship  from  view.  Brangdne  has 
partially  drawn  aside  one  of  the  hangings  and  is  gazing  out 
upon  the  sea.  From  above,  as  though  from  the  rigging,  is 
heard  the  voice  of  a  young  Sailor  singing  a  farewell  song  to 
his  "Irish  maid."  It  has  a  wild  charm  and  is  a  capital 
example  of  Wagner's  skill  in  giving  local  colouring  to  his 
music.  The  words,  "Frisch  weht  der  Wind  der  Heimath 
zu"  (The  wind  blows  freshly  toward  our  home)  are  sung 
to  a  phrase  which  occurs  frequently  in  the  course  of  this 
scene.  It  represents  most  graphically  the  heaving  of  the 
sea  and  may  be  appropriately  termed  the  Ocean  Motive. 
It  undulates  gracefully  through  Brangdne' s  reply  to  Isolde's 
question  as  to  the  vessel's  course,  surges  wildly  around 
Isolde's  outburst  of  impotent  anger  when  she  learns  that 
Cornwall's  shore  is  not  far  distant,  and  breaks  itself  in 
savage  fury  against  her  despairing  wrath  as  she  invokes  the 
elements  to  destroy  the  ship  and  all  upon  it.   Ocean  Motive. 


It  is  her  hopeless  passion  for  Tristan  which  has  prostrated 
Isolde,  for  the  Motive  of  the  Love  Glance  accompanies 
her  first  exclamation  as  she  starts  up  excitedly. 

Isolde  calls  upon  Brangdne  to  throw  aside  the  hangings,  that 
she  may  have  air.     Brangdne  obeys.     The  deck  of  the  ship, 


•jfon     Richard  Wagner 


233 


and,  beyond  it,  the  ocean,  are  disclosed.  Around  the  main- 
mast sailors  are  busy  splicing  ropes.  Beyond  them,  on  the 
after  deck,  are  knights  and  esquires.  A  little  aside  from  them 
stands  Tristan,  gazing  out  upon  the  sea.  At  his  feet  reclines 
Kurwenal,  his  esquire.  The  young  sailor's  voice  is  again  heard. 
Isolde  beholds  Tristan.  Her  wrath  at  the  thought  that 
he  whom  she  loves  is  bearing  her  as  bride  to  another  vents 
itself  in  a  vengeful  phrase.  She  invokes  death  upon  him. 
This  phrase  is  the  Motive  of  Death. 


The  Motive  of  the  Love  Glance  is  heard — and  gives 
away  Isolde's  secret — as  she  asks  Brangdne  in  what  estima- 
tion she  holds  Tristan.  It  develops  into  a  triumphant 
strain  as  Brangdne  sings  his  praises.  Isolde  then  bids  her 
command  Tristan  to  come  into  her  presence.  This  com- 
mand is  given  with  the  Motive  of  Death,  for  it  is  their 
mutual  death  Isolde  wishes  to  compass.  As  Brangdne  goes 
to  do  her  mistress's  bidding,  a  graceful  variation  of  the  Ocean 
Motive  is  heard,  the  bass  markingthe  rhythmic  motions  of  the 
sailors  at  the  ropes.  Tristan  refuses  to  leave  the  helm  and 
when  Brangdne  repeats  Isolde's  command,  Kurwenal  answers 
in  deft  measures  in  praise  of  Tristan.  Knights,  esquires,  and 
sailors  repeat  the  refrain.  The  boisterous  measures — "Hail 
to  our  brave  Tristan!" — form  the  Tristan  Call. 


234 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Isolde's  wrath  at  KurwenaVs  taunts  find  vent  in  a  narra- 
tive in  which  she  tells  Brangdne  that  once  a  wounded  knight 
calling  himself  Tantris  landed  on  Ireland's  shore  to  seek 
her  healing  art.  Into  a  niche  in  his  sword  she  fitted  a  sword 
splinter  she  had  found  imbedded  in  the  head  of  Morold, 
which  had  been  sent  to  her  in  mockery  after  he  had  been 
slain  in  a  combat  with  the  Cornish  foe.  She  brandished 
the  sword  over  the  knight,  whom  thus  by  his  weapon  she 
knew  to  be  Tristan,  her  betrothed's  slayer.  But  Tristan's 
glance  fell  upon  her.  Under  its  spell  she  was  powerless. 
She  nursed  him  back  to  health,  and  he  vowed  eternal 
gratitude  as  he  left  her.  The  chief  theme  of  this  narrative 
is  derived  from  the  Tristan  Motive. 


What  of  the  boat,  so  bare,  so  frail, 

That  drifted  to  our  shore? 

What  of  the  sorely  stricken  man  feebly  extended  there? 

Isolde's  art  he  humbly  sought; 

With  balsam,  herbs,  and  healing  salves, 

From  wounds  that  laid  him  low, 

She  nvused  him  back  to  strength. 


Exquisite  is  the  transition  of  the  phrase  "His  eyes 
in  mine  were  gazing, "  to  the  Isolde  and  Love  Glance 
motives.  The  passage  beginning:  "Who  silently  his  life 
had  spared,"  is  followed  by  the  Tristan  Call,  Isolde  seem- 
ing to  compare  sarcastically  what  she  considers  his  betrayal 
of  her  with  his  fame  as  a  hero.  Her  outburst  of  wrath  as 
she  inveighs  against  his  treachery  in  now  bearing  her  as 
bride  to  King  Marke,  carries  the  narrative  to  a  superb 


i  Richard  Wagner  235 

climax.  Brangdne  seeks  to  comfort  Isolde,  but  the  latter, 
looking  fixedly  before  her,  confides,  almost  involuntarily, 
her  love  for  Tristan. 

It  is  clear,  even  from  this  brief  description,  with  what 
constantly  varying  expression  the  narrative  of  Isolde  is 
treated.  Wrath,  desire  for  vengeance,  rapturous  memories 
that  cannot  be  dissembled,  finally  a  confession  of  love  to 
Brangdne — such  are  the  emotions  that  surge  to  the  surface. 

They  lead  Brangdne  to  exclaim:  "Where  lives  the  man 
who  would  not  love  you?"  Then  she  weirdly  whispers  of 
the  love-potion  and  takes  a  phial  from  a  golden  salver. 
The  motives  of  the  Love  Glance  and  of  the  Love-Potion 
accompany  her  words  and  action.  But  Isolde  seizes  an- 
other phial,  which  she  holds  up  triumphantly.  It  is  the 
death-potion.  Here  is  heard  an  ominous  phrase  of  three 
notes — ^the  Motive  of  Fate. 


A  forceful  orchestral  climax,  in  which  the  demons  of 
despairing  wrath  seem  unleashed,  is  followed  by  the  cries 
of  the  sailors  greeting  the  sight  of  the  land,  where  she  is  to 
be  married  to  King  Marke.  Isolde  hears  them  with  grow- 
ing terror.  Kurwenal  brusquely  calls  to  her  and  Brangdne 
to  prepare  soon  to  go  ashore.  Isolde  orders  Kurwenal 
that  he  command  Tristan  to  come  into  her  presence;  then 
bids  Brangdne  prepare  the  death-potion.  The  Death 
Motive  accompanies  her  final  commands  to  Kurwenal 
and  Brangdne,  and  the  Fate  Motive  also  drones  threat- 
fully  through  the  weird  measures.  But  Brangdne  artfully 
substitutes  the  love-potion  for  the  death-draught. 

Kurwenal  announces  Tristan's  approach.  Isolde,  seek- 
ing to  control  her  agitation,  strides  to  the  couch,  and, 
supporting  herself  by  it,  gazes  fixedly  at  the  entrance  where 


236  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Tristan  remains  standing.  The  motive  which  announces 
his  appearance  is  full  of  tragic  defiance,  as  if  Tristan  felt 
that  he  stood  upon  the  threshold  of  death,  yet  was  ready 
to  meet  his  fate  unflinchingly.  It  alternates  effectively 
with  the  Fate  Motive,  and  is  used  most  dramatically 
throughout  the  succeeding  scene  between  Tristan  and 
Isolde.  Sombrely  impressive  is  the  passage  when  he  bids 
Isolde  slay  him  with  the  sword  she  once  held  over 
him. 


If  so  thou  didst  love  thy  lord, 
Lift  once  again  this  sword, 
Thrust  with  it,  nor  refrain, 
Lest  the  weapon  fall  again. 


Shouts  of  the  sailors  announce  the  proximity  of  land. 
In  a  variant  of  her  narrative  theme  Isolde  mockingly  an- 
ticipates Tristan's  praise  of  her  as  he  leads  her  into  King 
Marke's  presence.  At  the  same  time  she  hands  him  the 
goblet  which  contains,  as  she  thinks,  the  death-potion  and 
invites  him  to  quaff  it.  Again  the  shouts  of  the  sailors 
are  heard,  and  Tristan,  seizing  the  goblet,  raises  it  to  his 
lips  with  the  ecstasy  of  one  from  whose  soul  a  great  sorrow 
is  about  to  be  lifted.  When  he  has  half  emptied  it,  Isolde 
wrests  it  from  him  and  drains  it. 

The  tremor  that  passes  over  Isolde  loosens  her  grasp 
upon  the  goblet.     It  falls  from  her  hand.     She  faces  Tristan. 

Is  the  weird  light  in  their  eyes  the  last  upflare  of  passion 
before  the  final  darkness  ?  What  does  the  music  answer  as 
it  enfolds  them  in  its  wondrous  harmonies?  The  Isolde 
Motive; — then  what?  Not  the  glassy  stare  of  death;  the 
Love  Glance,  like  a  swift  shaft  of  light  penetrating  the 
gloom.  The  spell  is  broken.  Isolde  sinks  into  Tristan's 
embrace. 

Voices!    They   hear    them   not.     Sailors   are    shouting 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 


Lilli  Ixjhmann  as  Isolde 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Jean  de  Reszke  as  Tristan 


4.  fl: Richard  Wagner  237 

with  joy  that  the  voyage  is  over.  Upon  the  lovers  all 
sounds  are  lost,  save  their  own  short,  quick  interchange  of 
phrases,  in  which  the  rapture  of  their  passion,  at  last  un- 
covered, finds  speech.  Music  surges  about  them.  But  for 
Brangdne  they  would  be  lost.  It  is  she  who  parts  them,  as 
the  hangings  are  thrust  aside. 

Knights,  esquires,  sailors  crowd  the  deck.  From  a 
rocky  height  King  Marke's  castle  looks  down  upon  the  ship, 
now  riding  at  anchor  in  the  harbour.  Peace  and  joy 
everywhere  save  in  the  lovers'  breasts!  Isolde  faints  in 
Tristan's  arms.  Yet  it  is  a  triumphant  climax  of  the  Isolde 
Motive  that  is  heard  above  the  jubilation  of  the  ship-folk, 
as  the  act  comes  to  a  close. 

Act  II.  This  act  also  has  an  introduction,  which  together 
with  the  first  scene  between  Isolde  and  Brangdne,  con- 
stitutes a  wonderful  mood  picture  in  music.  Even  Wag- 
ner's bitterest  critic,  Edward  Hanslick,  of  Vienna,  was 
forced  to  compare  it  with  the  loveliest  creations  of  Schubert, 
in  which  that  composer  steeps  the  senses  in  dreams  of 
night  and  love. 

And  so,  this  introduction  of  the  second  act  opens  with 
a  motive  of  peculiar  significance.  During  the  love  scene 
in  the  previous  act,  Tristan  and  Isolde  have  inveighed 
against  the  day  which  jealously  keeps  them  apart.  They 
may  meet  only  under  the  veil  of  darkness.  Even  then 
their  joy  is  embittered  by  the  thought  that  the  blissful 
night  will  soon  be  succeeded  by  day.  With  them,  there- 
fore, the  day  stands  for  all  that  is  inimical,  night  for  all 
that  is  friendly.  This  simile  is  elaborated  with  considerable 
metaphysical  subtlety,  the  lovers  even  reproaching  the 
day  with  Tristan's  willingness  to  lead  Isolde  to  King  Marke, 
Tristan  charging  that  in  the  broad  light  of  the  jealous  day 
his  duty  to  win  Isolde  for  his  king  stood  forth  so  clearly  as 
to  overpower  the  passion  for  her  which  he  had  nurtured 
during  the  silent  watches  of  the  night.     The  phrase,  there- 


238 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


fore,  which  begins  the  act  as  with  an  agonized  cry  is  the 
Day  Motive. 


The  Day  Motive  is  followed  by  a  phrase  whose  eager, 
restless  measures  graphically  reflect  the  impatience  with 
which  Isolde  awaits  the  coming  of  Tristan — the  Motive 
of  Impatience. 


Over  this  there  hovers  a  dulcet,  seductive  strain,  the 
Motive  of  the  Love  Call,  which  is  developed  into  the  rap- 
turous measures  of  the  Motive  of  Ecstasy. 


When  the  curtain  rises,  the  scene  it  discloses  is  the  palace 
garden,    into   which   Isolde's   apartments   open.     It    is   a 


Richard  Wagner  239 

summer  night,  balmy  and  with  a  moon.  The  King  and 
his  suite  have  departed  on  a  htmt.  With  them  is  Melot, 
a  knight  who  professes  devotion  to  Tristan,  but  whom 
Brangdne  suspects. 

Brangdne  stands  upon  the  steps  leading  to  Isolde  s 
apartment.  She  is  looking  down  a  bosky  allee  in  the  direc- 
tion taken  by  the  hunt.  This  silently  gliding,  uncanny 
creature,  the  servitor  of  sin  in  others,  is  uneasy.  She  fears 
the  hunt  is  but  a  trap ;  and  that  its  quarry  is  not  the  wild 
deer,  but  her  mistress  and  the  'knight,  who  conveyed  her 
for  bride  to  King  Marke. 

Meanwhile  against  the  open  door  of  Isolde's  apartment  is 
a  burning  torch.  Its  flare  through  the  night  is  to  be  the 
signal  to  Tristan  that  all  is  well,  and  that  Isolde  waits. 

The  first  episode  of  the  act  is  one  of  those  exquisite 
tone  paintings  in  the  creation  of  which  Wagner  is  supreme. 
The  notes  of  the  hunting-horns  become  more  distant. 
Isolde  enters  from  her  apartment  into  the  garden.  She 
asks  Brangdne  if  she  cannot  now  signal  for  Tristan.  Bran- 
gdne answers  that  the  hant  is  still  within  hearing.  Isolde 
chides  her — is  it  not  some  lovely,  prattling  rill  she  hears? 
The  music  is  deliciously  idyllic — conjuring  up  a  dream- 
picture  of  a  sylvan  spring  night  bathed  in  liquescent  moon- 
light. Brangdne  warns  Isolde  against  Melot;  but  Isolde 
laughs  at  her  fears.  In  vain  Brangdne  entreats  heir  mistress 
not  to  signal  for  Tristan.  The  seductive  measures  of  the 
Love  Call  and  of  the  Motive  of  Ecstasy  tell  throughout 
this  scene  of  the  yearning  in  Isolde's  breast.  When 
Brangdne  informs  Isolde  that  she  substituted  the 
love-potion  for  the  death-draught,  Isolde  scorns  the 
suggestion  that  her  guilty  love  for  Tristan  is  the  result 
of  her  quaffing  the  potion.  This  simply  intensified  the 
passion  already  in  her  breast.  She  proclaims  this  in 
the  rapturous  phrases  of  the  Isolde  Motive;  and  then, 
when  she  declares  her  fate  to  be  in  the   hands   of  the 


240 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


goddess  of  love,  there  are  heard  the  tender  accents  of  the 
Love  Motive. 


In  vain  Brangdne  warns  once  more  against  possible 
treachery  from  Melot.  The  Love  Motive  rises  with  ever 
increasing  passion  until  Isolde's  emotional  exaltation  finds 
expression  in  the  Motive  of  Ecstasy  as  she  bids  Brangdne 
hie  to  the  lookout,  and  proclaims  that  she  will  give  Tristan 
the  signal  by  extinguishing  the  torch,  though  in  doing  so 
she  were  to  extinguish  the  light  of  her  life.  The  Motive 
of  the  Love  Call  ringing  out  triumphantly  accompanies 
her  action,  and  dies  away  into  the  Motive  of  Impatience 
as  she  gazes  down  a  bosky  avenue  through  which  she  seems 
to  expect  Tristan  to  come  to  her.  Then  the  Motive  of 
Ecstasy  and  Isolde's  raptiirous  gesture  tell  that  she  has 
discerned  her  lover;  and,  as  this  Motive  reaches  a  fiercely 
impassioned  climax,  Tristan  and  Isolde  rush  into  each 
other's  arms. 

The  music  fairly  seethes  with  passion  as  the  lovers  greet 
one  another,  the  Love  Motive  and  the  Motive  of  Ecstasy 
vying  in  the  excitement  of  this  rapturous  meeting.  Then 
begins  the  exchange  of  phrases  in  which  the  lovers  pour 
forth  their  love  for  one  another.  This  is  the  scene  domi- 
nated by  the  Motive  of  the  Day,  which,  however,  as  the 
day  sinks  into  the  soft  night,  is  softened  into  the  Night 
Motive,  which  soothes  the  senses  with  its  ravishing  caress. 


Richard  Wagner 


241 


This  motive  throbs  through  the  rapturous  harmonies  of 
the  duet:  "Oh,  sink  upon  us,  Night  of  Love,"  and  there 
is  nothing  in  the  realms  of  music  or  poetry  to  compare  in 
suggestiveness  with  these  caressing,  pulsating  phrases. 

The  duet  is  broken  in  upon  by  Brangdne's  voice  warning 
the  lovers  that  night  will  soon  be  over.  The  arpeggios 
accompanying  her  warning  are  like  the  first  grey  streaks  of 
dawn.  But  the  lovers  heed  her  not.  In  a  smooth,  soft 
melody — the  Motive  of  Love's  Peace — whose  sensuous 
grace  is  simply  entrancing,  they  whisper  their  love. 


It  is  at  such  a  moment,  enveloped  by  night  and  love,  that 
death  should  have  come  to  them;  and,  indeed,  it  is  for  such 
a  love-death  they  yearn.  Hence  we  have  here,  over  a 
quivering  accompaniment,  the  Motive  of  the  Love-Death, 


Once  more  Brangdne   calls. 
Isolde  heed  her  not. 


Once  more   Tristan  and 


Night  will  shield  us  for  aye! 

Thus  exclaims  Isolde  in  defiance  of  the  approach  of 
dawn,  while  the  Motive  of  ecstasy,  introduced  by  a  raptur- 
ous mordent,  soars  ever  higher. 


242  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

A  cry  from  Brangdne,  Kurwenal  rushing  upon  the  scene 
calling  to  Tristan  to  save  himself — and  the  lovers'  ravishing 
dream  is  ended.  Surrounded  by  the  King  and  his  suite, 
with  the  treacherous  Melot,  they  gradually  awaken  to  the 
terror  of  the  situation.  Almost  automatically  Isolde  hides 
her  head  among  the  flowers,  and  Tristan  spreads  out  his 
cloak  to  conceal  her  from  view  while  phrases  reminiscent 
of  the  love  scene  rise  like  mournful  memories. 

Now  follows  a  soliloquy  for  the  King,  whose  sword  instead 
should  have  leapt  from  its  scabbard  and  buried  itself  in 
Tristan's  breast.  For  it  seems  inexplicable  that  the  mon- 
arch, who  should  have  slain  the  betrayer  of  his  honour, 
indulges  instead  in  a  philosophical  discourse,  ending: 

The  tinexplained, 

Unpenetrated 

Cause  of  all  these  woes, 

Who  will  to  us  disclose? 

Tristan  turns  to  Isolde.  Will  she  follow  him  to  the  bleak 
land  of  his  birth?  Her  reply  is  that  his  home  shall  be  her's. 
Then  Melot  draws  his  sword.  Tristan  rushes  upon  him, 
but  as  Melot  thrusts,  allows  his  guard  to  fall  and  receives  the 
blade.     Isolde  throws  herself  on  her  wounded  lover's  breast. 

Act  III.  The  introduction  to  this  act  opens  with  a 
variation  of  the  Isolde  Motive,  sadly  prophetic  of  the 
desolation  which  broods  over  the  scene  to  be  disclosed 
when  the  curtain  rises.  On  its  third  repetition  it  is  con- 
tinued in  a  long-drawn-out  ascending  phrase,  which  seems 
to  represent  musically  the  broad  waste  of  ocean  upon  which 
Tristan's  castle  looks  down  from  its  craggy  height. 

The  whole  passage  appears  to  represent  Tristan  hope- 
lessly yearning  for  Isolde,  letting  his  fancy  travel  back 
over  the  watery  waste  to  the  last  night  of  love,  and  then 
giving  himself  up  wholly  to  his  grief. 

The  curtain  rises  upon  the  desolate  grounds  of  Kareol, 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 


Gadski  as  Isolde 


N.  Y.  Photographic  Co. 


Temina  as  Isolde 


Richard  Wagner 


243 


between  the  outer  walls  of  Tristan's  castle  and  the  main 
structure,  which  stands  upon  a  rocky  eminence  overlook- 
ing the  sea.  Tristan  is  stretched,  apparently  lifeless,  under 
a  huge  linden-tree.  Over  him,  in  deep  sorrow,  bends  the 
faithful  Kurwenal.  A  Shepherd  is  heard  piping  a  strain, 
whose  plaintive  notes  harmonize  most  beautifully  with 
the  despairing  desolation  and  sadness  of  the  scene.  It  is 
the  Lay  of  Sorrow,  and  by  it,  the  Shepherd  who  scans  the 
sea,  conveys  to  Kurwenal  information  that  the  ship  he  has 
dispatched  to  Cornwall  to  bear  Isolde  to  Kareol  has  not 
yet  hove  in  sight. 

The  Lay  of  Sorrow  is  a  strain  of  mournful  beauty,  with 
the  simplicity  and  indescribable  charm  of  a  folk-song.  Its 
plaintive  notes  cling  like  ivy  to  the  grey  and  crumbling 
ruins  of  love  and  joy. 


The  Shepherd  peers  over  the  wall  and  asks  if  Tristan  has 
shown  any  signs  of  life.  Kurwenal  gloomily  replies  in  the 
negative.  The  Shepherd  departs  to  continue  his  lookout, 
piping  the  sad  refrain.  Tristan  slowly  opens  his  eyes. 
"The  old  refrain;  why  wakes  it  me?  Where  am  I?"  he 
murmurs.  Kurwenal  is  beside  himself  with  joy  at  these 
signs  of  returning  life.  His  replies  to  Tristan's  feeble  and 
wandering  questions  are  mostly  couched  in  a  motive  which 
beautifully  expresses  the  sterling  nature  of  this  faithful 
retainer,  one  of  the  noblest  characters  Wagner  has  drawn. 


244 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


When  Tristan  loses  himself  in  sad  memories  of  Isolde, 
Kurwenal  seeks  to  comfort  him  with  the  news  that  he 
has  sent  a  trusty  man  to  Cornwall  to  bear  Isolde  to  him 
that  she  may  heal  the  wound  inflicted  by  Melot  as  she  once 
healed  that  dealt  Tristan  by  Morold.  In  Tristan's  jubilant 
reply,  during  which  he  draws  Kurwenal  to  his  breast,  the 
Isolde  Motive  assumes  a  form  in  which  it  becomes  a  theme 
of  joy. 

But  it  is  soon  succeeded  by  the  Motive   of  Anguish^ 


when  Tristan  raves  of  his  yearning  for  Isolde.  "The  ship! 
the  ship!"  he  exclaims.  "Kurwenal,  can  you  not  see  it?" 
The  Lay  of  Sorrow,  piped  by  the  Shepherd,  gives  the  sad 
answer.  It  pervades  his  sad  reverie  until,  when  his  mind 
wanders  back  to  Isolde's  tender  nursing  of  his  wound  in 
Ireland,  the  theme  of  Isolde's  Narrative  is  heard  again. 
Finally  his  excitement  grows  upon  him,  and  in  a  paroxysm 
of  anguish  bordering  on  insanity  he  even  curses  love. 

Tristan  sinks  back  apparently  lifeless.  But  no — as 
Kurwenal  bends  over  him  and  the  Isolde  Motive  is 
breathed  by  the  orchestra,  he  again  whispers  of  Isolde. 
In  ravishing  beauty  the  Motive  of  Love's  Peace  caress- 
ingly follows  his  vision  as  he  seems  to  see  Isolde  glid- 
ing toward  him  o'er  the  waves.  With  ever-growing 
excitement  he  orders  Kurwenal  to  the  lookout  to 
watch  the  ship's  coming.  What  he  sees  so  clearly  can- 
not Kurwenal  also  see?  Suddenly  the  music  changes 
in  character.  The  ship  is  in  sight,  for  the  Shepherd  is 
heard   piping  a  joyous  lay.     It   pervades   the  music    of 


Richard  Wagner  245 

Tristan's  excited  questions  and  Kurwenal's  answers  as 
to  the  vessel's  movements.  The  faithfiil  retainer  nishes 
down  toward  the  shore  to  meet  Isolde  and  lead  her  to 
Tristan.  The  latter,  his  strength  sapped  by  his  wotmd, 
his  mind  inflamed  to  insanity  by  his  passionate  yearning,  • 
struggles  to  rise.  He  raises  himself  a  little.  The  Motive 
of  Love's  Peace,  no  longer  tranquil,  but  with  frenzied 
rapidity,  accompanies  his  actions  as,  in  his  deliritun,  he 
tears  the  bandage  from  his  wounds  and  rises  from  his 
couch. 

Isolde's  voice!  Into  her  arms,  outstretched  to  receive 
him,  staggers  Tristan.  Gently  she  lets  him  down  upon  his 
couch,  where  he  has  lain  in  the  anguish  of  expectancy. 

"Tristan!" 

"Isolde!"  he  answers  in  broken  accents.  This  last  look 
resting  rapturously  upon  her,  while  in  mournful  beauty  the 
Love-Glance  Motive  rises  from  the  orchestra,  he  expires. 

In  all  music  there  is  no  scene  more  deeply  shaken  with 
sorrow. 

Tumultuous  sounds  are  heard.  A  second  ship  has 
arrived.  Marke  and  his  suite  have  landed.  Tristan's 
men,  thinking  the  King  has  come  in  pursuit  of  Isolde, 
attack  the  new-comers,  Kurwenal  and  his  men  are  over- 
powered, and  Kurwenal,  having  avenged  Tristan  by  slaying 
Melot,  sinks,  himself  mortally  wounded,  dying  by  Tristan's 
side.  He  reaches  out  for  his  dead  master's  hand,  and  his 
last  words  are:  "Tristan,  chide  me  not  that  faithfully  I 
follow  you. " 

When  Brangdne  rushes  in  and  hurriedly  announces  that 
she. has  informed  the  King  of  the  love-potion,  and  that  he 
comes  bringing  forgiveness,  Isolde  heeds  her  not.  As  the 
Love-Death  Motive  rises  softly  over  the  orchestra  and 
slowly  swells  into  the  impassioned  Motive  of  Ecstasy,  to 
reach  its  climax  with  a  stupendous  crash  of  instrumental 
forces,  she  gazes  with  growing  transport  upon  her  dead 


246  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

lover,  until,  with  rapture  in  her  last  glance,  she  sinks  upon 
his  corpse  and  expires. 

In  the  Wagnerian  version  of  the  legend  this  love-death 
for  which  Tristan  and  Isolde  prayed  and  in  which  they  are 
united,  is  more  than  a  mere  farewell  together  to  life.  It  is 
tinged  with  Oriental  philosophy,  and  symbolizes  the  taking 
up  into  and  the  absorption  of  by  nature  of  all  that  is  spirit- 
ual, and  hence  immortal,  in  lives  rendered  beautiful  by 
love. 

DIE  MEISTERSINGER  VON  NURNBERG 

THE  MASTERSINGERS  OF   NUREMBURG 

Opera  in  three  acts,  words  and  music  by  Richard  Wagner.  Produced, 
Munich,  June  21,  1868,  under  direction  of  Hans  von  Biilow.  London, 
Drury  Lane,  May  30,  1882,  under  Hans  Richter;  Covent  Garden, 
July  13,  1889,  in  ItaHan;  Manchester,  in  English,  by  the  Carl  Rosa 
Company,  April  16,  1896.  New  York,  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
January  4,  1886,  with  Fischer  (Hans  Sachs),  Seidl-Kraus  (Eva),  Marianne 
Brandt  (Magdalena),  Stritt  (Walther),  Kemlitz  (Beckmesser);  Conduc- 
tor, Seidl.  Sachs  has  also  been  sung  by  Edouard  de  Reszke,  Van 
Rooy,  and  Whitehill;  Walther  by  Jean  de  Reszke;  Eva  by  Eames, 
Gadski,  and  Hempel;  Beckmesser  by  Goritz;  Magdalena  by  Schumann- 
Heink  and  Homer. 

Characters 

Hans  Sachs,  Cobbler 'I  Bass 

Veit  Pogner,  Goldsmith Bass 

KuNZ  Vogelgesang,  Furrier Tenor 

Conrad  Nachtigall,  Buckle-Maker  |  Bass 

SiXTUS  Beckmesser,  Town  Clerk. . .  Bass 

Fritz  Kothner,  Baker [  Bass 

Balthazar  Zorn,  Pewterer ^Mastersingers ^^^^ 

Ulrich  Eislinger,  Grocer Tenor 

August  Moser,  Tailor Tenor 

Hermann  Ortel,  Soap-boiler Bass 

Hans  Schwarz,  Stocking-Weaver....  Bass 

Hans  Folz,  Coppersmith J  Bass 

Walther  von  Stolzing,  a  young  Franconian  knight Tenor 


Richard  Wagner  247 

David,  apprentice  to  Hans  Sachs Tenor 

A  Night  Watchman Bass 

Eva,  daughter  of  Pocner Soprano 

Magdalena,  Eva's  nurse Mezzo-Soprano 

Burghers  of  the  Guilds,  Journeymen,  'Prentices,  Girls,  and  Populace. 
Time — Middle  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  Place — Nuremburg. 

Wagner's  music-dramas  are  all  unmistakably  Wagner, 
yet  they  are  wonderfully  varied.  The  style  of  the  music 
in  each  adapts  itself  plastically  to  the  character  of  the  story. 
Can  one,  for  instance,  imagine  the  music  of  "Tristan" 
wedded  to  the  story  of  "The  Mastersingers, "  or  vice 
versa?  A  tragic  passion,  inflamed  by  the  arts  of  sorcery 
inspired  the  former.  The  latter  is  a  thoroughly  hviman 
tale  set  to  thoroughly  human  music.  Indeed,  while 
"Tristan"  and  "The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung"  are  tragic, 
and  "Parsifal"  is  deeply  religious,  "The  Mastersingers" 
is  a  comic  work,  even  bordering  in  one  scene  on  farce. 
Like  Shakespeare,  Wagner  was  equally  at  home  in  tragedy 
and  comedy. 

Walther  von  Slolzing  is  in  love  with  Eva.  Her  father 
having  promised  her  to  the  singer  to  whom  at  the  coming 
midsummer  festival  the  Mastersingers  shall  adjudge  the 
prize,  it  becomes  necessary  for  Walther  to  seek  admission 
to  their  art  union.  He  is,  however,  rejected,  his  song 
violating  the  rules  to  which  the  Mastersingers  slavishly 
adhere.  Beckmesser  is  also  instrumental  in  securing 
Walther' s  rejection.  The  town  clerk  is  the  "marker"  of 
the  union.  His  duty  is  to  mark  all  violations  of  the  rules 
against  a  candidate.  Beckmesser,  being  a  suitor  for  Eva's 
hand,  naturally  makes  the  most  of  every  chance  to  put 
down  a  mark  against  Walther. 

Sachs  alone  among  the  Mastersingers  has  recognized 
the  beauty  of  Walther' s  song.  Its  very  freedom  from  rule 
and  rote  charms  him,  and  he  discovers  in  the  young  knight's 
untrammelled  genius  the  power  which,  if  properly  directed, 


248  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

will  lead  art  from  the  beaten  path  of  tradition  toward  a  new 
and  loftier  ideal. 

After  Walther's  failure  before  the  Mastersingers  the 
impetuous  young  knight  persuades  Eva  to  elope  with  him. 
But  at  night  as  they  are  preparing  to  escape,  Beckmesser 
comes  upon  the  scene  to  serenade  Eva.  Sachs,  whose  house 
is  opposite  Pogner's,  has  meanwhile  brought  his  work  bench 
out  into  the  street  and  insists  on  "marking"  what  he 
considers  Beckmesser' s  mistakes  by  bringing  his  hammer 
down  upon  his  last  with  a  resounding  whack.  The  louder 
Beckmesser  sings  the  louder  Sachs  whacks.  Finally  the 
neighbours  are  aroused.  David,  who  is  in  love  with  Mag- 
dalena  and  thinks  Beckmesser  is  serenading  her,  falls  upon 
him  with  a  cudgel.  The  whole  neighbourhood  turns  out  and 
a  general  melee  ensues,  during  which  Sachs  separates  .Ez^a 
and  Walther  and  draws  the  latter  into  his  home. 

The  following  morning  Walther  sings  to  Sachs  a  song 
which  has  come  to  him  in  a  dream,  Sachs  transcribing  the 
words  and  passing  friendly  criticism  upon  them  and  the 
music.  The  midsummer  festival  is  to  take  place  that 
afternoon,  and  through  a  ruse  Sachs  manages  to  get  Wal- 
ther's poem  into  Beckmesser' s  possession,  who,  thinking  the 
words  are  by  the  popular  cobbler-poet,  feels  sure  he  will 
be  the  chosen  master,  Eva,  coming  into  the  workshop 
to  have  her  shoes  fitted,  finds  Walther,  and  the  lovers 
depart  with  Sachs,  David,  and  Magdalena  for  the  festival. 
Here  Beckmesser,  as  Sachs  had  anticipated,  makes  a 
wretched  failure,  as  he  has  utterly  missed  the  spirit  of  the 
poem,  and  Walther,  being  called  upon  by  Sachs  to  reveal  its 
beauty  in  music,  sings  his  prize  song,  winning  at  once  the 
approbation  of  the  Mastersingers  and  the  populace.  He  is 
received  into  their  art  union  and  at  the  same  time  wins 
Eva  SiS  his  bride. 

The  Mastersingers  were  of  burgher  extraction.  They 
flourished  in  Germany,  chiefly  in  the  imperial  cities,  during 


Photo  by  Falk 


Emil  Fischer  as  Hans  Sachs  in  "  Die  Meistersinger  " 


Photo  by  White 

Weil  and  Goritz  as  Hans  Sachs  and  Beckmesst-r  in  ' '  r3u'  Akistersinger  " 


Richard  Wagner  249 

the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries.  They  did 
much  to  generate  and  preserve  a  love  of  art  among  the 
middle  classes.  Their  musical  competitions  were  judged 
according  to  a  code  of  rules  which  distinguished  by  parti- 
cular names  thirty-two  faults  to  be  avoided.  Scriptural 
or  devotional  subjects  were  usually  selected  and  the  judges 
or  Merker  (Markers)  were,  in  Nuremburg,  four  in  number, 
the  first  comparing  the  words  with  the  Biblical  text,  the 
second  criticizing  the  prosody,  the  third  the  rhymes,  and 
the  fourth  the  tune.  He  who  had  the  fewest  marks  against 
him  received  the  prize. 

Hans  Sachs,  the  most  famous  of  the  Mastersingers,  born 
November  5,  1494,  died  January,  1576,  in  Nuremburg,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  author  of  some  six  thousand  poems. 
He. was  a  cobbler  by  trade — 

Hans  Sachs  was  a  shoe- 
Maker  and  poet  too. 

A  monument  was  erected  to  him  in  the  city  of  his  birth  in 

1874. 

"The  Mastersingers"  is  a  simple,  htrnian  love  story, 
simply  told,  with  many  touches  of  humour  to  enliven  it, 
and  its  interest  enhanced  by  highly  picturesque,  historical 
surroundings.  As  a  drama  it  conveys  also  a  perfect  picture 
of  the  life  and  customs  of  Nuremburg  of  the  time  in  which 
the  story  plays.  Wagner  must  have  made  careful  historical 
researches,  but  his  book  lore  is  not  thrust  upon  us.  The 
work  is  so  spontaneous  that  the  method  and  manner  of  its 
art  are  lost  sight  of  in  admiration  of  the  result.  Hans 
Sachs  himself  could  not  have  left  a  more  faithful  portrait 
of  life  in  Nuremburg  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

"  The  Mastersingers  "  has  a  peculiarly  Wagnerian  interest. 
It  is  Wagner's  protest  against  the  narrow-minded  critics 
and  the  prejudiced  public  who  so  long  refused  him  recogni- 
tion.    Edward  Hanslick,  the  bitterest  of  Wagner's  critics, 


250  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

regarded  the  libretto  as  a  personal  insult  to  himself.  Being 
present  by  invitation  at  a  private  reading  of  the  libretto, 
which  Wagner  gave  in  Vienna,  Hanslick  rose  abruptly  and 
left  after  the  first  act.  Walther  von  Stohing  is  the  incarna- 
tion of  new  aspirations  in  art;  the  champion  of  a  new  art 
ideal,  and  continually  chafing  under  the  restraints  imposed 
bj'  traditional  rules  and  methods.  Hans  Sachs  is  a  con- 
servative. But,  while  preserving  what  is  best  in  art 
traditions,  he  is  able  to  recognize  the  beautiful  in  what  is 
new.  He  represents  enlightened  public  opinion.  Beck- 
messer  and  the  other  Mastersingers  are  the  embodiment  of 
rank  prejudice — the  critics.  Walthe/s  triumph  is  also 
Wagner's.  Few  of  Wagner's  dramatic  creations  equal  in 
life-like  interest  the  character  of  Sachs.  It  is  drawn  with  a 
strong,  firm  hand,  and  filled  in  with  many  delicate  touches. 

The  Vorspiel  gives  a  complete  musical  epitome  of  the 
story.  It  is  full  of  life  and  action — pompous,  impassioned, 
and  jocose  in  turn,  and  without  a  suggestion  of  the  over- 
wrought or  morbid.  Its  sentiment  and  its  fun  are  purely 
hiunan.  In  its  technical  construction  it  has  long  been 
recognized  as  a  masterpiece. 

In  the  sense  that  it  precedes  the  rise  of  the  curtain,  this 
orchestral  composition  is  a  Vorspiel,  or  prelude.  As  a  work, 
however,  it  is  a  full-fledged  overture,  rich  in  thematic 
material.  These  themes  are  Leading  Motives  heard  many 
times,  and  in  wonderful  variety  in  the  three  acts  of  "The 
Mastersingers."  To  a  great  extent  an  analysis  of  this 
overture  forecasts  the  work  itself.  Accordingly,  again 
through  the  courtesy  of  G.  Schirmer  Inc.,  I  avail  myself  of 
my  Wagner's  Music-Dramas  Analysed,  in  the  account  of  the 
Vorspiel  and  of  the  action  and  music  that  follow  it. 

The  pompous  Motive  of  the  Mastersingers  opens  the 
Vorspiel.  This  theme  gives  capital  musical  expression  to 
the  characteristics  of  these  dignitaries;  eminently  worthy 
but  self-sufficient  citizens  who  are  slow  to  receive  new 


Richard  Wagner 


251 


impressions  and  do  not  take  kindly  to  innovations.  Our 
term  of  old  fogy  describes  them  imperfectly,  as  it  does  not 
allow  for  their  many  excellent  qualities.  They  are  slow 
to  act,  but  if  they  are  once  aroused  their  ponderous  in- 
fluence bears  dovm  all  opposition.  At  first  an  obstacle  to 
genuine  reform,  they  are  in  the  end  the  force  which  pushes 
it  to  success.  Thus  there  is  in  the  Motive  of  the  Masterr 
singers  a  certain  ponderous  dignity  which  well  emphasizes 
the  idea  of  conservative  power. 


In  great  contrast  to  this  is  the  Lyric  Motive,  which  seems 
to  express  the  striving  after  a  poetic  ideal  untrammelled  by 
old-fashioned  restrictions,  such  as  the  rules  of  the  Master- 
singers  impose. 


But,  the  sturdy  conservative  forces  are  still  unwilling 
to  be  persuaded  of  the  worth  of  this  new  ideal*.  Hence  the 
Lyric  Motive  is  suddenly  checked  by  the  sonorous  measures 
of  the  Mastersingers'  March. 


In  this  the  majesty  of  law  and  order  finds  expression.  It  is 
followed  by  a  phrase  of  noble  breadth  and  beauty,  obviously 
developed  from  portions  of  the  Motive  of  the  Master- 
singers,  and  so  typical  of  the  goodwill  which  should  exist 


252  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

among  the  members  of  a  fraternity  that  it  may  be  called 
the  Motive  of  the  Art  Brotherhood. 


etc. 


It  reaches  an  eloquent  climax  in  the  Motive  of  the  Ideal. 


'QP,^j^\vLf^^ 


Opposed,  however,  to  this  guild  of  conservative  masters 
is  the  restless  spirit  of  progress.  Hence,  though  stately 
the  strains  of  the  Mastersingers'  March  and  of  the  Guild 
Motive,  soon  yield  to  a  theme  full  of  emotional  energy  and 
much  like  the  L}Tic  Motive.  Waliher  is  the  champion  of 
this  new  ideal — not,  however,  from  a  purely  artistic  im- 
pulse, but  rather  through  his  love  for  Eva.  Being  ignorant 
of  the  rules  and  rote  of  the  Mastersingers  he  sings,  when  he 
presents  himself  for  admission  to  the  fraternity,  measures 
which  soar  untrammelled  into  realms  of  beauty  beyond  the 
imagination  of  the  masters.  But  it  was  his  love  for  Eva 
which  impelled  him  to  seek  admission  to  the  brotherhood, 
and  love  inspired  his  song.  He  is  therefore  a  reformer  only 
by  accident;  it  is  not  his  love  of  art,  but  his  passion  for 
Eva,  which  really  brings  about  through  his  prize  song  a 
great  musical  reform.  This  is  one  of  Wagner's  finest 
dramatic  touches — the  love  story  is  the  mainspring  of  the 
action,  the  moral  is  pointed  only  incidentally.  Hence  all 
the  motives  in  which  the  restless  striving  after  a  new  ideal, 
or  the  struggles  of  a  new  art  form  to  break  through  the 
barriers  of  conservative  prejudice,  find  expression,  are  so 
many  love  motives,  Eva  being  the  incarnation  of  Walthcr's 
ideal.     Therefore  the  motive  which  breaks  in  upon  the 


Richard  Wagner 


253 


Mastersingers'  March  and  Guild  Motive  with  such  emo- 
tional energy  expresses  Walther's  desire  to  possess  Eva, 
more  than  his  yearning  for  a  new  ideal  in  art.  So  I  call 
it  the  Motive  of  Longing. 


A   portion  of  "Walther's  Prize  Song,"   like  a  swiftly 


whispered  declaration  of  love,  leads  to  a  variation  of  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  themes  of  the  work — the  Motive  of  Spring. 


OLifii 

.^ .       — »-i 

INL^^-TST^ 

1,                                 S          ^ 

&ytf  J-J'JJJJ   M:J'J  JJ^ 

'      lip,  p.i^-=f^ 

3 

r'   I'--    3       ' 

te» 3 — 

— ' — r  V  ^  K.*  '1  r" 

And  now  Wagner  has  a  fling  at  the  old  fogyism  which 
was  so  long  an  obstacle  to  his  success.  He  holds  the  masters 
up  to  ridicule  in  a  delightfully  humorous  passage  which 
parodies  the  Mastersingers'  and  Art  Brotherhood  motives, 
while  the  Spring  Motive  vainly  strives  to  assert  itself.  In 
the  bass,  the  following  quotation  is  the  Motive  of  Ridicule, 
the  treble  being  a  variant  of  the  Art  Brotherhood  Motive. 


254  ''^^^  Complete  Opera  Book 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  opposition  Wagner  en- 
countered from  prejudiced  critics,  not  to  mention  a  preju- 
diced public,  was  the  bane  of  his  career,  it  seems  wonderful 
that  he  should  have  been  content  to  protest  against  it 
wnth  this  pleasant  raillery  instead  of  with  bitter  invective. 
The  passage  is  followed  by  the  Motive  of  the  Master- 
singers,  which  in  turn  leads  to  an  imposing  combination 
of  phrases.  We  hear  the  portion  of  the  Prize  Song  already 
quoted — the  Motive  of  the  Mastersingers  as  bass — and 
in  the  middle  voices  portions  of  the  Mastersingers'  March; 
a  little  later  the  Motive  of  the  Art  Brotherhood  and  the 
Motive  of  Ridicule  are  added,  this  grand  massing  of  or- 
chestral forces  reaching  a  powerful  climax,  with  the  Motive 
of  the  Ideal,  while  the  Motive  of  the  Mastersingers  brings 
the  Vorspiel  to  a  fitting  close.  In  this  noble  passage,  in 
which  the  "Prize  Song"  soars  above  the  various  themes 
typical  of  the  masters,  the  new  ideal  seems  to  be  borne  to 
its  triimiph  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  conservative  forces 
which,  won  over  at  last,  have  espoused  its  cause  with  all 
their  sturdy  energy. 

This  concluding  passage  in  the  Vorspiel  thus  brings  out 
with  great  eloquence  the  inner  significance  of  "Die  Meister- 
singer."  In  whatever  the  great  author  and  composer  of 
this  work  wrote  for  the  stage,  there  always  was  an  ethical 
meaning  back  of  the  words  and  music.  Thus  we  draw  our 
conclusion  of  the  meaning  of  "Die  Meistersinger "  story 
from  the  wonderful  combination  of  leading  motives  in  the 
peroration  of  its  Vorspiel. 

In  his  fine  book,  The  Orchestra  and  Orchestral  Music, 
W.  J.  Henderson  relates  this  anecdote: 

"A  professional  musician  was  engaged  in  a  discussion 
of  Wagner  in  the  corridor  of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
while  inside  the  orchestra  was  playing  the  'Meistersinger' 
overture. 

'"It  is  a  pity,'  said  this  wise  man,  In  a  condescending 


Richard  Wagner  255 

manner,  'but  Wagner  knows  absolutely  nothing  about 
counterpoint.' 

"At  that  instant  the  orchestra  was  singing  five  different 
melodies  at  once;  and,  as  Anton  Seidl  was  the  conductor, 
they  were  all  audible. " 

In  a  rare  book  by  J.  C.  Wagenseil,  printed  in  Nuremburg 
in  1697,  are  given  four  "Prize  Master  Tones."  Two  of 
these  Wagner  has  reproduced  in  modem  garb,  the  former 
in  the  Mastersingers'  March,  the  latter  in  the  Motive  of 
the  Art  Brotherhood. 


Act  I.  The  scene  of  this  act  is  laid  in  the  Church  of  St, 
Catherine,  Nuremburg.  The  congregation  is  singing  the 
final  chorale  of  the  service.  Among  the  worshippers  are 
Eva  and  her  maid,  Magdalena.  Walther  stands  aside,  and, 
by  means  of  nods  and  gestures,  communicates  with  Eva. 
This  mimic  conversation  is  expressively  accompanied  by 
interludes  between  the  verses  of  the  chorale,  interludes 
expressively  based  on  the  Lyric,  Spring,  and  Prize  Song 
motives,  and  contrasting  charmingly  with  the  strains  of  the 
chorale. 

The  service  over,  the  Motive  of  Spring,  with  an  impetuous 
upward  rush,  seems  to  express  the  lovers'  joy  that  the 
restraint  is  removed,  and  the  Lyric  Motive  resounds 
exultingly  as  the  congregation  departs,  leaving  Eva, 
Magdalena,  and  Walther  behind. 

Eva,  in  order  to  gain  a  few  words  with  Walther,  sends 
Magdalena  back  to  the  pew  to  look  for  a  kerchief  and 
hymn-book,  she  has  purposely  left  there.  Magdalena 
urges  Eva  to  return  home,  but  just  then  David  appears  in 
the  background  and  begins  putting  things  to  rights  for  the 
meeting    of    the    Mastersingers.     Magdalena    is    therefore 


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only  too  glad  to  linger.  The  Mastersinger  and  Guild 
motives,  which  nattirally  accompany  David's  activity, 
contrast  soberly  with  the  ardent  phrases  of  the  lovers. 
Magdalena  explains  to  Walther  that  Eva  is  already  affianced, 
though  she  herself  does  not  know  to  whom.  Her  father 
wishes  her  to  marry  the  singer  to  whom  at  the  coming 
contest  the  Mastersingers  shall  award  the  prize;  and,  while 
she  shall  be  at  liberty  to  decline  him,  she  may  marry  none 
but  a  master.  Eva  exclaims:  "I  will  choose  no  one  but 
my  knight!"  Very  pretty  and  gay  is  the  theme  heard 
when  David  joins  the  group — the  Apprentice  Motive. 


How  capitally  this  motive  expresses  the  light-heartedness 
of  gay  young  people,  in  this  case  the  youthful  apprentices, 
among  whom  David  was  as  ga}^  and  bouyant  as  any.  Every 
melodious  phrase — every  motive — employed  by  Wagner 
appears  to  express  exactly  the  character,  circumstance, 
thing,  or  feeling,  to  which  he  applies  it.  The  opening 
episodes  of  "Die  Meistersinger "  have  a  charm  all  their 
own. 

The  scene  closes  with  a  beautiful  little  terzet,  after 
Magdalena  has  ordered  David,  under  penalty  of  her  dis- 
pleasure, to  instruct  the  knight  in  the  art  rules  of  the 
Mastersingers. 

When  the  'prentices  enter,  they  proceed  to  erect  the 
marker's  platform,  but  stop  at  times  to  annoy  the  some- 
what self-sufficient  David,  while  he  is  endeavouring  to 
instruct  Walther  in  the  rules  of  the  Mastersingers.  The 
merry  Apprentice  Motive  runs  through  the  scene  and 
brings  it  to  a  close  as  the  'prentices  sing  and  dance  around 
the  marker's  box,  suddenly,  however,  breaking  off,  for  the 
Mastersingers  appear. 


Richard  Wagner 


257 


There  is  a  roll-call  and  then  the  fine  passage  for  bass 
voice,  in  which  Pogner  offers  Eva's  hand  in  marriage  to  the 
winner  of  the  coming  song  contest — with  the  proviso  that 
Eva  adds  her  consent.  The  passage  is  known  on  concert 
programmes  as  "  Pogner's  Address. " 

Walther  is  introduced  by  Pogner.     The  Knight  Motive: 


''''"  JjJ  L  L^!^^ 


Beckmesser,  jealous,  and  determined  that  Walther  shall 
fail,  enters  the  marker's  box. 

Kothner  now  begins  reading  off  the  rules  of  singing  es- 
tablished by  the  masters,  which  is  a  capital  take-off  on 
old-fashioned  forms  of  composition  and  never  fails  to  raise 
a  hearty  laugh  if  delivered  with  considerable  pomposity 
and  unction.  Unwillingly  enough  Walther  takes  his  seat 
in  the  candidate's  chair.  Beckmtsser  shouts  from  the 
marker's  box:  "Now  begin!"  After  a  brilliant  chord, 
followed  by  a  superb  ascending  run  on  the  violins,  Walther, 
in  ringing  tones,  enforced  by  a  broad  and  noble  chord, 
repeats  Beckmesser' s  words.  But  such  a  change  has  come 
over  the  music  that  it  seems  as  if  that  upward  rushing  run 
had  swept  away  all  restraint  of  ancient  rule  and  rote,  just 
as  the  spring  wind  whirling  through  the  forest  tears  up  the 
spread  of  dry,  dead  leaves,  thus  giving  air  and  sun  to  the 
yearning  mosses  and  flowers.  In  Walther' s  song  the  Spring 
Motive  forms  an  ever-surging,  swelling  accompaniment, 
finally  joining  in  the  vocal  melody  and  bearing  it  higher 
and  higher  to  an  impassioned  climax.  In  his  song,  however, 
Walther  is  interrupted  by  the  scratching  made  by  Beck- 
17 


258 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


messer  as  he  chalks  the  singer's  violations  of  the  rules  on  the 
slate,  and  Walther,  who  is  singing  of  love  and  spring,  changes 
his  theme  to  winter,  which,  lingering  behind  a  thorny 
hedge,  is  plotting  how  it  can  mar  the  joy  of  the  vernal 
season.  The  knight  then  rises  from  the  chair  and  sings 
a  second  stanza  with  defiant  enthusiasm.  As  he  concludes 
it  Beckmesser  tears  open  the  curtains  which  concealed  him 
in  the  marker's  box,  and  exhibits  his  board  completely 
covered  with  chalk  marks.  Walther  protests,  but  the 
masters,  with  the  exception  of  Sachs  and  Pogner,  refuse 
to  listen  further,  and  deride  his  singing.  We  have  here 
the  Motive  of  Derision. 


lHJ 


Sachs  protests  that,  while  he  found  the  knight's  art 
method  new,  he  did  not  find  it  formless.  The  Sachs 
Motive   is   here   introduced. 


0.1,           ^ 

__ 

-^ 

/- 

hy\>  1'  .— 

^-=4— 

fr— hH 

tfi'  |,     -    = 

"         ^•^.. 

J^"^ 

-7^+^: 

r 

v^j^    ' 

^ 

'         » 

'  r 

The  Sachs  Motive  betokens  the  genial  nature  of  this 
stvirdy,  yet  gentle  man — the  master  spirit  of  the  drama. 
He  combines  the  force  of  a  conservative  character  9\rith  the 


Richard  Wagner  259 

tolerance  of  a  progressive  one,  and  is  thus  the  incarnation 
of  the  idea  which  Wagner  is  working  out  in  this  drama,  in 
which  the  union  of  a  proper  degree  of  conservative  caution 
with  progressive  energy  produces  a  new  ideal  in  art.  To 
Sachs's  innuendo  that  Beckmessers'  marking  hardly  could 
be  considered  just,  as  he  is  a  candidate  for  Eva's  hand, 
Beckmesser,  by  way  of  reply,  chides  Sachs  for  having  de- 
layed so  long  in  finishing  a  pair  of  shoes  for  him,  and  as 
Sachs  makes  a  humorously  apologetic  answer,  the  Cobbler 
Motive  is  heard. 

The  sturdy  burgher  calls  to  Wallher  to  finish  his  song 
in  spite  of  the  masters.  And  now  a  finale  of  masterful 
construction  begins.  In  short,  excited  phrases  the  masters 
chaff  and  deride  Walther.  His  song,  however,  soars  above 
all  the  hubbub.  The  a'prentices  see  the  iropportunity 
in  the  confusion,  and  joining  hands  they  dance  around  the 
marker's  box,  singing  as  they  do  so.  We  now  have  com- 
bined with  astounding  skill  Walther's  song,  the  a'pren- 
tices' chorus,  and  the  exclamations  of  the  masters.  The 
latter  finally  shout  their  verdict:  "Rejected  and  outsung! " 
The  knight,  with  a  proud  gesture  of  contempt,  leaves  the 
church.  The  a'prentices  put  the  seats  and  benches  back 
in  their  proper  places,  and  in  doing  so  greatly  obstruct  the 
masters  as  they  crowd  toward  the  doors.  Sachs,  who  has 
lingered  behind,  gazes  thoughtfully  at  the  singer's  empty 
chair,  then,  with  a  humorous  gesture  of  discouragement, 
turns  away. 

Act  II.  The  scene  of  this  act  represents  a  street  in 
Nuremburg  crossing  the  stage  and  intersected  in  the  mid- 
dle by  a  narrow,  winding  alley.  There  are  thus  two  corner 
houses — on  the  right  comer  of  the  alley  Pawner's,  on  the 
left  Sachs's.  Before  the  former  is  a  linden-tree,  before  the 
latter  an  elder.     It  is  a  lovely  summer  evening. 

The  opening  scene  is  a  merry  one.  David  and  the 
a'prentices  are  closing  shop.      After  a  brisk  introduction 


26o 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


based  on  the  Midsummer  Festival  Motive  the  'prentices 
quiz  David  on  his  love  affair  with  Magdalena.  The 
latter  appears  with  a  basket  of  dainties  for  her  lover, 
but  on  learning  that  the  knight  has  been  rejected, 
she  snatches  the  basket  away  from  David  and  hurries 
back  to  the  house.  The  'prentices  now  mockingly  con- 
gratulate David  on  his  successful  wooing.  David  loses 
his  temper  and  shows  fight,  but  Sachs,  coming  upon 
the  scene,  sends  the  'prentices  on  their  way  and  then 
enters  his  workshop  with  David.  The  music  of  this 
episode,  especially  the  'prentices'  chorus,  is  bright  and 
graceful. 

Pogner  and  Eva,  returning  from  an  evening  stroll,  now 
come  down  the  alley.  Before  retiring  into  the  house  the 
father  questions  the  daughter  as  to  her  feelings  concerning 
the  duty  she  is  to  perform  at  the  Mastersinging  on  the 
morrow.  Her  replies  are  discreetly  evasive.  The  music 
beautifully  reflects  the  affectionate  relations  between 
Pogner  and  Eva.  When  Pogner,  his  daughter  seated 
beside  him  under  the  linden-tree,  speaks  of  the  mor- 
row's festival  and  Eva's  part  in  it  in  awarding  the 
prize  to  the  master  of  her  choice  before  the  assembled 
burghers  of  Niiremburg,  the  stately  Nuremburg  Motive  is 
ushered  in. 


Magdalena  appears  at  the  door  and  signals  to  Eva.  The 
latter  persuades  her  father  that  it  is  too  cool  to  remain 
outdoors  and,  as  they  enter  the  house,  Eva  learns  from 


Richard  Wagner  261 

Magdalena  of  Walther's  failure  before  the  masters.  Mag- 
dalena  advises  her  to  seek  counsel  with  Sachs  after  supper. 
The  Cobbler  Motive  shows  us  Sachs  and  David  in  the 
former's  workshop.  When  the  master  has  dismissed  his 
'prentice  till  morning,  he  yields  to  his  poetic  love  of  the 
balmy  midsummer  night  and,  laying  down  his  work,  leans 
over  the  half-door  of  his  shop  as  if  lost  in  reverie.  The 
Cobbler  Motive  dies  away  to  pp,  and  then  there  is  wafted 
from  over  the  orchestra  like  the  sweet  scent  of  the  blooming 
elder  the  Spring  Motive,  while  tender  notes  on  the  horn 
blossom  beneath  a  nebulous  veil  of  tremolo  violins  into 
memories  of  Walther's  song.  Its  measures  run  through 
Sachs's  head  until,  angered  at  the  stupid  conservatism  of 
his  associates,  he  resumes  his  work  to  the  brusque  measures 
of  the  Cobbler's  Motive.  As  his  ill  humour  yields  again  to 
the  beauties  of  the  night,  this  motive  yields  once  more  to 
that  of  spring,  which,  with  reminiscences  of  Walther's 
first  song  before  the  masters,  imbues  this  masterful 
monologue  with  poetic  beauty  of  the  highest  order. 
The  last  words  in  praise  of  Walther  ("The  bird  who 
sang  to-day,"  etc.)  are  sung  to  a  broad  and  expressive 
melody. 

Eva  now  comes  out  into  the  street  and,  shyl}^  approach- 
ing the  shop,  stands  at  the  door  unnoticed  by  Sachs  imtil 
she  speaks  to  him.  The  theme  which  pervades  this  scene 
seems  to  breathe  forth  the  very  spirit  of  lovely  maidenhood 
which  springs  from  the  union  of  romantic  aspirations, 
feminine  reserve,  and  rare  physical  graces.  It  is  the  Eva 
Motive,  which,  with  the  delicate  touch  of  a  master,  Wagner 
so  varies  that  it  follows  the  many  subtle  dramatic  sugges- 
tions of  the  scene.  The  Eva  Motive,  in  its  original  form,  is 
as  follows: 


262 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


When  at  Eva's  first  words  Sachs  looks  up,  there  is  this 
elegant  variation  of  the  Eva  Motive: 


Then  the  scene  being  now  ftilly  ushered  in,  we  have  the 
Eva  Motive  itself.  Eva  leads  the  talk  up  to  the  morrow's 
festival,  and  when  Sachs  mentions  Bechmesser  as  her  chief 
wooer,  roguishly  hints,  with  evident  reference  to  Sachs 
himself,  that  she  might  prefer  a  hearty  widower  to  a 
bachelor  of  such  disagreeable  characteristics  as  the  marker. 
There  are  sufficient  indications  that  the  sturdy  master  is 
not  indifferent  to  Eva's  charms,  but,  whole-souled,  genuine 
friend  that  he  is,  his  one  idea  is  to  fiu-ther  the  love  affair 
between  his  fair  neighbour  and  Walther.  The  music  of  this 
passage  is  very  suggestive.  The  melodic  leading  of  the 
upper  voice  in  the  accompaniment,  when £f a  asks:  "Could 
not  a  widower  hope  to  win  me? "  is  identical  with  a  variation 
of  the  Isolde  Motive  in  "Tristan  and  Isolde,"  while  the 
Eva  Motive,  shyly  pp,  seems  to  indicate  the  artfulness  of 
Eva's  question.  The  reminiscence  from  "Tristan"  can 
hardly  be  regarded  as  accidental,  for  Sachs  afterwards 
boasts  that  he  does  not  care  to  share  the  fate  of  poor  King 
Marke.  Eva  now  endeavours  to  glean  particulars  of  Wal- 
ther's  experience  in  the  morning,  and  we  have  the  Motive 
of  Envy,  the  Knight  Motive,  and  the  Motive  of  Ridicule. 
Eva  does  not  appreciate  the  fine  satire  in  Sachs's  severe 
strictiu-es  on  Walther's  singing — he  re-echoes  not  his  own 
views,  but  those  of  the  other  masters,  for  whom,  not  for 
the  knight,  his  strictures  are  really  intended — and  she 
leaves  him  in  anger.     This  shows  Sachs  which  wav  the 


Richard  Wagner  263 

wind  blows,  and  he  forthwith  resolves  to  do  all  in  his  power 
to  bring  Eva's  and  Walther's  love  affair  to  a  successful 
conclusion.  While  Eva  is  engaged  with  Magdalena,  who 
has  come  out  to  call  her,  he  busies  himself  in  closing  the 
upper  half  of  his  shop  door  so  far  that  only  a  gleam  of  light 
is  visible,  he  himself  being  completely  hidden,  Eva  learns 
from  Magdalena  of  Beckmesser' s  intended  serenade,  and  it 
is  agreed  that  the  maid  shall  personate  Eva  at  the  window. 
Steps  are  heard  coming  down  the  alley.  Eva  recognizes 
Wallher  and  flies  to  his  arms,  Magdalena  discreetly  hurrying 
into  the  house.  The  ensuing  ardent  scene  between  Eva 
and  Walther  brings  familiar  motives.  The  knight's  excite- 
ment is  comically  broken  in  upon  by  the  Night  Watchman's 
cow-horn,  and,  as  Eva  lays  her  hand  soothingly  upon  his 
arm  and  counsels  that  they  retreat  within  the  shadow  of  the 
linden-tree,  there  steals  over  the  orchestra,  like  the  fragrance 
of  the  simimer  night,  a  delicate  variant  of  the  Eva  Motive 
— The  Slimmer  Night  Motive. 


fir 


Eva  vanishes  into  the  house  to  prepare  to  elope  with 
Walther.  The  Night  Watchman  now  goes  up  the  stage 
intoning  a  mediaeval  chant.  Coming  in  the  midst  of  the 
beautiful  modern  music  of  "The  Mastersingers, "  its  effect 
is  most  quaint. 

As  Eva  reappears  and  she  and  the  knight  are  about  to 
make  their  escape,  Sachs,  to  prevent  this  precipitate  and 
foolish  step,  throws  open  his  shutters  and  allows  his  lamp 
to  shed  a  streak  of  brilliant  light  across  the  street. 

The  lovers  hesitate;  and  now  Beckmesser  sneaks  in  after 
the  Night  Watchman  and,  leaning  against  Sachs's  house, 
begins  to  tune  his  lute,  the  peculiar  twang  of  which,  con- 


264  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

trasted    with   the   rich   orchestration,    sounds   irresistibly 
ridiculous. 

Meanwhile,  Eva  and  Walther  have  once  more  retreated 
into  the  shade  of  the  linden-tree,  and  Sachs,  who  has  placed 
his  work  bench  in  front  of  his  door,  begins  hammering  at  the 
last  and  intones  a  song  which  is  one  of  the  rough  diamonds 
of  musical  invention,  for  it  is  purposely  brusque  and  rough, 
just  such  a  song  as  a  hearty,  happy  artisan  might  sing  over 
his  work.  It  is  aptly  introduced  by  the  Cobbler  Motive. 
Beckmesser,  greatly  disturbed  lest  his  serenade  be  ruined, 
entreats  Sachs  to  cease  singing.  The  latter  agrees,  but 
with  the  proviso  that  he  shall  "mark"  each  of  Beckmesser' s 
mistakes  with  a  hammer  stroke.  As  if  to  bring  out  as 
sharply  as  possible  the  ridiculous  character  of  the  serenade, 
the  orchestra  breathes  forth  once  more  the  summer  night's 
music  before  Beckmesser  begins  his  song,  and  this  is  set  to  a 
parody  of  the  Lyric  Motive.  Wagner,  with  keen  satire, 
seems  to  want  to  show  how  a  beautiful  melody  may  become 
absurd  through  old-fogy  methods.  Beckmesser  has  hardly 
begun  before  Sachs's  hammer  comes  down  on  the  last  with 
a  resounding  whack,  which  makes  the  town  clerk  fairly 
jump  with  anger.  He  resumes,  but  soon  is  rudely  in- 
terrupted again  by  a  blow  of  Sachs's  hammer.  The  whacks 
come  faster  and  faster.  Beckmesser,  in  order  to  make 
himself  heard  above  them,  sings  louder  and  louder. 
Some  of  the  neighbours  are  awakened  by  the  noise 
and'  coming  to  their  windows  bid  Beckmesser  hold  his 
peace.  David,  stung  by  jealousy  as  he  sees  Magdalena 
listening  to  the  serenade,  leaps  from  his  room  and 
falls  upon  .  the  town  clerk  with  a  cudgel.  The  neigh- 
bours, male  and  female,  run  out  into  the  street  and  a 
general  melee  ensues,  the  masters,  who  hurry  upon  the 
scene,  seeking  to  restore  quiet,  while  the  'prentices 
vent  their  high"  spirits  by  doing  all  in  their  power  to  add  to 
the  hubbub.     All  is  now  noise  and  disorder,  pandemonium 


Richard  Wagner 


265 


seeming  to  have  been  let  loose   upon   the   dignified  old 
town. 

Musically  this  tumult  finds  expression  in  a  fugue  whose 
chief  theme  is  the  Cudgel  Motive. 


From  beneath  the  hubbub  of  voices — those  of  the  'pren- 
tices and  journeymen,  delighted  to  take  part  in  the  shindy, 
of  the  women  who  are  terrified  at  it,  and  of  the  masters 
who  strive  to  stop  it,  is  heard  the  theme  of  Beckmesser's 
song,  the  real  cause  of  the  row.  This  is  another  of  those 
many  instances  in  which  Wagner  vividly  expresses  in  his 
music  the  significance  of  what  transpires  on  the  stage. 

Sachs  finally  succeeds  in  shoving  the  'prentices  and 
journeymen  out  of  the  way.  The  street  is  cleared,  but  not 
before  the  cobbler-poet  has  pushed  Eva,  who  was  about  to 
elope  with  Walther,  into  her  father's  arms  and  drawn 
Walther  after  him  into  his  shop. 

The  street  is  quiet.  And  now,  the  nmipus  subsided  and 
all  concerned  in  it  gone,  the  Night  Watchman  appears,  rubs 
his  eyes  and  chants  his  mediaeval  call.  The  street  is 
flooded  with  moonlight.  The  Watchman  with  his  clumsy 
halberd  lunges  at  his  own  shadow,  then  goes  up  the  alley. 

We  have  had  hubbub,  we  have  had  hvmiour,  and  now  we 
have  a  musical  ending  elvish,  roguish,  and  yet  exquisite  in 
sentiment.  The  effect  is  produced  by  the  Cudgel  Motive 
played  with  the  utmost  delicacy  on  the  flute,  while  the 
theme  of  Beckmesser's  serenade  merrily  runs  after  itself  on 
clarinet  and  bassoon,  and  the  muted  violins  softly  breathe 
the  Midsimimer  Festival  Motive. 


266  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Act  III.  During  this  act  the  tender  strain  in  Sachs's 
sturdy  character  is  brought  out  in  bold  relief.  Hence  the 
prelude  develops  what  may  be  called  three  Sachs  themes, 
two  of  them  expressive  of  his  twofold  nature  as  poet  and 
cobbler,  the  third  standing  for  the  love  which  his  fellow- 
burghers  bear  hira. 

The  prelude  opens  with  the  Wahn  Motive  or  Motive  of 
Poetic  Illusion.  This  reflects  the  deep  thought  and  poetic 
aspirations  of  Sachs  the  poet.  It  is  followed  by  the  theme 
of  the  beautiful  chorus,  sung  later  in  the  act,  in  praise  of 
Sachs:  "Awake!  draws  nigh  the  break  of  day."  This 
theme,  among  the  three  heard  in  the  prelude,  points  to 
Sachs's  popularity.  The  third  consists  of  portions  of  the 
cobbler's  song  in  the  second  act.  This  prelude  has  long 
been  considered  one  of  Wagner's  masterpieces.  The 
themes  are  treated  with  the  utmost  delicacy,  so  that  we 
recognize  through  them  both  the  tender,  poetic  side  of 
Sachs's  nature  and  his  good-humoured  brusqueness. 
The  Motive  of  Poetic  Illusion  is  deeply  reflective,  and  it 
might  be  preferable  to  name  it  the  Motive  of  Poetic 
Thought,  were  it  not  that  it  is  better  to  preserve  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  term  Wahn  Motive,  which  there  is  ample 
reason  to  believe  originated  with  Wagner  himself.  The 
prelude  is,  in  fact,  a  subtle  analysis  of  character  expressed 
in  music. 


How  peaceful  the  scene  on  which  the  ciu-tain  rises. 
Sachs  is  sitting  in  an  arm-chair  in  his  sunny  workshop  , 
reading  in  a  large  folio.  The  Illusion  Motive  has  not  yet 
died  away  in  the  prelude,  so  that  it  seems  to  reflect  the 
thoughts  awakened  in  Sachs  by  what  he  is  reading.  David, 
dressed  for  the  festival,  enters  just  as  the  prelude  ends. 


Richard  Wagner  267 

There  is  a  scene  full  of  charming  bonhomie  between  Sachs 
and  his  'prentice,  which  is  followed,  when  the  latter  has 
withdrawn,  by  Sachs's  monologue:  "  Wahn!  Wahn!  Ueberall 
Wahni"  (Illusion,  everywhere  illusion.) 

While  the  Illusion  Motive  seems  to  weave  a  poetic 
atmosphere  about  him,  Sachs,  buried  in  thought,  rests  his 
head  upon  his  arm  over  the  folio.  The  Illusion  Motive  is 
followed  by  the  Spring  Motive,  which  in  turn  yields  to  the 
Nuremburg  Motive  as  Sachs  sings  the  praises  of  the  stately 
old  town.  At  his  reference  to  the  tumult  of  the  night 
before  there  are  in  the  score  corresponding  allusions  to  the 
music  of  that  episode.  "A  glowworm  could  not  find  its 
mate, "  he  sings,  referring  to  Waliher  and  Eva.  The  Mid- 
summer Festival,  Ljoic,  and  Nuremburg  motives  in  union 
foreshadow  the  triumph  of  true  art  through  love  on  Nurem- 
burg soil,  and  thus  bring  the  monologue  to  a  stately  con- 
clusion. 

Waither  now  enters  from  the  chamber,  which  opens 
upon  a  gallery,  and,  descending  into  the  workshop,  is 
heartily  greeted  by  Sachs  with  the  Sachs  Motive,  which 
dominates  the  immediately  ensuing  scene.  Very  beautiful 
is  the  theme  in  which  ScLchs  protests  against  Walther's 
derision  of  the  masters;  for  they  are,  in  spite  of  their  many 
old-fogyish  notions,  the  conservators  of  much  that  is  true 
and  beautiful  in  art. 

Waither  tells  Sachs  of  a  song  which  came  to  him  in  a 
dream  during  the  night,  and  sings  two  stanzas  of  this 
"Prize  Song,"  Sachs  making  friendly  critical  comments  as 
he  writes  down  the  words.  The  Nuremburg  Motive  in 
sonorous  and  festive  instrtunentation  closes  this  melodious 
episode. 

When  Sachs  and  Waither  have  retired  Beckmesser  is  seen 
peeping  into  the  shop.  Observing  that  it  is  empty  he 
enters  hastily.  He  is  ridiculously  overdressed  for  the 
approaching    festival,    limps,    and    occasionally    rubs    his 


268  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

muscles  as  if  he  were  still  stifl.  and  sore  from  his  drubbing. 
By  chance  his  glance  falls  on  the  manuscript  of  the  ' '  Prize 
Song"  in  Sachs's  handwriting  on  the  table,  when  he  breaks 
forth  in  wrathful  exclamations,  thinking  now  that  he  has 
in  the  popular  master  a  rival  for  Eva's  hand.  Hearing  the 
chamber  door  opening  he  hastily  grabs  the  manuscript 
and  thrusts  it  into  his  pocket.  Sachs  enters.  Observing 
that  the  manuscript  is  no  longer  on  the  table,  he  realizes 
that  Beckmesser  has  stolen  it,  and  conceives  the  idea  of 
allowing  him  to  keep  it,  knowing  that  the  marker  will  fail 
most  wretchedly  in  attempting  to  give  musical  expression 
to  Walthtr's  inspiration. 

The  scene  places  Sachs  in  a  new  light.  A  fascinating 
trait  of  his  character  is  the  dash  of  scapegrace  with  which  it 
is  seasoned.  Hence,  when  he  thinks  of  allowing  Beckmesser 
to  use  the  poem  the  Sachs  Motive  takes  on  a  somewhat 
facetious,  roguish  grace.  There  now  ensues  a  charming 
dialogue  between  Sachs  and  Eva,  who  enters  when  Beck- 
messer has  departed.  This  is  accompanied  by  a  transforma- 
tion of  the  Eva  Motive,  which  now  reflects  her  shyness 
and  hesitancy  in  taking  Sachs  into  her  confidence. 

With  it  is  joined  the  Cobbler  Motive  when  Eva  places 
her  foot  upon  the  stool  while  Sachs  tries  on  the  shoes  she 
is  to  wear  at  the  festival.  When,  with  a  cry  of  joy,  she 
recognizes  her  lover  as  he  appears  upon  the  gallery,  and 
remains  motionless,  gazing  upon  him  as  if  spellbound,  the 
lovely  Summer  Night  Motive  enhances  the  beauty  of  the 
tableau.  While  Sachs  cobbles  and  chats  away,  pretending 
not  to  observe  the  lovers,  the  Motive  of  Maidenly  Reserve 
passes  through  many  modulations  until  there  is  heard  a 
phrase  from  "Tristan  and  Isolde  "  (the  Isolde  Motive),  an 
allusion  which  is  explained  below.  The  Lyric  Motive 
introduces  the  third  stanza  of  Walther's  "Prize  Song," 
with  which  he  now  greets  Eva,  while  she,  overcome  with 
joy  at  seeing  her  lover,  sinks  upon  Sachs's  breast.     The 


Richard  Wagner  269 

Illusion  Motive  rhapsodizes  the  praises  of  the  generous 
cobbler-poet,  who  seeks  relief  from  his  emotions  in  banter- 
ing remarks,  until  Eva  glorifies  him  in  a  noble  burst  of  love 
and  gratitude  in  a  melody  derived  from  the  Isolde  Motive. 

It  is  after  this  that  Sachs,  alluding  to  his  own  love  of 
Eva,  exclaims  that  he  will  have  none  of  King  Marke's 
triste  experience;  and  the  use  of  the  King  Marke  Motive 
at  this  point  shows  that  the  previous  echoes  of  the  Isolde 
Motive  were  premeditated  rather  than  accidental. 

Magdalena  and  David  now  enter,  and  Sachs  gives  to 
Walther's  "Prize  Song"  its  musical  baptism,  utilizing 
chiefly  the  first  and  second  lines  of  the  chorale  which  opens 
the  first  act.  David  then  kneels  down  and,  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  day,  receives  from  Sachs  a  box  on  the 
ear  in  token  that  he  is  advanced  from  'prentice  to  journey- 
man. Then  follows  the  beautiful  quintet,  in  which  the 
"Prize  Song,"  as  a  thematic  germ,  puts  forth  its  loveliest 
blossoms.  This  is  but  one  of  many  instances  in  which 
Wagner  proved  that  when  the  dramatic  situation  called 
for  it  he  could  conceive  and  develop  a  melody  of  most 
exquisite  fibre. 

After  the  quintet  the  orchestra  resumes  the  Niiremburg 
Motive  and  all  depart  for  the  festival.  The  stage  is  now 
shut  off  by  a  curtain  behind  which  the  scene  is  changed 
from  Sachs's  workshop  to  the  meadow  on  the  banks  of  the 
Pegnitz,  near  Nurembvu-g.  After  a  tumultuous  orchestral 
interlude,  which  portrays  by  means  of  motives  already 
familiar,  with  the  addition  of  the  fanfare  of  the  town 
musicians,  the  noise  and  bustle  incidental  to  preparations 
for  a  great  festival,  the  curtain  rises  upon  a  lively  scene. 
Boats  decked  out  in  flags  and  bunting  and  full  of  festively 
clad  members  of  the  various  guilds  and  their  wives  and 
children  are  constantly  arriving.  To  the  right  is  a  platform 
decorated  with  the  flags  of  the  guilds  which  have  already 
gathered.     People   are    making    merry    under    tents    and 


270  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

awnings  where  refreshments  are  served.  The  'prentices 
are  having  a  jolly  time  of  it  heralding  and  marshalling  the 
guilds  who  disperse  and  mingle  with  the  merrymakers  after 
the  standard  bearers  have  planted  their  banners  near  the 
platform. 

Soon  after  the  curtain  rises  the  cobblers  arrive,  and  as 
they  march  down  the  meadow,  conducted  by  the  'prentices, 
they  sing  in  honour  of  St.  Crispin,  their  patron  saint,  a 
chorus,  based  on  the  Cobbler  Motive,  to  which  a  melody 
in  popular  style  is  added.  The  town  watchmen,  with 
trumpets  and  drums,  the  town  pipers,  lute  makers,  etc., 
and  then  the  journeymen,  with  comical  sounding  toy 
instruments,  march  past,  and  are  succeeded  by  the  tailors, 
who  sing  a  humorous  chorus,  telling  how  Nuremburg  was 
saved  from  its  ancient  enemies  by  a  tailor,  who  sewed  a 
goatskin  around  him  and  pranced  around  on  the  town  walls, 
to  the  terror  of  the  hostile  army,  which  took  him  for  the  devil. 
The  bleating  of  a  goat  is  capitally  imitated  in  this  chorus. 

With  the  last  chord  of  the  tailors'  chorus  the  bakers 
strike  up  their  song  and  are  greeted  in  turn  by  cobblers  and 
tailors  with  their  respective  refrains.  A  boatful  of  young 
peasant  girls  in  gay  costumes  now  arrives,  and  the  'prentices 
make  a  rush  for  the  bank.  A  charming  dance  in  waltz 
time  is  struck  up.  The  'prentices  with  the  girls  dance 
down  toward  the  journeymen,  but  as  soon  as  these  try  to 
get  hold  of  the  girls,  the  'prentices  veer  off  with  them  in 
another  direction.  This  veering  should  be  timed  to  fall 
at  the  beginning  of  those  periods  of  the  dance  to  which 
Wagner  has  given,  instead  of  eight  measures,  seven  and 
nine,  in  order  by  this  irregularity  to  emphasize  the  ruse  of 
the  'prentices. 

The  dance  is  interrupted  by  the  arrival  of  the  masters, 
the  'prentices  falling  in  to  receive,  the  others  making  room 
for  the  procession.  The  Master  singers  advance  to  the 
stately  strains  of  the  Mastersinger  Motive,  which,  when 


Richard  Wagner 


271 


Kothner  appears  bearing  their  standard  with  the  figure  of 
King  David  plaj'ing  on  his  harp,  goes  over  into  the  sturdy 
measures  of  the  Mastersingers'  March.  Sachs  rises  and 
advances.  At  sight  of  him  the  populace  intone  the  noblest 
of  all  choruses:  "Awake!  draws  nigh  the  break  of  day," 
the  words  of  which  are  a  poem  by  the  real  Hans  Sachs. 

At  its  conclusion  the  populace  break  into  shouts  in  praise 
of  Sachs,  who  modestly  yet  most  feelingly  gives  them 
thanks.  When  Beckmesser  is  led  to  the  little  mound  of 
turf  upon  which  the  singer  is  obliged  to  stand,  we  have  the 
himiorous  variation  of  the  Mastersinger  Motive  from  the 
Prelude.  Beckmesser' s  attempt  to  sing  Walther's  poem 
ends,  as  Sachs  had  anticipated,  in  utter  failure.  The  town 
clerk's  effort  is  received  with  jeers.  Before  he  rushes 
away,  infuriated  but  utterly  discomfited,  he  proclaims  that 
Sachs  is  the  author  of  the  song  they  have  derided.  The 
cobbler-poet  declares  to  the  people  that  it  is  not  by  him; 
that  it  is  a  beautiftil  poem  if  sung  to  the  proper  melody 
and  that  he  will  show  them  the  author  of  the  poem,  who 
will  in  song  disclose  its  beauties.  He  then  introduces 
Walther.  The  knight  easily  succeeds  in  winning  over 
people  and  masters,  who  repeat  the  closing  melody  of  his 
"Prize  Song"  in  token  of  their  joyous  appreciation  of  his 
new  and  wondrous  art.  Pogner  advances  to  decorate 
Walther  with  the  insignia  of  the  Mastersingers*  Guild. 


In  more  ways  than  one  the  "Prize  Song  "  is  a  mainstay  of 
"Die  Meistersinger."  It  has  been  heard  in  the  previous 
scene  of  the  third  act,  not  only  when  Walther  rehearses  it  for 


272  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Sachs,  but  also  in  the  quintet.  Moreover,  versions  of  it 
occur  in  the  overtvire  and  indeed,  throughout  the  work, 
adding  greatly  to  the  romantic  sentiment  of  the  score.  For 
"Die  Meistersinger "  is  a  comedy  of  romance. 

In  measures  easily  recognized  from  the  Prelude,  to  which 
the  Nuremburg  Motive  is  added,  Sachs  now  praises  the  mas- 
ters and  explains  their  noble  purpose  as  conservators  of  art. 
Eva  takes  the  wreath  with  which  Walther  has  been  crowned, 
and  with  it  crowns  Sachs,  who  has  meanwhile  decorated  the 
knight  with  the  insignia.  Pogner  kneels,  as  if  in  homage, 
before  Sachs,  the  masters  point  to  the  cobbler  as  to  their  chief, 
and  Walther  and  Eva  remain  on  either  side  of  him,  leaning 
gratefully  upon  his  shoulders.  The  chorus  repeats  Sachses 
'final  admonition  to  the  closing  measures  of  the  Prelude. 

PARSIFAL 

Stage  Dedication  Festival  Play  (Buhnenweihfestspiel)  in  three  acts, 
words  and  music  by  Richard  Wagner.  Produced  Bayreuth,  July  26, 
►1882.  Save  in  concert  form,  the  work  was  not  given  elsewhere  until 
December  24,  1903,  when  it  was  produced  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House  at  that  time  under  the  direction  of  Heinrich  Conried. 

At  the  Bayreuth  performances  there  were  alternating  casts.  Winckel- 
maim  was  the  Parsifal  of  the  premiere,  Gudehus  of  the  second  perform- 
ance, Jager  of  the  third.  The  alternating  Kundrys  were  Alatema, 
Marianne  Brandt,  and  Malten;  Gurnemanz  Scaria  and  Siehr;  Amfortas 
Reichmann;  Klingsor,  HUl  and  Fuchs.    Hermaim  Levi  conducted. 

In  the  New  York  cast  Temina  was  Kundry,  Burgstaller  Parsifal, 
Van  Rooy  Amfortas,  Blass  Gurnemanz,  Goritz  Klingsor,  Joumet  Tilurel, 
Miss  Moran  and  Miss  Braendle  the  first  and  second,  Harden  and  Bayer 
the  third  and  fourth  Esquires,  Bayer  and  Muhlmann  two  Knights  of  the 
Grail,  Homer  a  Voice. 

Characters 

Amfortas,  son  of  Titurel,  ruler  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Grail 

Baritone-Bass 

Titurel,  former  ruler Bass 

Gurnemanz,  a  veteran  Knight  of  the  Grail Bass 

Klingsor,  a  magician Bass 

Parsifal.. Tenor 


Richard  Wagner  273 

KuNDRY Soprano 

First  and  Second  Knights Tenor  and  Bass 

Four  Esquires Sopranos  and  Tenors 

Six  of  Klingsor's  Flower  Maidens Sopranos 

Brotherhood  of  the  Knights  of  the  Grail;  Youths  and  Boys; 
Flower  Maidens  (two  chonises  of  sopranos  and  altos). 
Time — The  Middle  Ages-     Place — Spain,  near  and  in  the  Castle  of  the 

Holy  Grail;  in  Klingsor's  en- 
chanted castle  and  in  the  garden  of 
his  castle. 

'Parsifal"  is  a  familiar  name  to  those  who  have  heard 
"Lohengrin."  Lohengrin,  it  will  be  remembered,  tells 
Elsa  that  he  is  Parsifal's  son  and  one  of  the  knights  of  the 
Holy  Grail.  The  name  is  written  Percival  in  "  Lohengrin," 
as  well  as  in  Tennyson's  "Idyls  of  the  King."  Now, 
however,  Wagner  returns  to  the  quainter  and  more  "Teu- 
tonic" form  of  spelling.  "Parsifal"  deals  with  an  earlier 
period  in  the  history  of  the  Grail  knighthood  than  "  Lohen- 
grin." But  there  is  a  resemblance  between  the  Grail 
music  in  "Parsifal"  and  the  "Lohengrin"  music — a 
resemblance  not  in  melody,  nor  even  in  outline,  but  merely 
in  the  purity  and  spirituality  that  breathes  through  both. 

Three  legends  supplied  Wagner  with  the  principal  char- 
acters in  this  music-drama.  They  were  "Percival  le 
Galois;  or  Contes  de  Grail,"  by  Chretien  de  Troves  (1190) ; 
"  Parsifal, "  by  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  and  a  manuscript 
of  the  fourteenth  century  called  by  scholars  the  "Mabino- 
gion."  As  usual,  Wagner  has  not  held  himself  strictly  to 
any  one  of  these,  but  has  combined  them  all,  and  revivified 
them  through  the  alchemy  of  his  own  genius. 

Into  the  keeping  of  Titurel  and  his  band  of  Christian 
knights  has  been  given  the  Holy  Grail,  the  vessel  from 
which  the  Saviour  drank  when  He  instituted  the  Last 
Supper.  Into  their  hands,  too,  has  been  placed,  as  a  weapon 
of  defence  against  the  imgodly,  the  Sacred  Spear,  the  arm 
with  which  the  Roman  soldier  wounded  the  Saviour's  side. 

iS 


274  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  better  to  guard  these  sanctified  relics  Titurel,  as  King  of 
the  Grail  knighthood,  has  reared  a  castle,  Montsalvat,  which, 
from  its  forest-clad  height,  facing  Arabian  Spain,  forms  a  bul- 
wark of  Christendom  against  the  pagan  world  and  especially 
against  Klingsor,  a  sorcerer  and  an  enemy  of  the  good.  Yet 
time  and  again  this  Klingsor,  whose  stronghold  is  near-by, 
has  succeeded  in  enticing  champions  of  the  Grail  into  his 
magic  garden,  with  its  lure  of  flower-maidens  and  its  arch- 
enchantress  Kundry,  a  rarely  beautiful  woman,  and  in  making 
them  his  servitors  against  their  one-time  broth ers-in-arms. 

Even  Amfortas  Titurel' s  son,  to  whom  Titurel,  grown  old 
in  service  and  honour,  has  confided  his  reign  and  wardship, 
has  not  escaped  the  thrall  of  Klingsor' s  sorcery.  Eager  to 
begin  his  reign  by  destroying  Klingsor' s  power  at  one  stroke, 
he  penetrated  into  the  garden  to  attack  and  slay  him.  But 
he  failed  to  reckon  with  himian  frailty.  Yielding  to  the 
snare  so  skilfully  laid  by  the  sorcerer  and  forgetting,  at  the 
feet  of  the  enchantress,  Kundry,  the  mission  upon  which  he 
had  sallied  forth,  he  allowed  the  Sacred  Spear  to  drop  from 
his  hand.  It  was  seized  by  the  evil-doer  he  had  come  to 
destroy,  and  he  himself  was  grievously  wounded  with  it  before 
the  knights  who  rushed  to  his  rescue  could  bear  him  off. 

This  wound  no  skill  has  sufficed  to  heal.  It  is  sapping 
Amfortas' s  strength.  Indecision,  gloom,  have  come  over 
the  once  valiant  brotherhood.  Only  the  touch  of  the 
Sacred  Spear  that  made  the  wound  will  avail  to  close  it,  but 
there  is  only  one  who  can  regain  it  from  Klingsor.  For  to 
Amfortas,  prostrate  in  supplication  for  a  sign,  a  mystic 
voice  from  the  sanctuary  of  the  Grail  replied: 

By  pity  guided, 

The  guileless  fool; 
Wait  for  him, 

My  chosen  tool. 

This  prophecy  the  knights  construe  to  signify  that  their 
king's  salvation  can  be  wrought  only  by  youth  so  "guile 


Richard  Wagner  275 

less, "  so  wholly  ignorant  of  sin,  that,  instead  of  succumbing 
to  the  temptations  of  Klingaor's  magic  garden,  he  will 
become,  through  resisting  them,  cognizant  of  Amfortas's 
guilt,  and,  stirred  by  pity  for  him,  make  his  redemption 
the  mission  of  his  life,  regain  the  Spear  and  heal  him  with  it. 
And  so  the  Grail  warders  are  waiting,  waiting  for  the  coming 
of  the  "guileless  fool." 

The  working  out  of  this  prophecy  forms  the  absorbing 
subject  of  the  story  of  "Parsifal."  The  plot  is  allegorical. 
Parsifal  is  the  personification  of  Christianity,  Klingsor  of 
Paganism,  and  the  triumph  of  Parsifal  over  Klingsor  is  the 
triumph  of  Christianity  over  Paganism. 

The  character  oiKundry  is  one  of  Wagner's  most  striking 
creations.  She  is  a  sort  of  female  Ahasuerus — a  wandering 
Jewess.  In  the  Mabinogion  manuscript  she  is  no  other  than 
Herodias,  condemned  to  wander  for  ever  because  she  laughed 
at  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist.  Here  Wagner  makes 
another  change.  According  to  him  she  is  condemned  for 
laughing  in  the  face  of  the  Saviour  as  he  was  bearing  the 
cross.  She  seeks  forgiveness  by  serving  the  Grail  knights  as 
messenger  on  her  swift  horse,  but  ever  and  anon  she  is 
driven  by  the  curse  hanging  over  her  back  to  Klingsor, 
who  changes  her  to  a  beautiful  woman  and  places  her  in  his 
garden  to  lure  the  Knights  of  the  Grail.  She  can  be  freed 
only  by  one  who  resists  her  temptations.  Finally  she  is 
freed  by  Parsifal  and  is  baptized.  In  her  character  of 
Grail  messenger  she  has  much  in  common  with  the  wild 
messengers  of  Walhalla,  the  Valk)rrs.  Indeed,  in  the  Edda 
Saga,  her  name  appears  in  the  first  part  of  the  compound 
Gundryggja,  which  denotes  the  office  of  the  Valkyrs. 

THE    VORSPIEL 

The  y or  spiel  to  "Parsifal"  is  based  on  three  of  the  most 
deeply  religious  motives  in  the  entire  work.  It  opens  with 
the  Motive  of  the  Sacrament,  over  which,  when  it  is  re- 


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peated,  arpeggios  hover,  as  in  the  religious  paintings  of  old 
masters  angel  forms  float  above  the  figure  of  virgin  or  saint. 


Through  this  motive  we  gain  insight  into  the  office  of 
the  Knights  of  the  Grail,  who  from  time  to  time  strengthen 
themselves  for  their  spiritual  duties  by  partaking  of  the 
communion,  on  which  occasions  the  Grail  itself  is  uncovered. 
This  motive  leads  to  the  Grail  Motive,  effectively  swelling 
to  forte  and  then  dying  away  in  ethereal  harmonies,  like 
:he  soft  light  with  which  the  Grail  illumines  the  hall  in 
which  the  knights  gather  to  worship. 


The  trumpets  then  announce  the  Motive  of  Faith,  severe 
but  sturdy — portraying  superbly  the  immutability  of  faith. 


KM  }i  ,1  IJ]|_^^ 


The  Grail  Motive  is  heard  again  and  then  the  Motive  of 
Faith  is  repeated,  its  severity  exquisitely  softened,  so  that  it 
conveys  a  sense  of  peace  which  "passeth  all  understanding." 


Richard  Wagner  277 

The  rest  of  the  Vor spiel  is  agitated.  That  portion  of 
the  Motive  of  the  Sacrament  which  appears  later  as  the 
Spear  Motive  here  assumes  through  a  slight  change  a 
deeply  sad  character,  and  becomes  typical  throughout  the 
work  of  the  sorrow  wrought  by  Amfortas's  crime.  I  call  it 
the  Elegiac  Motive. 


Thus  the  Vorspiel  depicts  both  the  religious  duties  which 
play  so  prominent  a  part  in  the  drama,  and  unhappiness 
which  Amfortas's  sinful  forgetfulness  of  these  duties  has 
brought  upon  himself  and  his  knights. 

Act  I.  One  of  the  sturdiest  of  the  knights,  the  aged 
Gurnemanz,  grey  of  head  and  beard,  watches  near  the  out- 
skirts of  the  forest.  One  dawn  finds  him  seated  under  a 
majestic  tree.  Two  young  Esquires  lie  in  slumber  at  his 
feet.  Far  oiT,  from  the  direction  of  the  castle,  sounds  a 
solemn  reveille. 

"Hey!  Ho!"  Gurnemanz  calls  with  brusque  humour  to 
the  Esquires.  " Not  forest,  but  sleep  warders  I  deem  you! " 
The  youths  leap  to  their  feet;  then,  hearing  the  solemn 
reveille,  kneel  in  prayer.  The  Motive  of  Peace  echoes  their 
devotional  thoughts.  A  wondrous  peace  seems  to  rest 
upon  the  scene.  But  the  transgression  of  the  King  ever 
breaks  the  tranquil  spell.  For  soon  two  Knights  come  in 
the  van  of  the  train  that  thus  early  bears  the  King  from  a 
bed  of  suffering  to  the  forest  lake  near-by,  in  whose  waters 
he  would  bathe  his  wound.  They  pause  to  parley  with 
Gurnemanz,  but  are  interrupted  by  outcries  from  the  youths 
and  sounds  of  rushing  through  air. 

"Mark  the  wild  horsewoman!" — "The  mane  of  the 
devil's  mare  flies  madly!" — "Aye,  'tis  Kundry!" — "She 
has  swung  herself  off, "  cry  the  Esquires  as  they  watch  the 


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approach  of  the  strange  creature  that  now  rushes  in — a 
woman  clad  in  coarse,  wild  garb  girdled  high  with  a  snake- 
skin,  her  thick  black  hair  tumbling  about  her  shoulders, 
her  features  swarthy,  her  dark  eyes  now  flashing,  now  fixed 
and  glassy.  Precipitately  she  thrusts  a  small  crystal  flask 
into  Gurnemanz's  hand. 

"Balsam — for  the  king!"  There  is  a  savagery  in  her 
manner  that  seems  designed  to  ward  off  thanks,  when 
Gurnemanz  asks  her  whence  she  has  brought  the  flask,  and 
she  replies:  "From  farther  away  than  your  thought  can 
travel.  If  it  fail,  Arabia  bears  naught  else  that  can  ease 
his  pain.     Ask  no  further.     I  am  weary." 

Throwing  herself  upon  the  ground  and  resting  her  face 
on  her  hands,  she  watches  the  King  borne  in,  replies  to  his 
thanks  for  the  balsam  with  a  wild,  mocking  laugh,  and  fol- 
lows him  with  her  eyes  as  they  bear  him  on  his  litter  toward 
the  lake,  while  Gurnemanz  and  four  Esquires  remain  behind. 

Kundry's  rapid  approach  on  her  wild  horse  is  accom- 
panied by  a  furious  gallop  in  the  orchestra.     Then,  as  she 


rushes  upon  the  stage,  the  Kundry  Motive — a  headlong 
descent  of  the  string  instruments  through  four  octaves — is 
heard. 


Kundry' s  action  in  seeking  balsam  for  the  King's  wound 
gives  us  insight  into  the  two  contradictory  natures  repre- 


Richard  Wagner 


279 


sented  by  her  character.  For  here  is  the  woman  who  has 
brought  all  his  sviffering  upon  Amfortas  striving  to  ease  it 
when  she  is  free  from  the  evil  sway  of  Klingsor.  She  is  at 
times  the  faithful  messenger  of  the  Grail;  at  times  the  evil 
genius  of  its  defenders. 

When  Amfortas  is  borne  in  upon  a  litter  there  is  heard 
the  Motive  of  Amfortas' s  Suflfering,  expressive  of  his 
physical  and  mental  agony.  It  has  a  peculiar  heavy, 
dragging  rhythm,  as  if  his  wound  slowly  were  sapping  his 
life. 


A  beautiful  idyl  is  played  by  the  orchestra  when  the 
knights  bear  Amfortas  to  the  forest  lake. 


One  of  the  youths,  who  has  remained  with  Gurnemanz, 
noting  that  Kimdry  still  lies  where  she  had  flung  herself 
upon  the  ground,  calls  out  scornfully,  "Why  do  you  lie 
there  like  a  savage  beast?" 

"Are  not  even  the  beasts  here  sacred?"  she  retorts,  but 
harshly,  and  not  as  if  pleading  for  sufferance.  The  other 
Esquires  would  have  joined  in  harassing  her  had  not  Gurne- 
manz stayed  .them. 


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"Never  has  she  done  you  harm.  She  serves  the  Grail, 
and  only  when  she  remains  long  away,  none  knows  in  what 
distant  lands,  does  harm  come  to  us."  Then,  turning  to 
where  she  lies,  he  asks:  "Where  were  you  wandering  when 
otir  leader  lost  the  Sacred  Spear?  Why  were  you  not  here 
to  help  us  then?" 

"I  never  help!"  is  her  sullen  retort,  although  a  tremor, 
as  if  caused  by  a  pang  of  bitter  reproach,  passes  over  her 
frame. 

"If  she  wants  to  serve  the  Grail,  why  not  send  her  to 
recover  the  Sacred  Spear!"  exclaims  one  of  the  Esquires 
sarcastically;  and 'the  youths  doubtless  would  have  resumed 
their  nagging  of  Kundry,  had  not  mention  of  the  holy 
weapon  caused  Gurnemanz  to  give  voice  to  memories  of  the 
events  that  have  led  to  its  capture  by  Klingsor.  Then, 
yielding  to  the  pressing  of  the  youths  who  gather  at  his 
feet  beneath  the  tree,  he  tells  them  of  Klingsor — how  the 
sorcerer  has  sued  for  admission  to  the  Grail  brotherhood, 
which  was  denied  him  by  Titurel,  how  in  revenge  he  has 
sought  its  destruction  and  now,  through  possession  of  the 
Sacred  Spear,  hopes  to  compass  it. 

Prominent  with  other  motives  already  heard,  is  a  new 
one,  the  Klingsor  Motive: 


During  this  recital  Kundry  still  lies  upon  the  ground,  a 
sullen,  forbidding  looking  creature.  At  the  point  when 
Gurnemanz  tells  of  the  sorcerer's  magic  garden  and  of  the 
enchantress  who  has  lured  Amfortas  to  his  downfall,  she 
turns  in  quick,  angry  unrest,  as  if  she  would  away,  but  is 
held  to  the  spot  by  some  dark  and  compelling  power. 
There  is  indeed  something  strange  and  contradictory  in 
this  wild  creature,  who  serves  the.  Grail  by  ranging  distant 


Richard  Wagner 


281 


lands  in  search  of  balsam  for  the  King's  wound,  yet  ab- 
ruptly, vindictively  almost,  repels  proffered  thanks,  and 
is  a  sullen  and  unwilling  listener  to  Gurnemanz's  narrative. 
Furthermore,  as  Gurnemanz  queried,  where  does  she  linger 
during  those  long  absences,  .when  harm  has  come  to  the 
warders  of  the  Grail  and  now  to  their  King  ?  The  Knights 
of  the  Grail  do  not  know  it,  but  it  is  none  other  than  she 
who,  changed  by  Klingsgr  into  an  enchantress,  lures  them 
into  his  magic  garden. 

Gurnemanz  concludes  by  telling  the  Esquire  that  while 
Amfortas  was  praying  for  a  sign  as  to  who  could  heal  him, 
phantom  lips  pronounced  these  words : 

By  pity  lightened 

The  guileless  fool; 
Wait  for  him, 

My  chosen  tool. 

This  introduces  an  important  motive,  that  of  the 
Prophecy,  a  phrase  of  simple  beauty,  as  befits  the  signi- 
ficance of  the  words  to  which  it  is  sung.  Gurnemanz 
sings  the  entire  motive  and  then  the  Esquires  take  it  up. 


They  have  sung  only  the  first  two  lines  when  suddenly  their 
prayerful  voices  are  interrupted  by  shouts  of  dismay  from 
the  direction  of  the  lake.  A  moment  later  a  wounded  swan, 
one  of  the  sacred  birds  of  the  Grail  brotherhood,  flutters  over 
the  stage  and  falls  dead  near  Gurnemanz.  The  knights 
follow  in  consternation.  Two  of  them  bring  Parsifal, 
whom  they  have  seized  and  accuse  of  murdering  the  sacred 


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bird.     As  he  appears  the  magnificent  Parsifal  Motive  rings 
out  on  the  horns: 


It  is  a  buoyant  and  joyous  motive,  full  of  the  wild  spirit 
and  freedom  of  this  child  of  nature,  v/ho  knows  nothing  of 
the  Grail  and  its  brotherhood  or  the  sacredness  of  the 
swan,  and  freely  boasts  of  his  skilful  marksmanship.  During 
this  episode  the  Swan  Motive  from  "Lohengrin"  is  effec- 
tively introduced.  Then  follows  Gurnemanz's  noble  re- 
proof, sung  to  a  broad  and  expressive  melody.  Even  the 
animals  are  sacred  in  the  region  of  the  Grail  and  are  pro- 
tected from  harm.  Parsifal's  gradual  awakening  to  a 
sense  of  v.Tong  is  one  of  the  most  touching  scenes  of  the 
music-drama.  His  childlike  grief  when  he  becomes  con- 
scious of  the  pain  he  has  caused  is  so  simple  and  pathetic 
that  one  cannot  but  be  deeply  affected. 

After  Gurnemanz  has  ascertained  that  Parsifal  knows 
nothing  of  the  wrong  he  committed  in  killing  the  swan  he 
plies  him  with  questions  concerning  his  parentage.  Parsifal 
is  now  gentle  and  tranquil.  He  tells  of  growing  up  in  the 
woods,  of  running  away  from  his  mother  to  follow  a  caval- 
cade of  knights  who  passed  along  the  edge  of  the  forest  and 


Richard  Wagner 


283 


of  never  having  seen  her  since.  In  vain  he  endeavours  to 
recall  the  many  pet  names  she  gave  him.  These  memories 
of  his  eariy  days  introduce  the  sad  motive  of  his  mother, 
Herzeleid  (Heart's  Sorrow)  who  has  died  in  grief. 


s 


^ 


m 


The  old  knight  then  proceeds  to  ply  Parsifal  with  ques- 
tions regarding  his  parentage,  name,  and  native  land.  "I 
do  not  know,"  is  the  youth's  invariable  answer.  His 
ignorance,  coupled,  however,  with  his  naive  nobility  of 
bearing  and  the  fact  that  he  has  made  his  way  to  the  Grail 
domain,  engender  in  Gurnemanz  the  hope  that  here  at  last 
is  the  "guileless  fool"  for  whom  prayerfully  they  have  been 
waiting,  and  the  King,  having  been  borne  from  the  lake 
toward  the  castle  where  the  holy  rite  of  unveiling  the  Grail 
is  to  be  celebrated  that  day,  thither  Gurnemanz  in  kindly 
accents  bids  the  youth  follow  him. 

Then  occurs  a  dramatically  effective  change  of  scene. 
The  scenery  becomes  a  panorama  drawn  off  toward  the 
right,  and  as  Parsifal  and  Gurnemanz  face  toward  the  left 
they  appear  to  be  walking  in  that  direction.  The  forest 
disappears;  a  cave  opens  in  rocky  cliffs  and  conceals  the 
two;  they  are  then  seen  again  in  sloping  passages  which 
they  appear  to  ascend.  Long  sustained  trombone  notes 
softly  swell;  approaching  peals  of  bells  are  heard.  At  last 
they  arrive  at  a  mighty  hall  which  loses  itself  overhead 
in  a  high  vaulted  dome,  down  from  which  alone  the  light 
streams  in. 

The  change  of  scene  is  ushered  in  by  the  solemn  Bell 


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The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Motive,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  powerful  orchestral  inter- 
lude accompanying  the  panorama,  and  also  of  the  scene  in 
the  hall  of  the  Grail  Castle. 


As  the  communion,  which  is  soon  to  be  celebrated,  is 
broken  in  upon  by  the  violent  grief  and  contrition  of  Am- 
fortas,  so,  the  majestic  sweep  of  this  symphony  is  interrupted 
by  the  agonized  Motive  of  Contrition,  which  graphically 
portraj'^s  the  spiritual  suffering  of  the  King. 

This  subtly  suggests  the  Elegiac  Motive  and  the  Motive 
of  Amfortas's  Suffering,  but  in  greatly  intensified  degrees. 
For  it  is  like  an  outcry  of  torture  that  effects  both  body  and 
soul. 

With  the  Motive  of  the  Sacrament  resounding  solemnly 
upon  the  trombones,  followed  by  the  Bell  Motive,  sonorous 
and  powerful,  Gurnemanz  and  Parsifal  enter  the  hall,  the 
old  knight  giving  the  youth  a  position  from  which  he  can 
observe  the  proceedings.  From  the  deep  colonnades  on 
either  side  in  the  rear  the  knights  issue,  march  with  stately 
tread,  and  arrange  themselves  at  the  horseshoe-shaped 
table,  which  incloses  a  raised  couch.  Then,  while  the 
orchestra  plays  a  solemn  processional  based  on  the  Bell 
Motive,  they  intone  the  chorus:  "To  the  last  love  feast." 
After  the  first  verse  a  line  of  pages  crosses  the  stage  and 
ascend  into  the  dome.  The  graceful  interlude  here  is  based 
on  the  Bell  Motive. 


Richard  Wagner  285 

The  chorus  of  knights  closes  with  a  glorious  outburst  of 
the  Grail  Motive  as  Amfortas  is  borne  in,  preceded  by  pages 
who  bear  the  covered  Grail.  The  King  is  lifted  upon  the 
couch  and  the  holy  vessel  is  placed  upon  the  stone  table  in 
front  of  it.  When  the  Grail  Motive  has  died  away  amid 
the  pealing  of  the  bells,  the  youths  in  the  gallery  below  the 
dome  sing  a  chorus  of  penitence  based  upon  the  Motive  of 
Contrition.  Then  the  Motive  of  Faith  floats  down  from 
the  dome  as  an  unaccompanied  chorus  for  boys'  voices — 
a  passage  of  ethereal  beauty — the  orchestra  whispering 
a  brief  postludium  like  a  faint  echo.  This  is,  when 
sung  as  it  was  at  Bayreuth,  where  I  heard  the  first 
performance  of  "Parsifal"  in  1882,  the  most  exquisite 
effect  of  the  whole  score.  For  spirituality  it  is  ■  unsur- 
passed. It  is  an  absolutely  perfect  example  of  religious 
music — a  beautiful  melody  without  the  slightest  worldly 
taint. 

Titurd  now  summons  Amfortas  to  perform  his  sacred 
office — to  uncover  the  Grail.  At  first,  tortured  by  con- 
trition for  his  sin,  of  which  the  agony  from  his  wound  is  a 
constant  reminder,  he  refuses  to  obey  his  aged  father's 
summons.  In  anguish  he  cries  out  that  he  is  unworthy  of 
the  sacred  office.  But  again  ethereal  voices  float  down 
from  the  dome.  They  now  chant  the  prophecy  of  the 
"guileless  fool "  and,  as  if  comforted  by  the  hope  of  ultimate 
redemption,  Amfortas  uncovers  the  Grail.  Dusk  seems  to 
spread  over  the  hall.  Then  a  ray  of  brilliant  light  darts 
down  upon  the  sacred  vessel,  which  shines  with  a  soft 
purple  radiance  that  diffuses  itself  through  the  hall.  All 
are  on  their  knees  save  the  youth,  who  has  stood  motionless 
and  obtuse  to  the  significance  of  all  he  has  heard  and  seen 
save  that  during  Amfortas' s  anguish  he  has  clutched  his 
heart  as  if  he  too  felt  the  pang.  But  when  the  rite  is  over — 
when  the  knights  have  partaken  of  communion — and  the 
glow  has  faded,  and  the  King,  followed  by  his  knights,  has 


286  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

been  borne  out,  the  youth  remains  behind,  vigorous, 
handsome,  but  to  all  appearances  a  dolt. 

"Do  you  know  what  you  have  witnessed?"  Gurnemanz 
asks  harshly,  for  he  is  grievously  disappointed. 

For  answer  the  youth  shakes  his  head. 

"Just  a  fool,  after  all,"  exclaims  the  old  knight,  as  he 
opens  a  side  door  to  the  hall.  "Begone,  but  take  my 
advice.  In  future  leave  our  swans  alone,  and  seek  yotuself , 
gander,  a  goose!"  And  with  these  harsh  words  he  pushes 
the  youth  out  and  angrily  slams  the  door  behind  him. 

This  jarring  break  upon  the  religious  feeling  awakened 
by  the  scene  would  be  a  rude  ending  for  the  act,  but  Wagner, 
with  exquisite  tact,  allows  the  voices  in  the  dome  to  be 
heard  once  more,  and  so  the  curtains  close,  amid  the 
spiritual  harmonies  of  the  Prophecy  of  the  Guileless  Fool 
and  of  the  Grail  Motive. 

Act  II.  This  act  plays  in  Klingsor's  magic  castle  and 
garden.  The  Vorspiel  opens  with  the  threatful  Klingsor 
motive,  which  is  followed  by  the  Magic  and  Contrition 
Motives,  the  wild  Kundry  Motive  leading  over  to  the  first 
scene. 

In  the  inner  keep  of  his  tower,  stone  steps  leading  up  to 
the  battlemented  parapet  and  down  into  a  deep  pit  at  the 
back,  stands  Klingsor,  looking  into  a  metal  mirror,  whose 
surface,  through  his  necromancy,  reflects  all  that  transpires 
within  the  environs  of  the  fastness  from  which  he  ever 
threatens  the  warders  of  the  Grail.  Of  all  that  just  has 
happened  in  the  Grail's  domain  it  has  made  him  aware; 
and  he  knows  that  of  which  Gurnemanz  is  ignorant — that 
the  youth,  whose  approach  the  mirror  divulges,  once  in  his 
power,  vain  will  be  the  prophecy  of  the  "guileless  fool"  and 
his  own  triumph  assured.  For  it  is  that  same  "guileless 
fool"  the  old  knight  impatiently  has  thrust  out. 

Klingsor  turns  toward  the  pit  and  imperiously  waves  his 
hand.     A  bluish  vapour  rises  from  the  abyss  and  in  it 


Richard  Wagner  287 

floats  the  form  of  a  beauteous  woman — Kundry,  not  the 
Kundry  of  a  few  hours  before,  dishevelled  and  in  coarse 
garb  girdled  with  snake-skin;  but  a  houri,  her  dark  hair 
smooth  and  lustrous,  her  robe  soft,  rich  Oriental  draperies. 
Yet  even  as  she  floats  she  strives  as  though  she  would 
descend  to  where  she  has  come  from,  while  the  sorcerer's 
harsh  laugh  greets  her  vain  efi^orts.  This  then  is  the 
secret  of  her  strange  actions  and  her  long  disappearances 
from  the  Grail  domain,  during  which  so  many  of  its  warders 
have  fallen  into  Klingsor's  power!  She  is  the  snare  he 
sets,  she  the  arch-enchantress  of  his  magic  garden.  Striving 
as  he  hints  while  he  mocks  her  impotence,  to  expiate  some 
sin  committed  by  her  during  a  previous  existence  in  the 
dim  past,  by  serving  the  brotherhood  of  the  Grail  knights, 
the  sorcerer's  power  over  her  is  such  that  at  any  moment 
he  can  summon  her  to  aid  him  in  their  destruction. 

Well  she  knows  what  the  present  siunmons  means. 
Approaching  the  tower  at  this  very  moment  is  the  youth 
whom  she  has  seen  in  the  Grail  forest,  and  in  whom  she, 
like  Klingsor,  has  recognized  the  only  possible  redeemer  of 
Amfortas  and  of — herself.  And  now  she  must  lure  him  to 
his  doom  and  with  it  lose  her  last  hope  of  salvation,  now, 
aye,  now — for  even  as  he  mocks  her,  Klingsor  once  more 
waves  his  hand,  castle  and  keep  vanish  as  if  swallowed  up 
by  the  earth,  and  in  its  place  a  garden  heavy  with  the 
scent  of  gorgeous  flowers  fills  the  landscape. 

The  orchestra,  with  the  Parsifal  Motive,  gives  a  spirited 
description  of  the  brief  combat  between  Parsifal  and 
Klingsor's  knights.  It  is  amid  the  dark  harmonies  of  the 
Klingsor  Motive  that  the  keep  sinks  out  of  sight  and  the 
magic  garden,  spreading  out  in  all  directions,  with  Parsifal 
standing  on  the  wall  and  gazing  with  astonishment  upon 
the  brilliant  scene,  is  disclosed. 

The  Flower  Maidens  in  great  trepidation  for  the  fate  of 
their  lover  knights  rush  in  from  all  sides  with  cries  of  sorrow. 


288 


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their  confused  exclamations  and  the  orchestral  accompani- 
ment admirably  enforcing  their  tumultuous  actions. 

The  Parsifal  Motive  again  introduces  the  next  episode, 
as  Parsifal,  attracted  by  the  grace  and  beauty  of  the  girls, 
leaps  down  into  the  garden  and  seeks  to  mingle  with  them. 
It  is  repeated  several  times  in  the  course  of  the  scene.  The 
girls,  seeing  that  he  does  not  seek  to  harm  them,  bedeck 
themselves  with  flowers  and  crowd  about  him  with  alluring 
gestures,  finally  circling  around  him  as  they  sing  this 
caressing  melody: 


The  effect  is  enchanting,  the  music  of  this  episode  being 
a  mar\''el  of  sensuous  grace.  Parsifal  regards  them  with 
childlike,  innocent  joy.  Then  they  seek  to  impress  him 
more  deeply  with  their  charms,  at  the  same  time  quarrelling 
among  themselves  over  him.  When  their  rivalry  has 
reached  its  height,  Kundry's  voice — "Parsifal,  tarry!" — 
is  wafted  from  a  flowery  nook  near-by. 


"Parsifal!"  In  all  the  years  of  his  wandering  none  has 
called  him  by  his  name;  and  now  it  floats  toward  him  as  if 
borne  on  the  scent  of  roses.  A  beautiful  woman,  her  arms 
stretched  out  to  him.   welcomes  him  from  her  couch  of 


Richard  Wagner  289 

brilliant,  redolent  flowers.  Irresistibly  drawn  toward  her, 
he  approaches  and  kneels  by  her  side;  and  she,  whispering 
to  him  in  tender  accents,  leans  over  him  and  presses  a  long 
kiss  upon  his  lips.  It  is  the  lure  that  has  sealed  the  fate 
of  many  a  knight  of  the  Grail.  But  in  the  youth  it  inspires 
a  sudden  change-  The  perilous  subtlety  of  it,  that  is 
intended  to  destroy,  transforms  the  "guileless  fool"  into  a 
conscious  man,  and  that  man  conscious  of  a  mission.  The 
scenes  he  has  witnessed  in  the  Grail  castle,  the  stricken 
King  whose  wound  ever  bled  afresh,  the  part  he  is  to  play, 
the  peril  of  the  temptation  that  has  been  placed  in  his  path 
— all  these  things  become  revealed  to  him  in  the  rapture  of 
that  unhallowed  kiss.  In  vain  the  enchantress  seeks  to 
draw  him  toward  her.  He  thrusts  her  from  him.  Mad- 
dened by  the  repulse,  compelled  through  Klingsor's  arts 
to  see  in  the  handsome  youth  before  her  lawful  prey,  she 
calls  upon  the  sorcerer  to  aid  her.  At  her  outcry  Klingsor 
appears  on  the  castle  wall,  in  his  hand  the  Spear  taken  from 
Amfortas,  and,  as  Parsifal  faces  him,  hurls  it  full  at  him. 
But  lo,  it  rises  in  its  flight  and  remains  suspended  in  the 
air  over  the  head  of  him  it  was  aimed  to  slay. 

Reaching  out  and  seizing  it,  Parsifal  makes  with  it  the 
sign  of  the  cross.  Castle  and  garden  wall  crumble  into 
ruins,  the  garden  shrivels  away,  leaving  in  its  place  a  sere 
wilderness,  through  which  Parsifal,  leaving  Kundry  as  one 
dead  upon  the  ground,  sets  forth  in  search  of  the  castle  of 
the  Grail,  there  to  fulfil  the  mission  with  which  now  he 
knows  himself  charged. 

Act  III.  Not  until  after  long  wanderings  through  the 
wilderness,  however,  is  it  that  Parsifal  once  more  finds 
himself  on  the  outskirts  of  the  Grail  forest.  Clad  from 
head  to  foot  in  black  armour,  his  visor  closed,  the  Holy 
Spear  in  his  hand,  he  approaches  the  spot  where  Gurnemanz, 
now  grown  very  old,  still  holds  watch,  while  Kundry  again 
in  coarse  garb,  but  grown  strangely  pale  and  gentle,  humbly 
19 


290 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


serves  the  brotherhood.  It  is  Good  Friday  morn,  and 
peace  rests  upon  the  forest. 

Kundry  is  the  first  to  discern  the  approach  of  the  black 
knight.  From  the  tender  exaltation  of  her  mien,  as  she 
draws  Gurnemanz's  look  toward  the  silent  figure,  it  is 
apparent  that  she  divines  who  it  is  and  .why  he  comes.  To 
Gurnemanz,  however,  he  is  but  an  armed  intruder  on 
sanctified  ground  and  upon  a  holy  day,  and,  as  the  black 
knight  seats  himself  on  a  little  knoll  near  a  spring  and 
remains  silent,  the  old  warder  chides  him  for  his  offence. 
Tranquilly  the  knight  rises,  thrasts  the  Spear  he  bears  into 
the  ground  before  him,  lays  down  his  sword  and  shield 
before  it,  opens  his  helmet,  and,  removing  it  from  his  head, 
places  it  with  the  other  arms,  and  then  himself  kneels  in 
silent  prayer  before  the  Spear.  Surprise,  recognition  of  man 
and  weapon,  and  deep  emotion  succeed  each  other  on 
Gurnemanz's  face.  Gently  he  raises  Parsifal  from  his 
kneeling  posture,  once  more  seats  him  on  the  knoll  by  the 
spring,  loosens  his  greaves  and  corselet,  and  then  places 
upon  him  the  coat  of  mail  and  mantle  of  the  knights  of  the 
Grail,  while  Kundry,  drawing  a  golden  flask  from  her  bosom 
anoints  his  feet  and  dries  them  with  her  loosened  hair. 
Then  Gurnemanz  takes  from  her  the  flask,  and,  pouring  its 
contents  upon  ParsijaVs  head,  anoints  him  king  of  the 
knights  of  the  Grail.  The  new  king  performs  his  first 
office  by  taking  up  water  from  the  spring  in  the  hollow  of 
his  hand  and  baptizing  Kundry,  whose  eyes,  suffused  with 
tears,  are  raised  to  him  in  gentle  rapture. 

Here  is  heard  the  stately  Motive  of  Baptism : 


r?  • 


CJU-     f    T^        Tff 


Richard  Wagner 


291 


The  "Good  Friday  Spell, "  one  of  Wagner's  most  beautiful 
mood  paintings  in  tone  color,  is  the  most  prominent  episode 
in  these  scenes. 


f!,tfh„  T^.  J      ' 

1 .'  J     ." 

ijT"  J;.'^^ 

'^ '  "  r    1  - — - 

MkmL 

^ ' 

■f 

Once  more  Gurnemanz,  Kundry  now  following,  leads  the 
way  toward  the  castle  of  the  Grail.  Amfortas's  aged 
father,  Titurel,  uncomforted  by  the  vision  of  thfe  Grail, 
which  Amfortas,  in  his  passionate  contrition,  deems  himself 
too  sullied  to  unveil,  has  died,  and  the  knights  having 
gathered  in  the  great  hall,  TitureVs  bier  is  borne  in  solemn 
procession  and  placed  upon  a  catafalque  before  Amfortas's 
couch. 

"Uncover  the  shrine!"  shout  the  knights,  pressing  upon 
Amfortas.  For  answer,  and  in  a  paroxysm  of  despair,  he 
springs  up,  tears  his  garments  asunder  and  shows  his  open 
wound.  "Slay  me!"  he  cried.  "Take  up  your  weapons! 
Bury  your  sword-blades  deep — deep  in  me,  to  the  hilts! 
Kill  me,  and  so  kill  the  pain  that  tortures  me!" 

As  Amfortas  stands  there  in  an  ecstasy  of  pain,  Parsifal 
enters,  and,  quietly  advancing,  touches  the  wound  with  the 
point  of  the  Spear. 

"One  weapon  only  serves  to  staunch  your  wounded  side — 
the  one  that  struck  it." 

Amfortas's  torture  changes  to  highest  rapture.  The 
shrine  is  opened  and  Parsifal,  taking  the  Grail,  which  again 


292 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


radiates  with  light,  waves  it  gently  to  and  fro,  as  Amfortas 
and  all  the  knights  kneel  in  homage  to  him,  while  Kundry 
gazing  up  to  him  in  gratitude,  sinks  gently  into  the  sleep  of 
death  and  forgiveness  for  which  she  has  longed. 

The  music  of  this  entire  scene  floats  upon  ethereal 
arpeggios.  The  Motive  of  Faith  especially  is  exquisitely 
accompanied,  its  spiritual  harmonies  finally  appearing  in 
this  form. 


There  are  also  heard  the  Motives  of  Prophecy  and  of  the 
Sacrament,  as  the  knights  on  the  stage  and  the  youths  and 
boys  in  the  dome  chant.  The  Grail  Motive,  which  is 
prominent  throughout  the  scene,  rises  as  if  in  a  spirit  of 
gentle  religious  triumph  and  brings,  with  the  Sacrament 
Motive,  the  work  to  a  close. 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini 
(1792- 1 868) 

IT  would  be  difficult  to  persuade  any  one  today  that 
Rossini  was  a  reformer  of  opera.  But  his  instrimien- 
tation,  excessively  simple  as  it  seems  to  us,  was  regarded, 
by  his  contemporaries,  as  distracting  too  much  attention 
from  the  voices.  This  was  one  of  the  reasons  his  Semi- 
ramide  was  coolly  received  at  its  production  in  Venice,  1823. 
But  however  simple,  not  to  say  primitive,  the  instru- 
mentation of  his  Italian  operas  now  strikes  us,  he  made  one 
great  innovation  in  opera  for  which  we  readily  can  grant 
him  recognition  as  a  reformer.  He  dispensed  with  secco 
recitative,  the  so-called  "dry"  recitative,  which  I  have 
mentioned  as  a  drawback  to  the  operatic  scores  of  Mozart. 
For  this  Rossini  substituted  a  more  dramatic  recital  of  the 
text  leading  up  to  the  vocal  nimibers,  and  accompanied  it 
with  such  instruments,  or  combinations  of  instruments 
even  to  full  orchestra,  as  he  considered  necessary.  We 
accept  a  well  accompanied  recitative  in  opera  as  a  matter 
of  course.  But  in  its  day  it  was  a  bold  step  forward,  and 
Rossini  should  receive  full  credit  for  it.  Indeed  it  will  be 
fotmd  that  nearly  all  composers,  whose  works  survive  in 
the  repet"toire,  instead  of  tamely  accepting  the  routine  of 
workmanship  in  opera,  as  inherited  from  their  predecessors, 
had  ideas  of  their  own,  which  they  put  into  effect,  some- 
times at  the  temporary  sacrifice  of  popularity.  Gluck 
and  Wagner,  especially  the  latter,  were  extreme  types  of 

293 


294  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

the  musical  reformer.  Compared  with  them  Rossini  was 
mild.     But  his  merits  should  be  conceded,  and  gratefully. 

Rossini  often  is  spoken  of  as  the  "Swan  of  Pesaro, " 
where  he  was  bom.  His  mother  sang  huff  a  roles  in  a 
travelling  opera  troupe,  in  the  orchestra  of  which  his  father 
was  a  horn-player.  After  previous  musical  instruction  in 
Bologna,  he  was  turned  over  to  Angelo  Tesei,  sang  in 
church  and  afterwards  travelled  with  his  parents  both 
as  singer  and  accompanist,  thus  gaining  at  first  hand 
valuable  experience  in  matters  operatic.  In  1807  he 
entered  the  Liceo  (conservatory)  at  Bologna,  studying 
'cello  imder  Cavedagni  and  composition  with  Padre  Mattel. 
By  1810  already  he  was  able  to  bring  out  in  Venice,  and 
with  applause,  a  one  act  comedy  opera,  "La  Cambiale  di 
Matrimonio."  During  19 12  he  received  commissions  for 
no  less  than  five  light  operas,  scoring,  in  18 13,  with  his 
"Tancredi"  his  first  success  in  the  grand  manner.  There 
was  scarcely  a  year  now  that  did  not  see  a  work  from  his 
pen,  sometimes  two,  imtil  his  "Guillaume  Tell"  was 
produced  in  Paris,  1829.  This  was  an  entire  change  of 
style  from  his  earlier  works,  possibly,  however,  fore- 
shadowed by  his  "Comte  Ory, "  a  revision  of  a  previous 
score,  and  produced,  as  was  his  "Tell,"  at  the  Grand 
Opera. 

"  Guillaume  Tell "  not  only  is  written  to  a  French  libretto; 
it  is  in  the  French  style  of  grand  opera,  in  which  the  vocal 
melody  is  less  ornate  and  the  instrumental  portion  of  the 
score  more  carefully  considered  than  in  the  Italian. 

During  the  remaining  thirty-nine  years  of  his  life  not 
another  opera  did  Rossini  compose.  He  appears  deliber- 
ately to  have  formed  this  resolution  in  1836,  after  hearing 
"Les  Huguenots"  by  Meyerbeer,  as  if  he  considered  it 
useless  for  him  to  attempt  to  rival  that  composer.  He 
resided  in  Bologna  and  Florence  until  1855,  then  in  Paris, 
or  near  there,  dying  at  Ruelle. 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini  295 

He  presents  the  strange  spectacle  of  a  successful  com- 
poser of  opera,  who  lived  to  be  seventy-six,  abruptly 
closing  his  dramatic  career  at  thirty-seven. 

IL  BARBIERE  DI  SIVIGLIA 

THE  BARBER  OF  SEVILLE 

Opera  in  two  acts,  by  Rossini;  text  by  Cesare  Sterbini,  founded  on 
Beaumarchais.  Produced,  Argentina  Theatre,  Rome,  February  5,  1816; 
London,  King's  Theatre,  March  10,  1818.  Paris,  in  Italian,  1819;  in 
French,  1824.  New  York,  in  English,  at  the  Park  Theatre,  May  3,  1819, 
with  Thomas  Philli'pps  and  Miss  Leesugg,  as  Almaviva  and  Rosina;  in 
Italian,  at  the  Park  Theatre,  November  29,  1825,  with  Manuel  Garcia, 
the  elder,  as  Almaviva;  Manuel  Garcia,  the  younger,  Figaro;  Signorina 
Garcia  (afterwards  the  famous  Malibran),  Rosina;  Signor  Rosick,  Dr. 
Bartolo;  Signor  Angrisani,  Don  Basilio;  Signor  Crivelli,  the  younger, 
Fiorello,  and  Signora  Garcia,  mhre,  Berta.  (See  concluding  paragraphs 
of  this  article.)  Adelina  Patti,  Melba,  Sembrich,  Tetrazzini  are  among 
the  prima  donnas  who  have  been  familiar  to  opera  lovers  in  this  coun- 
try as  Rosina.  Galli-Curd  appeared  in  this  r6Ie  in  Chicago,  January 
I,  1917. 

Characters 

Count  Almaviva Tenor 

Doctor  Bartolo Bass 

Basilio,  a  Singing  Teacher Bass 

Figaro,  a  Barber Baritone 

Fiorello,  servant  to  the  Count Bass 

Ambrosio,  servant  to  the  Doctor Bass 

Rosina,  the  Doctor's  ward Soprano 

Berta  (or  Marcellina),  Rosina's  Governess Soprano 

Notary,  Constable,  Musicians  and  Soldiers. 
Time — Seventeenth  Century.  Place — Seville,  Spain. 

Upon  episodes  in  Beaimiarchais's  trilogy  of  "Figaro" 
comedies  two  composers,  Mozart  and  Rossini,  based 
operas  that  have  long  maintained  their  hold  upon  the 
repertoire.  The  three  Beaimiarchais  comedies  are  "Le 
Barbi^re  de  Seville,"  "Le  Marriage  de  Figaro,"  and  "La 


296 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Mere  Coupable."  Mozart  selected  the  second  of  these, 
Rossini  the  first;  so  that  although  in  point  of  composition 
Mozart's  "Figaro"  (May,  1786)  antedates  Rossini's  "Bar- 
biere"  (February,  18 16)  b}'  nearly  thirty  years,  "II  Bar- 
biere  di  Siviglia"  precedes  "Le  Nozze  di  Figaro"  in  point 
of  action.  In  both  operas  Figaro  is  a  prominent  character, 
and,  while  the  composers  were  of  wholly  different  nation- 
ality and  race,  their  music  is  genuinely  and  equally  sparkling 
and  witty.  To  attempt  to  decide  between  them  by  the  flip 
of  a  coin  would  be  "heads  I  win,  tails  you  lose.  " 

There  is  much  to  say  about  the  first  performance  of  "II 
Barbiere  di  Siviglia";  also  about  the  overture,  the  origin  of 
Almaviva's  graceful  solo,  "Ecco  redente  il  cielo, "  and  the 
music  selected  by  prima  donnas  to  sing  in  the  "lesson 
scene"  in  the  second  act.  But  these  details  are  better 
preceded  by  some  information  regarding  the  story  and  the 
music. 

Act  I,  Scene  i .  A  street  by  Dr.  Bartolo's  house.  Count 
Almaviva,  a  Grandee  of  Spain,  is  desperately  in  love  with 
Rosina,  the  ward  of  Doctor  Bartolo.  Accompanied  by  his 
servant  Fiorello  and  a  band  of  lutists,  he  serenades  her  with 
the  smooth,  flowing  measures  of  "Ecco  ridente  il  cielo," 
(Lo,  smiling  in  the  Eastern  sky). 


Just  then  Figaro,  the  barber,  the  general  factotum  and 
busybody  of  the  town,  dances  in,  singing  the  famous  patter 
air,  "Largo  al  factotimi  della  citta"  (Room  for  the  city's 
f actotimi) . 


/«,-  .        gc  a//. 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini 


297 


He  is  Dr.  Bartolo's  barber,  and,  learning  from  the  Count 
of  his  heart's  desire,  imm'ediately  plots  with  him  to  bring 
about  his  introduction  to  Rosina.  There  are  two  clever 
duets  between  Figaro  and  the  Count — one  in  which  Alma- 
viva  promises  money  to  the  Barber;  the  other  in  praise  of 
love  and  pleasure. 

Rosina  is  strictly  watched  by  her  guardian.  Doctor  Bartolo, 
who  himself  plans  to  marry  his  ward,  since  she  has  both 
beauty  and  money.  In  this  he  is  assisted  by  Basilio,  a 
music-master.  Rosina,  however,  returns  the  affection  of 
the  Count,  and,  in  spite  of  the  watchfulness  of  her  guardian, 
she  contrives  to  drop  a  letter  from  the  balcony  to  Almaviva, 
who  is  still  with  Figaro  below,  declaring  her  passion, 
and  at  the  same  time  requesting  to  know  her  lover's 
name. 

Scene  2.  Room  in  Dr.  Bartolo^s  house.  Rosina  enters. 
She  sings  the  brilliant  "Una  voce  poco  fa"  (A  little  voice  I 


heard  just  now),  followed  by  "lo  sono  docile"  (With  mild 
and  docile  air). 


^a-  *t.  U  f,  Son         ris^     /»*/  .         /<? 


Figaro,  who  has  left  Almaviva  and  come  in  from  the 
street,  tells  her  that  the  Count  is  Signor  Lindor,  claims 
him  as  a  cousin,  and  adds  that  the  young  man  is  deeply 
in  love  with  her.  Rosina  is  delighted.  She  gives  him  a  note 
to  convey  to  the  supposed  Signor  Lindor.  (Duet,  Rosina 
and  Figaro:  "Dunque  io  son,  tu  non  m'ingani?" — ^Am  I  his 
love,  or  dost  thou  mock  me?) 

Meanwhile  Bartolo  has  made  known  to  Basilio  his  sus- 


298  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

picions  that  Count  Almaviva  is  in  love  with  Rosina.  Basilio 
advises  to  start  a  scandal  about  the  Count  and,  in  an  aria 
("La  calumnia")  remarkable  for  its  descriptive  crescendo, 
depicts  how  calumny  may  spread  from  the  first  breath  to  a 
tempest  of  scandal. 


To  obtain  an  interview  with  Rosina,  the  Count  disguises 
himself  as  a  drunken  soldier,  and  forces  his  way  into 
Bartolo's  house.  The  disguise  of  Almavira  is  penetrated 
by  the  guardian,  and  the  pretended  soldier  is  placed  under 
arrest,  but  is  at  once  released  upon  secretly  showing  the 
officer  his  order  as  a  Grandee  of  Spain.  Chorus,  preceded 
by  the  trio,  for  Rosina,  Almaviva  and  Bartola — "Fredda  ed 
immobile"  (Awestruck  and  immovable). 

Act  II.  The  Count  again  enters  Bartolo's  house.  He  is 
now  diguised  as  a  music-teacher,  and  pretends  that  he  has 
been  sent  by  Basilio  to  give  a  lesson  in  music,  on  account 
of  the  illness  of  the  latter.  He  obtains  the  confidence  of 
Bartolo  by  producing  Rosina' s  letter  to  himself,  and  offering 
to  persuade  Rosina  that  the  letter  has  been  given  him  by  a 
mistress  of  the  Count.  In  this  manner  he  obtains  the 
desired  opportunity,  under  the  guise  of  a  music  lesson — 
the  "music  lesson"  scene,  which  is  discussed  below — to 
hold  a  whispered  conversation  with  Rosina.  Figaro  also 
manages  to  obtain  the  keys  of  the  balcony,  an  escape  is 
determined  on  at  midnight,  and  a  private  marriage  arranged. 
Now,  however,  Basilio  makes  his  appearance.  The  lovers 
are  disconcerted,  but  manage,  by  persuading  the  music- 
master  that  he  really  is  ill — an  illness  accelerated  by  a  full 
purse  slipped  into  his  hand  by  Almaviva — to  get  rid  of  him. 
Duet  for  Rosina  and  Almaviva,  "Buona  sera,  mio  Signore" 
(Fare  you  well  then,  good  Signore) . 


Copyright  photo  by  Mishkin 

Sammarco  as  Figaro  in  "The  Barber  of  Seville' 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini 


299 


(r-^-O 


When  the  Count  and  Figaro  have  gone,  Bartolo,  who 
possesses  the  letter  Rosina  wrote  to  Almaviva,  succeeds, 
by  producing  it,  and  telling  her  he  secured  it  from  another 
lady-love  of  the  Count,  in  exciting  the  jealousy  of  his  ward. 
In  her  anger  she  discloses  the  plan  of  escape  and  agrees  to 
marry  her  guardian.  At  the  appointed  time,  however, 
Figaro  and  the  Count  make  their  appearance — the  lovers 
are  reconciled,  and  a  notary,  proctu-ed  by  Bartolo  for  his 
own  marriage  to  Rosina,  celebrates  the  marriage  of  the 
loving  pair.  When  the  guardian  enters,  with  officers  of 
justice,  into  whose  hands  he  is  about  to  consign  Figaro  and 
the  Count,  he  is  too  late,  but  is  reconciled  by  a  promise 
that  he  shall  receive  the  equivalent  of  his  ward's  dower. 

Besides  the  music  that  has  been  mentioned,  there  should 
be  reference  to  "the  big  quintet"  of  the  arrival  and  de- 
parture of  Basilio.  Just  before  Almaviva  and  Figaro  enter 
for  the  elopement  there  is  a  storm.  The  delicate  trio  for 
Almaviva,  Rosina  and  Figaro,  "Zitti,  zitti,  piano"  (Softly, 
softly  and  in  silence),  bears,  probably  without  intention,  a 
resemblance  to  a  passage  in  Haydn's  "Seasons. " 


The  first  performance  of  "II  Barbiere  di  Siviglia,"  an 
opera  that  has  held  its  own  for  over  a  century,  was  a 
scandalous  failure,  which,  however,  was  not  without  its 
amusing  incidents.     Castil-Blaze,  Giuseppe  Carpani  in  his 


300  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"Rossiniane, "  and  Stendhal  in  "Vie  de  Rossini"  (a  lot  of 
it  "cribbed"  from  Carpani)  have  told  the  story.  More- 
over the  Rosina  of  the  evening,  Mme.  Giorgi-Righetti, 
who  was  both  pretty  and  popular,  has  communicated  her 
reminiscences. 

December  26,  1815,  Duke  Cesarini,  manager  of  the 
Argentine  Theatre,  Rome,  for  whom  Rossini  had  contracted 
to  write  two  operas,  brought  out  the  first  of  these,  "Tor- 
valdo  e  Dorliska, "  which  was  poorly  received.  Thereupon 
Cesarini  handed  to  the  composer  the  libretto  of  "II  Bar- 
biere  di  Siviglia, "  which  Paisiello,  who  was  still  living,  had 
set  to  music  more  than  half  a  century  before.  A  pleasant 
memory  of  the  old  master's  work  still  lingered  with  the 
Roman  public.  The  honoraritun  was  400  Roman  crowns 
(about  $400)  and  Rossini  also  was  called  upon  to  preside 
over  the  orchestra  at  the  pianoforte  at  the  first  three  per- 
formances. It  is  said  that  Rossini  composed  his  score  in  a 
fortnight.  Even  if  not  strictly  true,  from  December  26th 
to  the  February  5th  following  is  but  little  more  than  a 
month.  The  young  composer  had  too  much  sense  not  to 
honour  Paisiello;  or,  at  least,  to  appear  to.  He  hastened 
to  write  to  the  old  composer.  The  latter,  although  reported 
to  have  been  intensely  jealous  of  the  young  maestro  (Rossini 
was  only  twenty-five)  since  the  sensational  success  of  the 
latter's  "Elizabetta,  Regina  d'Inghilterra"  (Elizabeth, 
Queen  of  England),  Naples,  18 15,  repHed  that  he  had  no 
objection  to  another  musician  dealing  with  the  subject  of 
his  opera.  In  reality,  it  is  said,  he  counted  on  Rossini's 
making  a  glaring  failure  of  the  attempt.  The  libretto  was 
rearranged  by  Sterbini,  and  Rossini  wrote  a  preface,  modest 
in  tone,  yet  not  without  a  hint  that  he  considered  the  older 
score  out  of  date.  But  he  took  the  precaution  to  show 
Paisiello's  letter  to  all  the  music  lovers  of  Rome,  and  insisted 
on  changing  the  title  of  the  opera  to  "Alma  viva,  ossia  1'  Inu- 
tile Precauzione"  (Alma viva,  or  the  Useless  Precautions). 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini  301 

Nevertheless,  as  soon  as  the  rumour  spread  that  Rossini 
was  making  over  Paisiello's  work,  the  young  composer's 
enemies  hastened  to  talk  in  the  caf^s  about  what  they 
called  his  "imderhand  action."  Paisiello  himself,  it  is 
believed,  was  not  foreign  to  these  intrigues.  A  letter  in  his 
handwriting  was  shown  to  Rossini.  In  this  he  is  said  to 
have  written  from  Naples  to  one  of  his  friends  in  Rome 
urging  him  to  neglect  nothing  that  would  make  certain 
the  failure  of  Rossini's  opera. 

Mme.  Giorgi-Righetti  reports  that  "hot-headed  ene- 
mies" assembled  at  their  posts  as  soon  as  the  theatre 
opened,  while  Rossini's  friends,  disappointed  by  the  recent 
ill  luck  of  "  Torvaldo  e  Dorliska  "  were  timid  in  their  support 
of  the  new  work.  Furthermore,  according  to  Mme.  Giorgi- 
Righetti,  Rossini  weakly  yielded  to  a  suggestion  from 
Garcia,  and  permitted  that  artist,  the  Almaviva  of  the 
premi&re,  to  substitute  for  the  air  which  is  sung  imder 
Rosina's  balcony,  a  Spanish  melody  with  guitar  accompani- 
ment. The  scene  being  laid  in  Spain,  this  would  aid  in 
giving  local  colour  to  the  work — such  was  the  idea.  But  it 
went  wrong.  By  an  unfortunate  oversight  no  one  had 
tuned  the  guitar  with  which  Almaviva  was  to  accompany 
himself,  and  Garcia  was  obliged  to  do  this  on  the  stage. 
A  string  broke.  The  singer  had  to  replace  it,  to  an  accom- 
paniment of  laughter  and  whistling.  This  was  followed  by 
Figaro's  entrance  air.  The  audience  had  settled  down  for 
this.  But  when  they  saw  Zamboni,  as  Figaro,  come  on  the 
stage  with  another  guitar,  another  fit  of  laughing  and 
whistling  seized  them,  and  the  racket  rendered  the  S0I9 
completely  inaudible.  Rosina  appeared  on  the  balcony. 
The  public  greatly  admired  Mme.  Giorgi-Righetti  and  was 
disposed  to  applaud  her.  But,  as  if  to  cap  the  climax  of 
absxirdity,  she  sang:  "Segui,  o  caro,  d'segui  cosi"  (Continue 
my  dear,  do  always  so).  Naturally  the  audience  imme- 
diately thought  of  the  two  guitars,  and  went  on  laughing, 


302  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

whistling,  and  hissing  during  the  entire  duet  between  Alma- 
viva  and  Figaro.  The  work  seemed  doomed.  Finally 
Rosina  came  on  the  stage  and  sang  the  " Una  voce  poco  fa" 
(A  little  voice  I  heard  just  now)  which  had  been  awaited 
with  impatience  (and  which  today  is  still  considered  an 
operatic  tour  de  force  for  soprano) .  The  youthful  charm  of 
Mme.  Giorgi-Righetti,  the  beauty  of  her  voice,  and  the 
favour  with  which  the  public  regarded  her,  "won  her  a  sort 
of  ovation"  in  this  number.  A  triple  rotmd  of  prolonged 
applause  raised  hopes  for  the  fate  of  the  work.  Rossini  rose 
from  his  seat  at  the  pianoforte,  and  bowed.  But  realizing 
that  the  applause  was  chiefly  meant  for  the  singer,  he  called 
to  her  in  a  whisper,  "Oh,  natural"  (Oh,  human  nature!) 

"Give  her  thanks,"  replied  the  artiste,  "  since  without  her 
you  would  not  have  had  occasion  to  rise  from  your 
seat." 

What  seemed  a  favourable  turn  of  affairs  did  not,  however, 
last  long.  The  whistling  was  resumed  louder  than  ever  at 
the  duet  between  Figaro  and  Rosina.  "All  the  whistlers 
of  Italy,"  says  Castil-Blaze,  "seemed  to  have  given  them- 
selves a  rendezvous  for  this  performance."  Finally,  a 
stentorian  voice  shouted:  "This  is  the  funeral  of  Don 
PoUione, "  words  which  doubtless  had  much  spice  for 
Roman  ears,  since  the  cries,  the  hisses,  the  stamping, 
continued  with  increased  vehemence.  When  the  ciirtain 
fell  on  the  first  act  Rossini  turned  toward  the  audience, 
slightly  shrugged  his  shoulders,  and  clapped  his  hands. 
The  audience,  though  greatly  offended  by  this  show  of 
.contemptuous  disregard  for  its  opinion,  reserved  its  revenge 
for  the  second  act,  not  a  note  of  which  it  allowed  to  be  heard. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  outrage,  for  such  it  was,  Rossini 
left  the  theatre  with  as  much  nonchalance  as  if  the  row  had 
concerned  the  work  of  another.  After  they  had  gotten  into 
their  street  clothes  the  singers  hurried  to  his  lodgings  to 
condole  with  him.     He  was  sound  asleep! 


Photo  copyright,  1916,  by  Victor  Georg 

Galli-Curci  as  Rosina  in  "  The  Barber  of  Seville" 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Sembrich  as  Rosina  in  "The  Barber  of  Seville" 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini  303 

There  have  been  three  historic  failures  of  opera.  One 
was  the  "Tannhauser"  fiasco,  Paris,  1861;  another,  the 
failure  of  "Carmen,"  Paris,  1875.  The  earliest  I  have  just 
described. 

For  the  second  performance  of  "II  Barbiere"  Rossini 
replaced  the  unlucky  air  introduced  by  Garcia  with  the 
"Ecco  ridente  il  cielo, "  as  it  now  stands.  This  cavatina  he 
borrowed  from  an  earlier  opera  of  his  own,  "Aureliano  in 
Palmira"  (Aurelian  in  Palmyra).  It  also  had  figured  in  a 
cantata  (not  an  opera)  by  Rossini,  "Giro  in  Babilonia" 
(G\Tus  in  Babylon) — so  that  measures  first  sung  by  a 
Persian  king  in  the  ancient  capital  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  then  by  a  Roman  emperor  and  his  followers  in  the  city 
which  flourished  in  an  oasis  in  the  Syrian  desert,  were  found 
suitable  to  be  intoned  by  a  love-sick  Spanish  count  of  the 
seventeenth  century  as  a  serenade  to  his  lady  of  Seville. 
It  surely  is  amusing  to  discover  in  tracing  this  air  to  its 
original  sotirce,  that  "Ecco  ridente  il  cielo"  (Lo,  smiles  the 
morning  in  the  sky)  figured  in  "Aureliano  in  Palmira  "  as  an 
address  to  Isis — "Sposa  del  grande  Osiride"  (Spouse  of  the 
great  Osiris). 

Equally  amusing  is  the  relation  of  the  overture  to  the 
opera.  The  original  is  said  to  have  been  lost.  The  present 
one  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  ever-ready  Figaro,  the 
coquettish  Rosina,  or  the  sentimental  Almaviva,  although 
there  have  been  writers  who  have  dilated  upon  it  afe  reflect- 
ing the  spirit  of  the  opera  and  its  characters.  It  came  from 
the  same  source  as  "Lo,  smiles  the  morning  in  the  sky" — 
from  "Aureliano,"  and,  in  between  had  figiired  as  the 
overtxire  to  "Elisabetta,  Regina  d'Inghilterra. "  It  is  thus 
foimd  to  express  in  "Elisabetta"  the  conflict  of  love  and 
pride  in  one  of  the  most  haughty  souls  of  whom  history 
records  the  memory,  and  in  "II  Barbiere"  the  frolics  of 
Figaro.  But  the  Italians,  prior  to  Verdi's  later  period, 
showed  little  concern  over  such  unfitness  of  things,  for  it 


304  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

is  recorded  that  this  overture,  when  played  to  "  II  Barbiere," 
was  much  applauded. 

"Ecco  ridente  il  cielo,"  it  is  gravely  pointed  out  by  early 
writers  on  Rossini,  is  the  "first  example  of  modulation  into 
the  minor  key  later  so  frequently  used  by  this  master  and 
his  crowd  of  imitators."  Also  that  "this  ingenious  way  of 
avoiding  the  beaten  path  was  not  really  a  discovery  of 
Rossini's,  but  belongs  to  Majo  (an  Italian  who  composed 
thirteen  operas)  and  was  used  by  several  musicians  before 
Rossini."  What  a  delightful  pother  over  a  modulation 
that  the  veriest  tyro  would  now  consider  hackneyed! 
However,  "Ecco  ridente,"  adapted  in  such  haste  to  "II 
Barbiere"  after  the  failure  of  Garcia's  Spanish  ditty,  was 
simg  by  that  artist  the  evening  of  the  second  performance, 
and  loudly  applauded.  Moreover,  Rossini  had  eliminated 
from  his  score  everything  that  seemed  to  him  to  have  been 
reasonably  disapproved  of.  Then,  pretending  to  be  indis- 
posed, he  went  to  bed  in  order  to  avoid  appearing  at  the 
pianoforte.  The  public,  while  not  over-enthusiastic, 
received  the  work  well  on  this  second  evening;  and  before 
long  Rossini  was  accompanied  to  his  rooms  in  triumph 
several  evenings  in  succession,  by  the  light  of  a  thousand 
torches  in  the  hands  of  the  same  Romans  who  had  hissed 
his  opera  but  a  little  while  before.  The  work  was  first 
given  under  the  title  Rossini  had  insisted  on,  but  soon 
changed  back  to  that  of  the  original  libretto,  "  II  Barbiere  di 
Siviglia." 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  reception  of  "II  Barbiere" 
in  Paris  was  much  the  same  as  in  Rome.  The  first  per- 
formance in  the  Salle  Louvois  was  coldly  received.  News- 
papers compared  Rossini's  "Barber"  unfavourably  with 
that  of  Paisiello.  Fortimately  the  opposition  demanded 
a  revival  of  Paisiello's  work.  Paer,  musical  director  at  the 
Theatre  Italien,  not  unwilling  to  spike  Rossini's  guns, 
pretended  to  yield  to  a  pubHc  demand,  and  brought  out  the 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini  305 

earlier  opera.  But  the  opposite  of  what  had  been  expected 
happened.  The  work  was  found  to  be  superannuated. 
It  was  voted  a  bore.  It  scored  a  fiasco.  Rossini  triumphed. 
The  elder  Garcia,  the  Almaviva  of  the  production  in  Rome, 
played  the  same  role  in  Paris,  as  he  also  did  in  London,  and 
at  the  first  Italian  performance  of  the  work  in  New  York. 
Rossini  had  the  reputation  of  being  indolent  in  the 
extreme — when  he  had  nothing  to  do.  We  have  seen  that 
when  the  overture  to  "II  Barbiere  di  Siviglia"  was  lost  (if 
he  really  ever  composed  one),  he  did  not  take  the  trouble  to 
compose  another,  but  replaced  it  with  an  earlier  one.  In 
the  music  lesson  scene  in  the  second  act  the  original  score 
is  said  to  have  contained  a  trio,  presumably  for  Rosina, 
Almaviva,  and  Bartolo.  This  is  said  to  have  been  lost  with 
the  overture.  As  with  the  overture,  Rossini  did  not  attempt 
to  recompose  this  number  either.  He  simply  let  his  prima 
donna  sing  anything  she  wanted  to.  "Rosina  sings  an  air, 
ad  libitum,  for  the  occasion,"  reads  the  direction  in  the 
libretto.  Perhaps  it  was  Giorgi-Righetti  who  first  selected 
"La  Biondina  in  gondoletta,"  which  was  frequently  sung 
in  the  lesson  scene  by  Italian  prima  donnas.  Later  there 
was  substituted  the  air  "Di  tanti  palpiti"  from  the  opera 
"Tancredi, "  which  is  known  as  the  "aria  dei  rizzi, "  or 
"rice  aria,"  because  Rossini,  who  was  a  great  gourmet, 
composed  it  while  cooking  his  rice.  Pauline  Viardot- 
Garcia  (Garcia's  daughter),  like  her  father  in  the  jinhappy 
premiere  of  the  opera,  sang  a  Spanish  song.  This  may  have 
been  "La  Calesera, "  which  Adelina  Patti  also  sang  in  Paris 
about  1867.  Patti's  other  selections  at  this  time  included 
the  laughing  song,  the  so-called  "L'Eclat  de  Rire"  (Burst 
of  Laughter)  from  Auber's  "Manon  Lescaut, "  as  highly 
esteemed  in  Paris  in  years  gone  by  as  Massenet's  " Manon" 
now  is.  In  New  York  I  have  heard  Patti  sing,  in  this  scene, 
the  Arditi  waltz,  "II  Bacio"  (The  Kiss);  the  bolero  of 
H61dne,    from    "Les    Vdpres    SicilUennes"     (The    Sicilian 


3o6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Vespers),  by  Verdi;  the  "Shadow  Dance"  from  Meyerbeer's 
"Dinorah";  and,  in  concluding  the  scene,  "Home,  Sweet 
Home,"  which  never  failed  to  bring  down  the  house, 
although  the  naivete  with  which  she  sang  it  was  more 
affected  than  affecting. 

Among  prima  donnas  much  earlier  than  Patti  there  were 
at  least  two,  Grisi  and  Alboni  (after  whom  boxes  were 
named  at  the  Academy  of  Music)  who  adapted  a  brilhant 
violin  piece,  Rode's  "Air  and  Variations,"  to  their  powers 
of  vocalization  and  sang  it  in  the  lesson  scene.  I  mention 
this  because  the  habit  of  singing  an  air  with  variations 
persisted  until  Mme.  Sembrich's  time.  She  sang  those  by 
Proch,  a  teacher  of  many  prima  donnas,  among  them 
Tietjens  and  Peschka-Leutner,  who  sang  at  the  Peace 
Jubilee  in  Boston  (1872)  and  was  the  first  to  make  famous 
her  teacher's  colorature  variations,  with  "flauto  concer- 
tante. "  Besides  these  variations,  Mme.  Sembrich  sang 
Strauss's  "Voce  di  Primavera"  waltz,  "Ah!  non  giunge," 
from  "La  Sonnambula, "  the  bolero  from  "The  Sicilian 
Vespers"  and  "O  luce  di  quest  anima, "  from  "Linda  di 
Chamounix. "  The  scene  was  charmingly  brought  to  an 
end  by  her  seating  herself  at  the  pianoforte  and  singing, 
to  her  own  accompaniment,  Chopin's  "Maiden's  Wish." 
Mme.  Melba  sang  Arditi's  waltz,  "Se  Saran  Rose,"  Mas- 
senet's "Sevillana, "  and  the  mad  scene  from  "Lucia," 
ending,  like  Mme.  Sembrich,  with  a  song  to  which  she 
played  her  own  accompaniment,  her  choice  being  Tosti's 
"Mattinata."  Mme.  Galli-Curci  is  apt  to  begin  with  the 
brilliant  vengeance  air  from  "The  Magic  Flute,"  her 
encores  being  "L'Eclat  de  Rire"  by  Auber  and  "Char- 
mante  Oiseau"  (Pretty  Bird)  from  David's  "La  Perle  du 
Bresil"  (The  Pearl  of  Brazil)'.  "Home,  Sweet  Home"  and 
"The  Last  Rose  of  Summer, "  both  sung  by  her  to  her  own 
accompaniment,  conclude  this  interesting  "lesson,"  in 
which  every  Rosina,  although  supposedly  a  pupil  receiving 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini  307 

a  lesson,  must  be  a  most  brilliant  and  accomplished  prima 
donna. 

The  artifices  of  opera  are  remarkable.  The  most  in- 
congruous things  happen.  Yet  because  they  do  not  occur 
in  a  drawing-room  in  real  life,  but  on  a  stage  separated  from 
us  by  footlights,  we  lose  all  sense  of  their  incongruity.  The 
lesson  scene  occurs,  for  example,  in  an  opera  composed  by 
Rossini  in  1816.  But  the  compositions  now  introduced 
into  that  scene  not  only  are  not  by  Rossini  but,  for  the 
most,  are  modern  waltz  songs  and  compositions  entirely 
different  from  the  class  that  a  voice  pupil,  at  the  time  the 
opera  was  composed,  could  possibly  have  sung.  But  so 
convincing  is  the  fiction  of  the  stage,  so  delightfully  lawless 
its  artifices,  that  these  things  do  not  trouble  us  at  all.  Mme. 
Galli-Curci,  however,  by  her  choice  of  the  "Magic  Flute" 
aria  shows  that  it  is  entirely  possible  to  select  a  work  that 
already  was  a  classic  at  the  time  "II  Barbiere"  was  com- 
posed, yet  satisfies  the  demand  of  a  modem  audience  for 
brilliant  vocalization  in  this  scene. 

There  is  evidence  that  in  the  early  history  of  "II  Bar- 
biere," Rossini's  "Di  tanti  palpiti"  (Ah!  these  heart- 
beats) from  his  opera  "Tancredi"  (Tancred),  not  only  was 
invariably  sung  by  prima  donnas  in  the  lesson  scene,  but 
that  it  almost  became  a  tradition  to  use  it  in  this  scene. 
In  September,  1821,  but  little  more  than  five  years  after 
the  work  had  its  premiere,  it  was  brought  out  in  France 
(Grand  Theatre,  Lyons)  withjFrench  text  by  Castil-Blaze, 
who  also  superintended  the  publication  of  the  score. 

"I  give  this  score,"  he  says,  "as  Rossini  wrote  it.  But 
as  several  pieces  have  been  transposed  to  favour  certain 
Italian  opera  singers,  I  do  not  consider  it  useless  to  point 
out  these  transpositions  here.  .  .  .  Air  No.  10,  written  in 
G,  is  sung  in  A."  Air  No.  10,  published  by  Castil-Blaze 
as  an  integral  part  of  the  score  of  "II  Barbiere,"  occurs  in 
the  lesson  scene.    It  is  " Di  tanti  palpiti "  from  "Tancredi." 


3o8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Readers  familiar  with  the  history  of  opera,  therefore 
aware  that  Alboni  was  a  contralto,  will  wonder  at  her 
having  appeared  as  Rosina,  when  that  role  is  associated 
with  prima  donnas  whose  voices  are  extremely  high  and 
flexible.  But  the  role  was  written  for  low  voice.  Giorgi- 
Righetti,  the  first  Rosina,  was  a  contralto.  As  it  now  is 
sung  by  high  sopranos,  the  music  of  the  rdle  is  transposed 
from  the  original  to  higher  keys  in  order  to  give  full  scope 
for  brilliant  vocalization  on  high  notes. 

Many  liberties  have  been  taken  by  prima  donnas  in  the 
way  of  vocal  flourishes  and  a  general  decking  out  of  the 
score  of  "  II  Barbiere  "  with  embellishments.  The  story  goes 
that  Patti  once  sang  "Una  voce  poco  fa,"  with  her  own 
frills  added,  to  Rossini,  in  Paris. 

"A  very  pretty  song!  Whose  is  it?"  is  said  to  have  been 
the  composer's  cutting  comment. 

There  is  another  anecdote  about  "II  Barbiere"  which 
brings  in  Donizetti,  who  was  asked  if  he  believed  that 
Rossini  really  Had  composed  the  opera  in  thirteen 
days. 

"  Why  not?     He's  so  lazy,  "  is  the  reported  reply. 

If  the  story  is  true,  Donizetti  was  a  very  forward  young 
man.  He  was  only  nineteen  when  "II  Barbiere"  was 
produced,  and  had  not  yet  brought  out  his  first  opera. 

The  first  performance  in  America  of  "The  Barber  of 
Seville"  was  in  English  at  the  Park  Theatre,  New  York, 
May  3,  1819.  (May  17th,  cited  by  some  authorities,  was 
the  date  of  the  third  performance,  and  is  so  announced  in 
the  advertisements.)  Thomas  Phillips  was  Almaviva  and 
Miss  Leesugg  Rosina.  "Report  speaks  in  loud  terms  of 
the  new  opera  called  'The  Barber  of  Seville'  which  is 
announced  for  this  evening.    The  music  is  said  to  be  very 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini  509 

• 

splendid  and  is  expected  to  be  most  effective."  This 
primitive  bit  of  "publicity,"  remarkable  for  its  day, 
appeared  in  The  Evening  Post,  New  York,  Monday,  May 
3,  1 8 19.  The  second  performance  took  place  May  7th. 
Much  music  was  interpolated.  Phillips,  as  Almaviva, 
introduced  "The  Soldier's  Bride, "  " Robin  Adair, "  " Pom- 
poso,  or  a  Receipt  for  an  Italian  Song, "  and  "the  favourite 
duet  with  Miss  Leesugg,  of  'I  love  thee.'"  (One  wonders 
what  was  left  of  Rossini's  score.)  In  1821  he  appeared 
again  with  Miss  Holman  as  Rosina. 

That  Phillips  should  have  sung  Figaro,  a  baritone  role 
in  "Le  Nozze  di  Figaro,"  and  Almaviva,  a  tenor  part,  in 
"II  Barbiere,"  may  seem  odd.  But  in  the  Mozart  opera  he 
appeared  in  Bishop's  adaptation,  in  which  the  Figaro  r61e  is 
neither  too  high  for  a  baritone,  nor  too  low  for  a  tenor.  In 
fact  the  liberties  Bishop  took  with  Mozart's  score  are  so 
great  (and  so  outrageous)  that  Phillips  need  have  hesitated 
at  nothing. 

On  Tuesday,  November  22,  1825,  Manuel  Garcia,  the 
elder,  issued  the  preliminary  announcement  of  his  season  of 
Italian  opera  at  the  Park  Theatre,  New  York.  The  printers 
appear  to  have  had  a  struggle  with  the  Italian  titles  of 
operas  and  names  of  Italian  composers.  For  The  Evening 
Post  announces  that  "The  Opera  of  'H.  Barbiora  di  Sevig- 
lia,'  by  Rosina,  is  now  in  rehearsal  and  will  be  given  as  soon 
as  possible."  That  "soon  as  possible"  was  the  evening  of 
November  29th,  and  is  regarded  as  the  date  of  the  first 
performance  in  this  country  of  opera  in  Italian. 

SEMIRAMIDE 

Opera  in  two  acts  by  Rossini,  words  by  Gaetana  Rossi,  founded  on 
Voltaire's  tragedy,  "S^miramis. "  Produced,  February  3,  1823, 
Fenice  Theatre,  Venice;  London,  King's  Theatre,  July  15,  1824;  Paris, 
July  9,  i860,  as  S^miramis;  New  York,  April  25,  1826;  1855  (with 
Grisi  and  Vestivalli);  1890  (with  Patti  and  Scalchi). 


310  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Semiramide,  Queen  of  Babylon Soprano 

Arsaces,  Commander  of  the  Assyrian  Army Contralto 

Ghost  of  Ninus Bass 

Oroe,  Chief  of  the  Magi Bass 

AssuR,  a  Prince Baritone 

Azema,  a  Princess Soprano 

>■  of  the  royal  house  household -I  _     .^ 

MiTRANUs  j  I  Barttone 

Magi,  Guards,  Satraps,  Slaves. 

Time — ^Antiquity.  Place — Babylon. 

"Semiramide"  seems  to  have  had  its  day.  Yet,  were  a 
soprano  and  a  contralto,  capable  of  doing  justice  to  the 
roles  of  Semiramide  and  Arsaces,  to  appear  in  conjunction  in 
the  operatic  firmament  the  opera  might  be  successfully 
revived,  as  it  was  for  Patti  and  Scalchi.  The  latter,  in  her 
prime  when  she  first  appeared  here,  was  one  of  the  greatest 
of  contraltos.  I  think  that  all,  who,  like  myself,  had  the 
good  fortune  to  hear  that  revival  of  "Semiramide,"  still 
consider  the  singing  by  Patti  and  Scalchi  of  the  duet, 
"Giomo  d'orrore"  (Day  of  horror)  the  finest  example  of 
bel  canto  it  has  been  their  privilege  to  listen  to.  For  beauty 
and  purity  of  tone,  smoothness  of  phrasing,  elegance,  and 
synchronization  of  embellishment  it  has  not  been  equalled 
here  since. 

In  the  first  act  of  the  opera  is  a  brilliant  aria  for  Semira- 
mide, "Bel  raggio  lusinghier"  (Bright  ray  of  hope), — the 
one  piece  that  has  kept  the  opera  in  the  phonograph 
repertoire. 


.^/        ra^  -  -  .  ^io        /titt'n -  .  •. aA/er* 

A  priests'  march  and  chorus,  which  leads  up  to  the  finale 
of  the  first  act,  is  accompanied  not  only  by  orchestra,  but 
also  by  full  military  band  on  the  stage,  the  first  instance  of 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini 


3" 


the  employment  of  the  latter  in  Italian  opera.    The  duet, 
"Giomo  d'orrore, "  is  in  the  second  act. 


For  many  years  the  overture  to  "Semiramide"  was  a 
favourite  at  popular  concerts.  It  was  admired  for  the 
broad,  hymnlike  air  in  the  introduction,  which  in  the  opera 
becomes  an  effective  chorus, 


r  UJ 


and  for  the  graceful,  lively  melody,  which  is  first  announced 
on  the  clarinet.  I  call  it  " graceful"  and  "lively, "  and  so  it 
would  be  considered  today.     But  in   the  opera  it  accom- 


panies the  cautious  entrance  of  priests  into  a  darkened 
temple  where  a  deep  mystery  is  impending,  and,  at  the 
time  the  opera  was  produced,  this  music,  which  now  we 
would  describe  as  above,  was  supposed  to  be  "shivery"  and 
gruesome.  In  fact  the  scene  was  objected  to  by  audiences 
of  that  now  seemingly  remote  period,  on  the  ground  that 
the  orchestra  was  too  prominent  and  that,  in  the  treatment 
of  the  instrimiental  score  to  his  operas,  Rossini  was  leaning 
too  heavily  toward  German  models!  But  this,  remember, 
was  in  1824. 


312  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  story  of  "  Semiramide  "  can  be  briefly  told.  Semira- 
mide,  Queen  of  Babylon,  has  murdered  her  husband,  Ninus, 
the  King.  In  this  deed  she  was  assisted  by  Prince  Assur, 
who  expects  to  win  her  hand  and  the  succession  to  the  throne. 

Semiramide,  however,  is  enamoured  of  a  comely  youth, 
Arsaces,  victorious  commander  of  her  army,  and  supposedly 
a  Scythian,  but  in  reality  her  own  son,  of  which  relationship 
only  Oroe,  the  chief  priest  of  the  temple,  is  aware.  Arsaces 
himself  is  in  love  with  the  royal  Princess  Azema. 

At  a  gathering  in  the  temple,  the  gates  of  the  tomb  of 
Ninus  are  opened  as  if  by  invisible  hands.  The  shade  of 
Ninus  announces  that  Arsaces  shall  be  his  successor;  and 
stunmons  him  to  come  to  the  tomb  at  midnight  there  to 
learn  the  secret  of  his  assassination. 

Enraged  at  the  prophecy  of  the  succession  of  Arsaces  and 
knowing  of  his  coming  visit  to  the  tomb  of  Ninus,  Assur 
contrives  to  enter  it ;  while  Semiramide,  who  now  knows  that 
the  young  warrior  is  her  son,  comes  to  the  tomb  to  warn  him 
against  Assur.  The  three  principal  personages  in  the 
drama  are  thus  brought  together  at  its  climax.  Assur 
makes  what  would  be  a  fatal  thrust  at  Arsaces.  Semir- 
amide interposes  herself  between  the  two  men  and  receives 
the  death  woimd.  Arsaces  then  fights  and  kills  Assur, 
ascends  the  throne  and  weds  Azema. 

According  to  legend,  Semiramis,  when  a  babe,  was  fed 
by  doves;  and,  after  reigning  for  forty-two  years,  dis- 
appeared or  was  changed  into  a  dove  and  flew  away.  For 
the  first  New  York  performance  Garcia  annoimced  the 
work  as  "  La  Figlia  del'  Aria,  or  Semiramide"  (The  Daughter 
of  the  Air,  etc.). 

GUILLAUME  TELL 

WILLIAM  TELL 

Opera  by  Rossini,  originally  in  five  acts,  cut  down  to  three  by  omitting 
the  third  act  and  condensing  the  fourth  and  fifth  into  one,  then  re- 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini  313 

arranged  in  four;  words  by  "Jouy"  (V.  J.  Etienne),  rearranged  by 
Hippolyte  and  Armand  Marast.  Produced,  Grand  Op^ra,  Paris, 
August  3,  1829,  Nourrit  being  the  original  Arnold;  revived  with  Duprez, 
1837.  Italy,  "Guglielmo  Tell,"  at  Lucca,  September  17, -1831.  Lon- 
don, Drury  Lane,  1830,  in  English;  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  1839,  in 
Italian.  In  New  York  the  title  r61e  has  been  sung  by  Karl  Formes,  who 
made  his  first  American  tour  in  1857.  The  interpreters  oi  Arnold  have 
included  the  Polish  tenor  Mierzwinski  at  the  Academy  of  Music,  and 
Tamagno. 

Characters 

William  Tell Baritone 

Hedwiga,  Tell's  wife Soprano 

Jemmy,  Tell's  son Soprano 

Arnold,  suitor  of  Matilda Tenor 

Melcthal,  Arnold's  father Bass 

Gessler,  governor  of  Schwitz  and  Uri Bass 

Matilda,  Gessler's  daughter Soprano 

Rudolph,  captain  in  Gessler's  guard Tenor 

Walter  Furst Bass 

Leuthold,  a  shepherd Bass 

RuEDi,  a  fisherman Tenor 

Peasants,  Knights,  Pages,  Ladies,  Hunters,  Soldiers, 

Guards,  and  three  Bridal  Couples. 

Time — Thirteenth  Century.  Place — Switzerland. 

Arnold,  a  Swiss  patriot  and  son  of  the  venerable  Swiss 
leader,  Melcthal,  has  saved  from  drowning  Matilda,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Austrian  tyrant  Gessler,  whom  the  Swiss  abhor. 
Arnold  and  Matilda  have  fallen  in  love  with  each  other. 

Act  I.  A  beautiful  May  morning  has  dawned  over  the 
Lake  of  Lucerne,  on  which  TeWs  house  is  situated.  It  is  the 
day  of  the  Shepherd  Festival.  According  to  ancient  custom 
the  grey-haired  Melcthal  blesses  the  loving  couples  among 
them.  But  his  own  son,  Arnold,  does  not  ask  a  blessing 
of  the  old  man.  Yet,  although  he  loves  Matilda,  his  heart 
also  belongs  to  his  native  land.  The  festival  is  interrupted 
by  the  sound  of  horns.  It  is  the  train  of  Gessler,  the  hated 
tyrant.    Leuthold  rushes  in,  breathless.    In  order  to  protect 


314  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

his  daughter  from  dishonoiir,  he  has  been  obliged  to  kill  one 
of  Gessler's  soldiers.  He  is  pursued.  To  cross  the  lake  is 
his  only  means  of  escape.  But  who  will  take  him  in  the 
face  of  the  storm  that  is  coming  up?  Tell  wastes  no  time 
in  thinking.  He  acts.  It  is  the  last  *  possible  moment. 
Gessler's  guards  already  are  seen,  Rudolph  at  their  head. 
With  TelVs  aid  the  fugitive  escapes  them,  but  they  turn 
to  the  coimtry  folk,  and  seize  and  carry  off  old  Melcthal. 

Act  II.  In  a  valley  by  a  lake  Arnold  and  Matilda  meet 
and  again  pledge  their  love.  Arnold  learns  from  Tell  and 
Walter  that  his  father  has  been  slain  by  Gessler's  order.  His 
thoughts  turn  to  vengeance.  The  three  men  bind  them- 
selves by  oath  to  free  Switzerland.  The  cantons  gather  and 
swear  to  throw  off  the  Austrian  j^oke. 

Act  III.  The  market-place  in  Altdorf.  It  is  the  hun- 
dredth anniversary  of  Austrian  rule  in  Switzerland.  Fit- 
tingly to  celebrate  the  day  Gessler  has  ordered  his  hat  to  be 
placed  on  top  of  a  pole.  The  Swiss  are  commanded  to  make 
obeisance  to  the  hat.  Tell  comes  along  holding  his  son 
Jemmy  by  the  hand.  He  refuses  to  pay  homage  to  the  hat. 
As  in  him  is  also  recognized  the  man  who  saved  Leuthold,  he 
must  be  punished.  Gessler  cynically  orders  him  to  shoot  an 
apple  from  Jemmy's  head.  The  shot  succeeds.  Fearless,  as 
before,  Tell  informs  Gessler  that  the  second  arrow  was 
intended  for  him,  had  the  first  missed  its  mark.  TelFs 
arrest  is  ordered,  but  the  armed  Swiss,  who  have  risen 
against  Austria,  approach.  Gessler  falls  by  Tell's  shot;  the 
fight  ends  with  the  complete  victory  for  the  Swiss.  Matilda 
who  still  loves  A  mold  finds  refuge  in  his  arms. 

"  Guillatmie  Tell "  is  the  only  opera  by  an  Italian  of  which 
it  can  be  said  that  the  overture  has  gained  world-wide  fame, 
and  justly  so,  while  the  opera  itself  is  so  rarely  heard  that  it 
may  almost  be  said  to  have  passed  out  of  the  repertoire. 
Occasionally  it  is  revived  for  the  benefit  of  a  high  tenor  like 
Tamagno.    In  point  of  fact,  however,  it  is  too  good  a  work 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini  315 

to  be  made  the  vehicle  of  a  single  operatic  star.  It  is  a 
question  if,  with  a  fine  ensemble,  "Guillaume  Tell"  could 
not  be  restored  to  the  list  of  operas  regularly  given.  Or,  is  it 
one  of  those  works  more  famous  than  effective ;  and  is  that 
why,  at  this  point  I  am  reminded  of  a  passage  in  Whistler's 
"Ten  O'clock"?  The  painter  is  writing  of  art  and  of  how 
little  its  spirit  is  affected  by  the  personality  of  the  artist, 
or  even  by  the  character  of  a  whole  people. 

"A  whimsical  goddess, "  he  writes,  "and  a  capricious,  her 
strong  sense  of  joy  tolerates  no  dullness,  and,  live  we  never 
so  spotlessly,  still  may  she  turn  her  back  upon  us. 

"As,  from  time  immemorial,  has  she  done  upon  the  Swiss 
in  their  mountains. 

"What  more  worthy  people!  Whose  every  Alpine  gap 
yawns  with  tradition,  and  is  stocked  wath  noble  story;  yet, 
the  perverse  and  scornful  one  will  none  of  it,  and  the  sons 
of  patriots  are  left  with  the  clock  that  turns  the  mill,  and 
the  sudden  cuckoo,  with  difficulty  restrained  in  its  box!" 

Because  we  associate  Switzerland  with  tourists,  person- 
ally conducted  and  otherwise,  with  hotels,  guides,  and  a 
personnel  trained  to  welcome,  entertain,  and  speed  the 
departing  guest,  is  it  difficult  for  us  to  grasp  the  heroic 
strain  in  "Guillaume  Tell"?  Surely  it  is  a  picturesque 
opera;  and  Switzerland  has  a  heroic  past.  Probably  the 
real  reasons  for  the  lack  of  public  interest  in  the  opera  are 
the  clumsy  libretto  and  the  fact  that  Rossini,  an  Italian, 
was  not  wholly  in  his  element  in  composing  a  grand  opera 
in  the  French  style,  which  "Guillaume  Tell"  is.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  point  out  just  how  and  where  the  style 
hampered  the  composer,  but  there  constantly  is  an  im- 
defined  feeling  that  it  did — that  the  score  is  not  as  spon- 
taneous as,  for  example,  "The  Barber  of  Seville";  and  that, 
although  "Guillaume  Tell"  is  heroic,  the  "sudden  cuckoo, 
with  difficulty  restrained  in  its  box, "  may  at  any  time  pop 
out  and  join  in  the  proceedings. 


3i6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  care  which  Rossini  bestowed  on  this  work  is  seen  in 
the  layout  and  composition  of  the  overture,  which  as  an 
instrumental  number  is  as  fine  a  tour  deforce  as  his  "Una 
voce  poco  fa,"  "Bel  raggio, "  or  "Giomo  d'orrore"  are  for 
voice.  The  slow  introduction  denotes  Alpine  calm.  There 
is  a  beautiful  passage  for  violoncellos,  which  has  been 
quoted  in  books  on  instrumentation.  In  it  Rossini  may 
well  have  harked  back  to  his  student  years,  when  he  was  a 
pupil  in  violoncello  playing  at  the  conservatory  in  Bologna. 
The  calm  is  followed  by  a  storm  and  this,  in  turn,  by  a 
"Ranz  des  Vaches. "  The  final  section  consists  of  a 
tnmipet  call,  followed  by  a  fast  movement,  which  can  be 
played  so  as  to  leave  the  hearer  quite  breathless.  It  is 
supposed  to  represent  the  call  to  arms  and  the  uprising  of 
the  Swiss  against  their  Austrian  oppressors,  whose  yoke 
they  threw  off. 

The  most  striking  musical  number  in  the  first  act  of  the 
opera,  is  Arnold's  "O,  Matilda." 


A  tenor  with  powerful  high  tones  in  his  voice  always  can 
render  this  with  great  effect.  In  fact  it  is  so  effective  that 
its  coming  so  early  in  the  work  is  a  fault  of  construction 
which  in  my  opinion  has  been  a  factor  in  the  non-success  of 
the  opera  as  a  whole.  Even  a  tenor  like  Mierzwinski,  "a 
natural  singer  of  short-lived  celebrity,"  with  remarkable 
high  notes,  in  this  nimiber  could  rouse  to  a  high  pitch  of 
enthusiasm  an  audience  that  remained  comparatively  calm 
the  rest  of  the  evening. 

The  climax  of  the  second  act  is  the  trio  between  Arnold, 
Tell,  and  Walter,  followed  by  the  assembly  of  the  cantons 
and  the  taking  of  the  oath  to  conquer  or  die  ("La  gloria 


Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini 


317 


infiammi — i   nostri   petti" — May    glory  our  hearts  with 
courage  exalt). 

Its  most  effective  passage  begins  as  follows : 


Another  striking  musical  ntunber  is  Arnold's  solo  in  the 
last  act,  at  sight  of  his  ruined  home,  "O  muto  asil"  (O, 
silent  abode). 

The  opera  ends  with  a  hymn  to  liberty, ' '  I  boschi,  i  monti ' ' 
(Through  forests  wild,  o'er  mountain  peaks). 

At  the  initial  performance  of  "Guillaiune  Tell"  in  Paris, 
there  was  no  indication  that  the  opera  was  not  destined  to 
remain  for  many  years  in  the  repertoire.  It  was  given 
fifty-six  times.  Then,  because  of  the  great  length  of  the 
opera,  only  the  second  act  was  performed  in  connection 
with  some  other  work,  until  the  sensational  success  of 
Duprez,  in  1837,  led  to  a  revival. 

"Guillatune  Tell,"  given  in  full,  would  last  nearly  five 
hours.  The  poor  quality  of  the  original  libretto  by  "  Jouy  " 
led  to  the  revision  by  Bis,  but  even  after  that  there  had  to 
be  cuts. 

"Ah,  Maestro,"  exclaimed  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of 
Rossini  to  that  master,  "I  heard  your  'William  Tell'  at  the 
Opera  last  night!" 

' '  What  ? ' '  asked  Rossini.     ' '  The  whole  of  it  ? " 

Clever ;  but  by  his  question  Rossini  unconsciously  put  his 
finger  on  the  weak  spot  of  the  opera  he  intended  to  be  his 
masterpiece.     Be  it  never  so  well  given,  it  is  long-winded. 


Vincenzo  Bellini 

(1802-1835) 

BELLINI,  born  in  Catania,  Sicily,  November  3,  1802, 
is  the  composer  of  "  La  Sonnambula,"  one  of  the  most 
popular  works  of  the  old  type  of  Italian  opera  still  found  in 
the  repertoire.  "I  Puritani,"  another  work  by  him,  was 
given  for  the  opening  of  two  New  York  opera  houses, 
Palmo's  in  1844,  and  Hammerstein's  Manhattan,  in  1903. 
But  it  maintains  itself  only  precariousl3^  "Norma"  is 
given  still  more  rarely,  although  it  contains  "Casta  diva," 
one  of  the  most  famous  solos  for  soprano  in  the  entire 
Italian  repertory. 

This  composer  died  at  the  village  of  Puteaux,  France, 
September  23,  1835,  soon  after  the  highly  successful  pro- 
duction of  "I  Puritani"  in  Paris,  and  while  he  was  working 
on  a  commission  to  compose  two  operas  for  the  San  Carlo 
Theatre,  Naples,  which  had  come  to  him  through  the 
success  of  "Puritani."     He  was  only  thirty  ■'two. 

It  is  not  unlikely  that  had  this  composer,  with  his  facile 
and  graceful  gift  for  melody,  lived  longer  he  would  have 
developed,  as  Verdi  did,  a  maturer  and  broader  style,  and 
especially  have  paid  more  attention  to  the  instrumentation 
of  his  operas,  a  detail  which  he  sadly  neglected. 

LA  SONNAMBULA 

THE  SLEEPWALKER 

Opera  in  three  acts  by  Bellini,  words  by  Felice  Romani.  Produced, 
Carcano  Theatre,  Milan,  March  6,   1831.     London,  King's  Theatre, 

318 


Vincenzo  Bellini  319 

July  28,  1831;  in  English,  Drury  Lane,  May  i,  1833.  New  York,  Park 
Theatre,  November  13,  1835,  io  English,  with  Brough,  Richings,  and 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Wood;  in  Italian,  Palmo's  Opera  House,  May  ii,  1844; 
frequently  sung  by  Gerster  and  by  Adelisa  Patti  at  the  Academy  of 
Music,  and  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  by  Sembrich;  at  the 
Manhattan  Opera  House  by  Tetrazzini. 

Characters 

Count  Rodolpho,  Lord  of  the  castle Bass 

Teresa,  proprietress  of  the  mill Soprano 

Amina,  her  foster  daughter Soprano 

Lisa,  proprietress  of  the  village  inn Soprano 

El  VINO,  a  young  farmer Tenor 

Alessio,  a  villager Bass 

Notary,  Villagers,  etc. 
Time — Early  Nineteenth  Century.      Place — A  Village  in  Switzerland. 

Act  I.  The  village  green.  On  one  side  an  inn.  In  the 
background  a  water  mill.  In  the  distance  mountains.  As 
the  curtain  rises  the  villagers  are  making  merry,  for  they 
are  about  to  celebrate  a  nuptial  contract  between  Amina,  an 
orphan  brought  up  as  the  foster  child  of  Teresa,  the  mistress 
of  the  village  mill,  and  Elvino,  a  young  landowner  of  the 
neighbourhood.  These  preparations,  however,  fill  with 
jealousy  the  heart  of  Lisa,  the  proprietress  of  the  inn.  For 
she  is  in  love  with  Elvino.  Nor  do  Alessio' s  ill-timed  atten- 
tions please  her.  Amina  enters  under  the  care  of  Teresa, 
and  returns  her  thanks  to  her  neighbours  for  their  good 
wishes.  She  has  two  attractive  solos.  These  are  "Come 
per  me  sereno"  (How,  for  me  brightly  shining) 

V7P 


and  "Sovia  il  sen  la  man  mi  posa"  (With  this  heart  its  joy 
revealing). 


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The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Both  are  replete  with  grace  and  charm. 

When  the  village  Notary  and  Elvino  appear  the  contract 
is  signed  and  attested,  and  Elvino  places  a  ring  on  Amino' s 
finger.  Duet:  "Prendi  I'avel  ta  dono"  (Take  now  the  ring 
I  give  you),  a  composition  in  long-flowing  expressive 
measures. 

Then  the  village  is  startled  by  the  crack  of  whips  and 
the  rimible  of  wheels.  A  handsome  stranger  in  officer's 
fatigue  uniform  appears.  He  desires  to  have  his  horses 
watered  and  fed,  before  he  proceeds  to  the  castle.  The 
road  is  bad,  night  is  approaching.  Counselled  by  the 
villagers,  and  urged  by  Lisa,  the  officer  consents  to  remain 
the  night  at  the  inn. 

The  villagers  know  it  not  at  this  time,  but  the  officer  is 
Rodolpho,  the  lord  of  the  castle.  He  looks  about  him  and 
recalls  the  scenes  of  his  youth:  "  Vi  ravviso"  (As  I  view). 


He  then  gallantly  addresses  himself  to  Amina  in  the 
charming  air,  "Tu  non  sai  in  quel  begli  occhi"  (You  know 
not,  maid,  the  light  your  eyes  within). 


Elvino  is  piqued  at  the  stranger's  attentions  to  his  bride, 
but  Teresa  warns  all  present  to  retire,  for  the  village  is  said 
to  be  haunted  by  a  phantom.  The  stranger  treats  the 
superstition  lightly,  and,  ushered  in  by  Lisa,  retires  to  the 


Vincenzo  Bellini  321 

village  inn.  All  then  wend  their  several  ways  homeward. 
Elvino,  however,  finds  time  to  upbraid  Amina  for  seemingly- 
having  found  much  pleasure  in  the  stranger's  gallant 
speeches,  but  before  they  part  there  are  mutual  concessions 
and  forgiveness. 

Act  II.  Rodolpho's  sleeping  apartment  at  the  inn.  He 
enters,  conducted  by  Lisa.  She  is  coquettish,  he  quite 
willing  to  meet  her  halfway  in  taking  liberties  with  her. 
He  learns  from  her  that  his  identity  as  the  lord  of  the  castle 
has  now  been  discovered  by  the  villagers,  and  that  they 
will  shortly  come  to  the  inn  to  offer  their  congratulations. 

He  is  annoyed,  but  quite  willing  that  Lisa's  attractions 
shall  atone  therefor.  At  that  moment,  however,  there  is  a 
noise  without,  and  Lisa  escapes  into  an  adjoining  room. 
In  her  haste  she  drops  her  handkerchief,  which  Rodolpho 
picks  up  and  hangs  over  the  bedpost.  A  few  moments  later 
he  is  amazed  to  see  Amina,  all  in  white,  raise  his  window 
and  enter  his  room.  He  realizes  almost  immediately  that 
she  is  walking  in  her  sleep,  and  that  it  is  her  somnambulism 
which  has  given  rise  to  the  superstition  of  the  village  phan- 
tom. In  her  sleep  Amina  speaks  of  her  approaching 
marriage,  of  Elvino' s  jealousy,  of  their  quarrel  and  recon- 
ciliation. Rodolpho,  not  wishing  to  embarrass  her  by  his 
presence  should  she  suddenly  awaken,  extinguishes  the 
candles,  steps  out  of  the  window  and  closes  it  lightly  after 
him.    Still  asleep  Amina  sinks  down  upon  the  bed. 

The  villagers  enter  to  greet  Rodolpho.  As  the  room  is 
darkened,  and,  to  their  amusement,  they  see  the  figure  of  a 
woman  on  the  bed,  they  are  about  to  withdraw  discreetly, 
when  Lisa,  who  knows  what  has  happened,  enters  with  a 
light,  brings  in  Elvino,  and  points  out  Amina  to  him.  The 
light,  the  sounds,  awaken  her.  Her  natiiral  confusion  at  the 
situation  in  which  she  finds  herself  is  mistaken  by  Elvino 
for  evidence  of  guilt.  He  casts  her  off.  The  others,  save 
Teresa,  share  his  suspicions.     Teresa,  in  a  simple,  natural 


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way,  takes  the  handkerchief  hanging  over  the  bedpost  and 
places  it  around  Amina's  neck,  and  when  the  poor,  grief- 
stricken  girl  swoons,  as  Elvino  turns  away  from  her,  her 
foster-mother  catches  her  in  her  arms. 

In  this  scene,  indeed  in  this  act,  the  most  striking  musical 
nimiber  is  the  duet  near  the  end.  It  is  feelingly  composed, 
and,  as  befits  the  situation  of  a  girl  mistakenly,  yet  none 
the  less  cruelly,  accused  by  her  lover,  is  almost  wholly  devoid 
of  vocal  embellishment.  It  begins  with  Aminas  protesta- 
tions of  innocence:  "D'un  pensiero,  et  d'un  accento"  (Not 
in  thought's  remotest  region). 

When  Elvino's  voice  joins  hers  there  is  no  comfort  for 
her  in  his  words.    He  is  still  haunted  by  dark  suspicions. 


An  unusual  and  beautiful  effect  is  the  closing  of  the  duet 
with  an  expressive  phrase  for  tenor  alone:  "Questo  pianto 
del  mio  cor"  (With  what  grief  my  heart  is  torn). 


Act  III,  Scene  i.  A  shady  valley  between  the  village 
and  the  castle.  The  villagers  are  proceeding  to  the  castle  to 
beg  Rodolpho  to  intercede  with  Elvino  for  Amina.  Elvino 
meets  A'mina.  Still  enraged  at  what  he  considers  her 
perfidy,  he  snatches  from  her  finger  the  ring  he  gave  her. 
Amina  still  loves  him.  She  expresses  her  feeUngs  in  the  air: 
"Ah!  perche  non  posso  odiarti"  (Ah!  Why  is  it  I  cannot 
hate  him). 

Scene  2.  The  village,  near  Teresa's  mill.  Water  runs 
through  the  race  and  the  wheel  turns  rapidly.  A  slender 
wooden  bridge,  spanning  the  wheel,  gives  access  from  some 


Vlncenzo  Bellini  323 

dormer  lights  in  the  millroof  to  an  old  stone  flight  of  steps 
leading  down  to  the  foreground. 

Lisa  has  been  making  hay  while  the  sim  shines.  She  has 
induced  Elvino  to  promise  to  marry  her.  Preparations  for 
the  wedding  are  on  foot.  The  villagers  have  assembled. 
Rodolpho  endeavours  to  dissuade  Elvino  from  the  step  he  is 
about  to  take.  He  explains  that  Amina  is  a  somnambulist. 
But  Elvino  has  never  heard  of  somnambtilism.  He  remains 
utterly  incredulous. 

Teresa  begs  the  villagers  to  make  less  disturbance,  as 
poor  Amina  is  asleep  in  the  mill.  The  girl's  foster-mother 
learns  of  Elvino' s  intention  of  marrying  Lisa.  Straightway 
she  takes  from  her  bosom  Lisa's  handkerchief,  which  she 
found  hanging  over  Rodolpho' s  bedpost.  Lisa  is  confused. 
Elvino  feels  that  she,  too,  has  betrayed  him.  Rodolpho  again 
urges  upon  Elvino  that  Amina  never  was  false  to  him — 
that  she  is  the  innocent  victim  of  sleepwalking. 

"Who  can  prove  it?"  Elvino  asks  in  agonized  tones. 

"Who?  She  herself! — See  there!"  exclaims  Ro- 
dolpho. 

For  at  that  very  moment  Amina,  in  her  nightdress,  lamp 
in  hand,  emerges  from  a  window  in  the  mill  roof.  She  passes 
along,  still  asleep,  to  the  lightly  built  bridge  spanning  the 
mill  wheel,  which  is  still  turning  round  quickly.  Now  she 
sets  foot  on  the  narrow,  insecure  bridge.  The  villagers  fall 
on  their  knees  in  prayer  that  she  may  cross  safely.  Rodolpho 
stands  among  them,  head  uncovered.  As  Amina  crosses  the 
bridge  a  rotting  plank  breaks  under  her  footsteps.  The 
lamp  falls  from  her  hand  into  the  torrent  beneath.  She, 
however,  reaches  the  other  side,  and  gains  the  stone  steps, 
which  she  descends.  Still  walking  in  her  sleep,  she  advances 
to  where  stand  the  villagers  and  Rodolpho.  She  kneels  and 
prays  for  Elvino.  Then  rising,  she  speaks  of  the  ring  he 
has  taken  from  her,  and  draws  from  her  bosom  the  flowers 
given  to  her  by  him  on  the  previous  day.    "Ah!  non  credea 


324 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


mirarti,  si  presto  estinto  o  flore"  (Scarcely  could  I  believe  it 
that  so  soon  thou  would'st  wither,  O  blossoms). 


Gently  Elvino  replaces  the  ring  upon  her  finger,  and  kneels 
before  her.  "Viva  Amina!"  cry  the  villagers.  She 
awakens.  Instead  of  sorrow,  she  sees  joy  all  around  her,  and 
Elvino,  with  arms  outstretched,  waiting  to  beg  her  forgive- 
ness and  lead  her  to  the  altar. 

"Ah!  non  giunge  uman  pensiero 
Al  contento  ond'  io  son  piena" 
(Mingle  not  an  earthly  sorrow 
With  the  raptiu-e  now  o'er  me  stealing). 


^h!  nan  ^ttm^e  timo-n  .pari .  it*  ^  ro..      «ffi    con..  '^£n.   io   ^n^*  %p' 

It  ends  with  this  brilliant  passage : 
'f^i,,. — , — fffr> 


ton       f»*t  . 


The  "Ah !  non  giunge"  is  one  of  the  show  pieces  of  Italian 
opera.  Nor  is  its  brilliance  hard  and  glittering.  It  is  the 
brightness  of  a  tender  soul  rejoicing  at  being  enabled  to  cast 
off  sorrow.  Indeed,  there  is  about  the  entire  opera  a 
sweetness  and  a  gentle  charm,  that  go  far  to  account  for  its 
having  endured  so  long  in  the  repertoire,  out  of  which  so 
many  works  far  more  ambitious  have  been  dropped. 


Vincenzo  Bellini  325 

Opera-goers  of  the  old  Academy  of  Music  days  will  recall 
the  bell-like  tones  of  Etelka  Gerster's  voice  in  "Ah!  non 
giunge";  nor  will  they  ever  forget  the  bird-like,  spontaneous 
singing  in  this  r61e  of  Adelina  Patti,  gifted  with  a  voice  and 
an  art  such  as  those  who  had  the  privilege  of  hearing  her 
in  her  prime  have  not  heard  since,  nor  are  likely  to  hear 
again.  Admirers  of  Mme.  Sembrich's  art  also  are  justly 
numerous,  and  it  is  fortunate  for  habitues  of  the  Metro- 
politan that  slie  was  so  long  in  the  company  singing  at  that 
house.  She  was  a  charming  Amina.  Tetrazzini  was 
brilliant  in  "La  Sonnambula. "  Elvino  is  a  stick  of  a  r61e 
for  tenor.  Rodolpho  has  the  redeeming  grace  of  chivalry. 
Amina  is  gentle,  charming,  appealing. 

The  story  of  "Sonnambula"  is  simple  and  thoroughly 
intelligible,  which  cannot  be  said  for  all  opera  plots.  The 
mainspring  of  the  action  is  the  interesting  psycho-physical 
manifestation  of  somnambulism.  This  is  effectively  worked 
out.  The  crossing  of  the  bridge  in  the  last  scene  is  a  tense 
moment  in  the  simple  story.  It  calls  for  an  interesting  stage 
"property" — the  plank  that  breaks  without  precipitating 
Amina,  who  sometimes  may  have  more  embonpoint  than 
voice,  into  the  mill-race.  All  these  elements  contribute  to 
the  success  of  "La  Sonnambula,"  which,  produced  in  1831, 
still  is  a  good  evening's  entertainment. 

Amina  was  one  of  Jenny  Lind's  favotuite  rdles.  There 
is  a  beautiful  portrait  of  her  in  the  character  by  Eichens. 
It  shows  her,  in  the  last  act,  kneeling  and  singing  "Ah! 
non  credea, "  and  is  somewhat  of  a  rarity.  A  copy  of  it  is  in 
the  print  department  of  the  New  York  Public  Library.  It  is 
far  more  interesting  than  her  better  known  portraits. 

NORMA 

Opera  in  two  acts,  by  Bellini;  words  by  Felice  Romani,  based  on  an 
old  French  story.  Produced,  December  26,  1831,  Milan.  King's 
Theatre,  June  20,  1833,  in  Italian;  Drury  Lane,  June  24,  1837,  in  Eng- 


326  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

lish.  Paris,  Theatre  des  Italiens,  1833.  New  York,  February  25,  1841, 
at  the  Park  Theatre;  October  2,  1854,  ^or  the  opening  of  the  Academy 
of  Music,  with  Grisi,  Mario,  and  Susini;  December  19,  1891,  Metropoli- 
tan Opera  House,  with  Lilli  Lehmann  as  Norma. 

Characters 

PoLLiONE,  Roman  Pro-consul  in  Gaul Tenor 

Oroveso,  Archdruid,  father  of  Norma Bass 

Norma,  High-priestess  of  the  druidical  temple  of  Esus '. Soprano 

Adalgisa,  a  virgin  of  the  temple Contralto 

Clotilda,  Norma's  confidante Soprano 

Flavius,  a  centurion Tenor 

Priests,  Officers  of  the  Temple,  Gallic  Warriors,  Priestesses  and  Virgins 

of  the  Temple,  and  Two  Children  of  Norma  and  Pollione. 
Time — Roman  Occupation,  about  50  B.C.  Place — Gaul. 

Act  I.  Sacred  grove  of  the  Druids.  The  high  priest 
Oroveso  comes  with  the  Druids  to  the  sacred  grove  to  beg  of 
the  gods  to  rouse  the  people  to  war  and  aid  them  to  accom- 
plish the  destruction  of  the  Romans.  Scarcely  have  they 
gone  than  the  Roman  Pro-consul  Pollione  appears  and 
confides  to  his  Centurion,  Flavius,  that  he  no  longer  loves 
Norma,  although  she  has  broken  her  vows  of  chastity  for 
him  and  has  borne  him  two  sons.  He  has  seen  Adalgisa  and 
loves  her. 

At  the  sound  of  the  sacred  instrument  of  bronze  that  calls 
the  Druids  to  the  temple,  the  Romans  disappear.  The 
priests  and  priestesses  approach  the  altar.  Norma,  the  high 
priestess,  daughter  of  Oroveso,  ascends  the  steps  of  the  altar. 
No  one  suspects  her  intimacy  with  the  Roman  enemy.  But 
she  loves  the  faithless  man  and  therefore  seeks  to  avert  the 
danger  that  threatens  him,  should  Gaul  rise  against  the 
Romans,  by  prophesying  that  Rome  will  fall  through  its 
own  weakness,  and  declaring  that  it  is  not  yet  the  will  of 
the  gods  that  Gaul  shall  go  to  war.  She  also  prays  to  the 
"chaste  goddess"  for  the  return  of  the  Roman  leader,  who 


Vincenzo  Bellini  327 

has  left  her.    Another  priestess  is  kneeling  in  deep  prayer. 
This  is  Adalgisa,  who  also  loves  Pollione. 

The  scene  changes  and  shows  Norma's  dwelling.  The 
priestess  is  steeped  in  deep  sadness,  for  she  knows  that 
Pollione  plans  to  desert  her  and  their  offspring,  although  she 
is  not  yet  aware  of  her  rival's  identity.  Adalgisa  conies  to 
her  to  unburden  her  heart  to  her  superior.  She  confesses 
that  to  her  faith  she  has  become  untrue  through  love — and 
love  for  a  Roman.  Norma,  thinking  of  her  own  unfaithful- 
ness to  her  vows,  is  about  to  free  Adalgisa  from  hers,  when 
Pollione  appears.  Now  she  learns  who  the  beloved  Roman 
of  Adalgisa  is.  But  the  latter  turns  from  Pollione.  She 
loves  Norma  too  well  to  go  away  with  the  betrayer  of  the 
high-priestess. 

Act  11.  Norma,  filled  with  despair,  is  beside  the  cradle 
of  her  little  ones.  An  impulse  to  kill  them  comes  over  her. 
But  motherhood  triimiphs  over  unrequited  love.  She  will 
renounce  her  lover.  Adalgisa  shall  become  the  happy  spouse 
of  Pollione,  but  shall  promise  to  take  the  place  of  mother  to 
her  children.  Adalgisa,  however,  will  not  hear  of  treachery 
to  Norma.  She  goes  to  Pollione,  but  only  to  remind  him  of 
his  duty. 

The  scene  changes  again  to  a  wooded  region  of  the  temple 
in  which  the  warriors  of  Gaul  have  gathered.  Norma  awaits 
the  result  of  Adalgisa' s  plea  to  Pollione;  then  learns  that 
she  has  failed  and  has  come  back  to  the  grove  to  pass  her 
life  as  a  priestess.  Norma's  wrath  is  now  beyond  control. 
Three  times  she  strikes  the  brazen  shield;  and,  when  the 
warriors  have  gathered,  they  joyfully  hear  her  message: 
War  against  the  Romans!  But  with  their  deep  war  song 
now  mingles  the  sound  of  tumult  from  the  temple.  A 
Roman  has  broken  into  the  sacred  edifice.  He  has  been 
captured.  It  is  Pollione,  who  she  knows  has  sought  to  carry  ■ 
off  Adalgisa.  The  penalty  for  his  intrusion  is  death.  But 
Norma,  moved  by  love  to  pity,  and  still  hoping  to  save  her ' 


328  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

recreant  lover,  submits  a  new  victim  to  the  enraged  Gauls — 
a  perjiired  virgin  of  the  priesthood. 

"Speak,  then,  and  name  her!"  they  cry. 

To  their  amazement  she  utters  her  own  name,  then 
confesses  all  to  her  father,  and  to  his  care  confides  her 
children. 

A  pyre  has  been  erected.  She  mounts  it,  but  not  alone. 
Pollione,  his  love  rekindled  at  the  spectacle  of  her  greatness 
of  soul,  joins  her.  In  the  flames  he,  too,  will  atone  for  their 
offences  before  God. 

The  ambition  of  every  dramatic  soprano  of  old  was  to 
don  the  robes  of  a  priestess,  bind  her  brow  with  the  mystic 
vervain,  take  in  her  hand  a  golden  sickle,  and  appear  in  the 
sacred  grove  of  the  Druids,  there  to  invoke  the  chaste 
goddess  of  the  moon  in  the  famous  "Casta  diva."  Prima 
donnas  of  a  later  period  found  further  inspiration  thereto 
in  the  beautiful  portrait  of  Grisi  as  Norma.  Perhaps  the 
last  to  yield  to  the  temptation  was  Lilli  Lehmann,  who,  not 
content  with  having  demonstrated  her  greatness  as  Brilnn- 
hilde  and  Isolde,  desired  in  1891,  to  demonstrate  that  she 
was  also  a  great  Norma  a  demonstration  which  did  not 
cause  her  audience  to  become  unduly  demonstrative.  The 
fact  is,  it  would  be  difficult  to  revive  successfully  "Norma" 
as  a  whole,  although  there  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that 
"Casta  diva,  che  in  argenti "  (Chaste  goddess,  may  thy  silver 
beam),  is  one  of  the  most  exquisite  gems  of  Italian  song. 


It  is  followed  immediately  by  "Ah!  bello  a  me  ritorna" 
(Beloved,  return  unto  me),  which,  being  an  allegro,  con- 
trasts effectively  with  the  long,  flowing  measures  of  "Casta 
diva." 


Vlncenzo  Bellini 


329 


Before  this  in  the  opera  there  has  occurred  another 
familiar  number,  the  opening  march  and  chorus  of  the 
Druids,  "Dell'  aura  tua  profetica"  (With  thy  prophetic 
oracle) . 


There  is  a  fine  trio  for  Norma,  Adalgisa,  and  Pollione,  at 
the  end  of  the  first  act,  "Oh!  di  qual  sei  tu  vittima"  (O, 
how  his  art  deceived  you). 


In  the  scene  between  Norma,  and  Adalgisa,  in  the  second 
act,  is  the  duet,  "Mira,  0,  Norma!"  (Hear  me,  Norma). 


Among  the  melodious  passages  in  the  opera,   this  is 
second  in  beauty  only  to  "Casta  diva. " 


I  PURITANI 


THE   PURITANS 


Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Bellini;  words  by  Count  Pepoli.  Produced, 
Paris,  Theatre  des  Italiens,  January  25,  1835,  with  Grisi  as  Elvira, 
Rubini  as  Arturo,  Tamburini  as  Riccardo  and  Lablanche  as  Giorgio. 
London,  King's  Theatre,  May  21,  1835,  in  Italian  (I  Puritani  ed  i 
Cavaliere).  New  York,  February  3,  1844;  Academy  of  Music,  1883, 
with  Gerster;  Manhattan  Opera  House,  December  3,  1906,  with  Bond 
as  Arturo,  and  Pinkert  as  Elvira;  and  in  1909  with  Tetrazzini  as  Elvira. 

Characters 

Lord  Gautier  Walton  of  the  Puritans Bass 

Sir  George  Walton,  his  brother,  of  the  Puritans Bass 


330  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Lord  Arthur  Talbot,  of  the  Cavaliers Tenor 

Sir  Richard  Forth,  of  the  Puritans Baritone 

Sir  Benno  Robertson,  of  the  Puritans Tenor 

Henrietta,  of  France,  widow  of  Charles  I Soprano 

Elvira,  daughter  of  Lord  Walton Soprano 

Puritans,    Soldiers   of   the    Commonwealth,    Men-at-Arms,    Women, 

Pages,  etc. 
Time — During  the  Wars  between  Cromwell  and  the  Stuarts. 

Place — Near  Plymouth,  England. 

Act  I  is  laid  in  a  fortress  near  Plymouth,  held  by  Lord 
Walton  for  Cromwell.  Lord  Walton's  daughter,  Elvira, 
is  in  love  with  Lord  Arthur  Talbot,  a  cavalier  and  adherent  of 
the  Stuarts,  but  her  father  has  promised  her  hand  to  Sir 
Richard  Forth,  like  himself  a  follower  of  Cromwell.  He 
relents,  however,  and  Elvira  is  bidden  by  her  uncle,  Sir 
George  Walton,  to  prepare  for  her  nuptials  with  Arthur,  for 
whom  a  safe  conduct  to  the  fortress  has  been  provided. 

Queen  Henrietta,  widow  of  Charles  I.,  is  a  prisoner  in  the 
fortress.  On  discovering  that  she  is  under  sentence  of  death, 
Arthur,  loyal  to  the  Stuarts,  enables  her  to  escape  by  drap- 
ing her  in  Elvira's  bridal  veil  and  conducting  her  past  the 
guards,  as  if  she  were  the  bride.  There  is  one  critical 
moment.  They  are  met  by  Sir  Richard,  who  had  hoped  to 
marry  Elvira.  The  men  draw  their  swords,  but  a  dis- 
arrangement of  the  veil  shows  Sir  Richard  that  the  woman 
he  supposes  to  be  Lord  Arthur's  bride  is  not  Elvira.  He 
permits  them  to  pass.  When  the  escape  is  discovered, 
Elvira,  believing  herself  deserted,  loses  her  reason.  Those 
who  had  gathered  for  the  nuptials,  now,  in  a  stirring  chorus, 
invoke  maledictions  upon  Arthur's  head. 

Act  II  plays  in  another  part  of  the  fortress.  It  concerns 
itself  chiefly  with  the  exhibition  of  Elvira's  madness.  But 
it  has  also  the  famous  martial  duet,  "Suoni  la  tromba" 
(Sound  the  trumpet),  in  which  Sir  George  and  Sir  Richard 
announce  their  readiness  to  meet  Arthur  in  battle  and  strive 
to  avenge  Elvira's  sad  plight. 


Vincenzo  Bellini 


331 


Act  III  is  laid  in  a  grove  near  the  fortress.  Arthur, 
although  proscribed,  seeks  out  Elvira.  Her  joy  at  seeing 
him  again,  temporarily  lifts  the  clouds  from  her  mind,  but 
renewed  evidence  of  her  disturbed  mental  state  alarms  her 
lover.  He  hears  men,  whom  he  knows  to  be  in  pursuit  of 
him,  approaching,  and  is  aware  that  capture  means  death, 
but  he  will  not  leave  Elvira.  He  is  apprehended  and  is 
about  to  be  executed  when  a  messenger  arrives  with  news 
of  the  defeat  of  the  Stuarts  and  a  pardon  for  all  prisoners. 
Arthur  is  freed.  The  sudden  shock  of  joy  restores  Elvira's 
reason.    The  lovers  are  united. 

As  an  opera  "I  Puritani"  lacks  the  naivete  of  "La  Son- 
nambula, "  nor  has  it  any  one  niunber  of  the  serene  beauty 
of  the  "Casta  diva"  in  "Norma."  Occasionally,  however, 
it  is  revived  for  a  tenor  like  Bonci,  whose  elegance  of 
phrasing  finds  exceptional  opportunity  in  the  r61e  oi  Arthur; 
or  for  some  renowned  prima  donna  of  the  brilliant  colorature 
type,  for  whom  Elvira  is  a  grateful  part. 

The  principal  musical  numbers  are,  in  act  first,  Sir 
Richard  Forth' s  cavatina,  "Ah!  per  sempre  io  ti  perdei" 
(Ah!  forever  have  I  lost  thee);  Arthur's  romance,  "A  te  o 
cara  (To  thee,  beloved) ; 


.OTfr    <>  ta .':  ra,...  a-'    mor       (a.  U  ■      ra,  • 


and  Elvira's  sparkling  polacca,  "Son  vergin  vezzosa"  (I  am 
a  blithesome  maiden). 


332  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

In  the  second  act  we  have  Elvira's  mad  scene,  "Qui  la 
voce  sua  soave  "  (It  was  here  in  sweetest  accents). 

Xhu  I    !'  ^  I   I-  !■  r  p  I  r   r   - 

For  Elvira  there  also  is  in  this  act  the  beautiful  air, 
"Vien,  diletto"  (Come,  dearest  love). 

The  act  closes  with  the  duet  for  baritone  and  bass,  be- 
tween Sir  Richard  and  Sir  George,  "Suoni  la  tromba, "  a 
fine  proclamation  of  martial  ardour,  which  "in  sonorousness, 
majesty  and  dramatic  intensity,"  as  Mr.  Upton  writes, 
"hardly  has  an  equal  in  Italian  opera."- 


Ulani 


"A  una  fonte  aflitto  e  solo"  (Sad  and  lonely  by  a  foun- 
tain), a  beautiful  nimiber  for  Elvira  occurs  in  the  third  act. 

There  also  is  in  this  act  the  impassioned  "Star  teco 
ognor"  (Still  to  abide),  for  Arthur,  with  Elvira's  reply, 
"Caro,  non  ho  parola"  (All  words,  dear  love  are  wanting). 

It  was  in  the  duet  at  the  end  of  Act  II,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  opera's  revival  for  Gerster  that  I  heard  break  and 
go  to  pieces  the  voice  of  Antonio  Galassi,  the  great  baritone 
of  the  heyday  of  Italian  opera  at  the  Academy  of  Music. 
"Suoni  la  tromba!" — He  could  sound  it  no  more.  The 
career  of  a  great  artist  was  at  an  end. 

"I  Puritani"  usually  is  given  in  Italian,  several  of  the 
characters  having  Italian  equivalents  for  English  names — 
Arturo,  Riccardo,  Giorgio,  Enrichetta,  etc. 

The  first  performance  in  New  York  of  "I  Puritani," 
which  opened  Palmo's  Opera  House,  was  preceded  by  a 
"public  rehearsal,"  which  was  attended  by  "a  large 
audience  composed  of  the  Boards  of  Aldermen,  editors, 


Vincenzo  Bellini  333 

police  officers,  and  musical  people,"  etc.  Signora  Bor- 
ghese  and  Signer  Antognini  "received  vehement  plaudits." 
Antognini,  however,  does  not  appear  in  the  advertised 
cast  of  the  opera.  Signora  Borghese  was  Elvira,  Signor 
Perozzi  Arturo,  and  Signor  Valtellino  Giorgio.  The  per- 
formance took  place  Friday,  February  2,  1844. 


Gaetano  Donizetti 

(1797-1848) 

THE  composer  of  "Lucia  di  Lammermoor, "  an  opera 
produced  in  1835,  but  seemingly  with  a  long  lease  of 
life  yet  ahead  of  it,  was  born  at  Bergamo,  November  29, 
1797.     He  composed  nearly  seventy  operas. 

His  first  real  success,  "Anna  Bolena, "  was  brought  out  in 
Rome,  in  1830.  Even  before  that,  however,  thirty-one 
operas  by  him  had  been  performed.  Of  his  many  works, 
the  comparatively  few  still  heard  nowadays  are,  in  the 
order  of  their  production,  "L'Elisire  d'Amore, "  "Lucrezia 
Borgia,"  "Lucia  di  Lammermoor,"  "La  Figlia  del  Reggi- 
mento,"  "La  Favorita,"  "Linda  di  Chamounix,"  and  "Don 
Pasquale. "  A  clever  little  one-act  comedy-opera,  "II 
Campanello  di  Notte"  (The  Night  Bell)  was  revived  in 
New  York  in  the  spring  of  191 7. 

With  a  gift  for  melody  as  facile  as  Bellini's,  Donizetti 
is  more  dramatic,  his  harmonization  less  monotonous,  and 
his  orchestration  more  careful.  This  is  shown  by  his  choice 
of  instruments  for  special  effects,  like  the  harp  solo  preceding 
the  appearance  of  Lucia,  the  flute  obligato  in  the  mad  scene 
in  the  opera  of  which  she  is  the  heroine,  and  the  bassoons 
introducing  "Una furtiva lagrima, "  in  "L'Elisire d'Amore. " 
He  is  a  distinct  factor  in  the  evolution  of  Italian  opera  from 
Rossini  to  and  including  Verdi,  from  whom,  in  turn,  the 
living  Italian  opera  composers  of  note  derive. 

Donizetti's  father  was  a  weaver,  who  wished  his  son  to 

334 


Gaetano  Donizetti  335 

become  a  lawyer.  But  he  finally  was  permitted  to  enter 
the  conservatory  at  Bergamo,  where,  among  other  teachers, 
he  had  J.  H.  Mayr  in  harmony.  He  studied  further,  on 
Mayr's  recommendation,  with  Padre  Martini. 

As  his  father  wanted  him  to  teach  so  that  he  would  be 
self-supporting,  he  enlisted  in  the  army,  and  was  ordered 
to  Venice.  There  in  his  leisure  moments  he  composed  his 
first  opera,  "Enrico  di  Borgogna,"  produced,  Venice,  1818. 
In  1845  he  was  stricken  with  paralysis.  He  died  at  Ber- 
gamo, April  8,  1848. 

L»ELISIRE  D'AMORE 

THE   ELIXIR   OF  LOVE 

Opera,  in  two  acts.  Music  by  Donizetti;  words  by  Felice  Romani. 
Produced,  Milan,  May  12,  1832;  London,  December  10,  1836;  New 
Orleans,  March  30,  1842;  New  York,  Academy  of  Music,  1883-84, 
with  Gerster;  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  1904,  with  Sembrich,  Caruso, 
Scotti,  and  Rossi. 

Characters 

Nemorino,  a  young  peasant Tenor 

Adina,  wealthy,  and  owner  of  a  farm Soprano 

Belcore,  a  sergeant Baritone 

DulcamarjV,  a  quack  doctor Bass 

GiANETTA,  a  peasant  girl Soprano 

Time — Nineteenth  Century.  Place — A  small  Italian  village. 

Act  I.  Beauty  and  riches  have  made  the  young  peasant 
woman,  Adina,  exacting.  She  laughs  at  the  embarrassed 
courting  of  the  true-hearted  peasant  lad,  Nemorino;  she 
laughs  at  the  story  of  "Tristan  and  Isolde,"  and  rejoices 
that  there  are  now  no  more  elixirs  to  bring  the  merry  heart 
of  woman  into  slavish  dependence  on  love.  Yet  she  does 
not  seem  so  much  indifferent  to  Nemorino  as  piqued  over 
his  lack  of  courage  to  come  to  the  point. 

Sergeant  Belcore  arrives  in  the  village  at  the  head  of  a 


336  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

troop  of  soldiers.  He  seeks  to  win  Adina's  heart  by  storm. 
The  villagers  tease  Nemorino  about  his  soldier  rival.  The 
young  peasant  is  almost  driven  to  despair  by  their  raillery. 
Enter  the  peripatetic  quack,  Dr.  Dulcamara.  For  a  ducat 
Nemorino  eagerly  buys  of  him  a  flask  of  cheap  Bordeaux, 
which  the  quack  assures  him  is  an  elixir  of  love,  and  that, 
within  twenty-four  hours,  it  will  enable  him  to  win  Adina. 
Nemorino  empties  the  flask  at  a  draught.  A  certain  effect 
shows  itself  at  once.  Under  the  influence  of  the  Bordeaux 
he  falls  into  extravagant  mirth,  sings,  dances — and  grieves 
no  more  about  Adina,  who  becomes  piqued  and,  to  vex 
Nemorino,  engages  herself  to  marry  Sergeant  Belcore.  An 
order  comes  to  the  troops  to  move.  The  Sergeant  presses 
for  an  immediate  marriage.  To  this  Adina,  still  under  the 
influence  of  pique,  consents.  Nemorino  seeks  to  console 
himself  by  louder  singing  and  livelier  dancing. 

Act.  II.  The  village  is  assembled  on  Adina's  farm  to 
celebrate  her  marriage  with  the  Sergeant.  But  it  is  notice- 
able that  she  keeps  putting  off  signing  the  marriage  contract. 
Nemorino  awaits  the  effect  of  the  elixir.  To  make  sure  of  it, 
he  buys  from  Dulcamara  a  second  bottle.  Not  having  the 
money  to  pay  for  it,  and  Belcore  being  on  the  lookout  for 
recruits,  Nemorino  enlists  and,  with  the  money  he  receives, 
pays  Dulcamara.  The  fresh  dose  of  the  supposed  elixir 
makes  Nemorino  livelier  than  ever.  He  pictures  to  himself 
the  glory  of  a  soldier's  career.  He  also  finds  himself 
greatly  admired  by  the  village  girls,  for  enlisting.  Adina 
also  realizes  that  he  has  joined  the  army  out  of  devotion  to 
her,  and  indicates  that  she  favours  him  rather  than  Belcore. 
But  he  now  has  the  exalted  pleasure  of  treating  her  with 
indifference,  so  that  she  goes  away  very  sad.  He  attributes 
his  luck  to  the  elixir. 

The  villagers  have  learned  that  his  rich  uncle  is  dead  and 
has  left  a  will  making  him  his  heir.  But  because  this  news 
has  not  yet  been  communicated  to  him,  he  thinks  their 


Photo  by  White 

Hempel  (Adina)  and  Caruso  (Nemorino)  in  "L'Elixir  d'Amore' 


Gaetano  Donizetti 


337 


attentions  due  to  the  love  philtre,  and  believes  the  more 
firmly  in  its  efficacy.  In  any  event,  Adina  has  perceived, 
upon  the  Sergeant's  pressing  her  to  sign  the  marriage  con- 
tract, that  she  really  prefers  Nemorino.  Like  a  shrewd  little 
woman,  she  takes  matters  into  her  own  hands,  and  buys 
back  from  Sergeant  Belcore  her  lover's  enlistment  paper. 
Having  thus  set  him  free,  she  behaves  so  coyly  that 
Nemorino  threatens  to  seek  death  in  battle,  whereupon  she 
faints  right  into  his  arms.  The  Sergeant  bears  this  unlucky 
tvim  of  affairs  with  the  bravery  of  a  soldier,  while  Dul- 
camara's fame  becomes  such  that  he  can  sell  to  the  villagers 
his  entire  stock  of  Bordeaux  for  love  elixir  at  a  price  that 
makes  him  rich. 

The  elixir  of  life  of  this  "Elixir  of  Love"  is  the  romance 
for  tenor  in  the  second  act,  "Una  furtiva  lagrima"  (A  fur- 
tive tear),  which  Nemorino  sings  as  Adina  sadly  leaves  him, 
when  she  thinks  that  he  has  become  indifferent  to  her. 
It  was  because  of  Caruso's  admirable  rendition  of  this 
beautiful  romance  that  the  opera  was  revived  at  the  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  New  York,  in  1904.  Even  the  instru- 
mental introduction  to  it,  in  which  the  bassoons  carry  the 
air,  is  captivating. 


Act  I  is  laid  on  Adina's  farm.  Adina  has  a  florid  air, 
"Chiedi  all'  aura  lusinghiera"  (Go,  demand  of  yon  light 
zephyr),  with  which  she  turns  aside  from  Nemorino' s 
attentions. 


The  scene  then  changes  to  a  square  in  the  village.     Here 
Dr.   Dulcamara  makes   his   entry,   singing   his   buffo  air, 


338 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


"Unite,  udite,  o  rustic!  (Give  ear,  now,  ye  rustic  ones). 
There  are  two  attractive  duets  in  this  scene.  One  is 
for  Nemorino  and  Dr.  Dulcamara,  "Obligato!  obligato!" 
(Thank  you  kindly!  thank  you  kindly!). 


The  other,  for  Adina  and  Nemorino,  is  "Esalti  pur  al 
barbara  per  poco  alle  mie  pene"  (Tho'  now  th'  exalting 
cruel  one  can  thus  deride  my  bitter  pain). 

Act  II,  which  shows  a  room  in  Adina' s  farm  house,  opens 
with  a  bright  chorus  of  rejoicing  at  her  approaching  wedding. 
Dulcamara  brings  out  a  piece  of  music,  which  he  says  is  the 
latest  thing  from  Venice,  a  barcarole  for  two  voices.  He  and 
Adina  sing  it;  a  dainty  duet,  "lo  son  ricco,  e  tu  sei  bella" 
(I  have  riches,  thou  hast  beauty)  which  figures  in  all  the 
old  potpourris  of  the  opera.  , 


<^ ,  *  /«    $01        A/-     (a J  /•    ^U  -       «<»  -    /*  ^  #  »¥xm/  Aai 


There  is  a  scene  for  Nemorino,  Gianetta,  and  the  peasants, 
in  which  Nemorino  praises  the  elixir,  "  Dell'  elisir  mirabile" 
(Of  this  most  potent  elixir) .  Later  comes  another  duet  for 
Adina  and  Dulcamara,  "Quanto  amore!"  (What  affection !) 
in  which  Adina  expresses  her  realization  of  the  death  of 
Nemorino' s  affection  for  her. 

"The  score  of  'Elisire  d'Amore, '"  says  the  Dictionaire 
des  Operas,  "is  one  of  the  most  pleasing  that  the  Bergamo 
composer  has  written  in  the  comic  vein.  It  abounds  in 
charming  motifs  and  graceful  melodies.  In  the  first  act 
the  duet  for  tenor  and  bass  between  the  young  villager  and 
Dr.  Dulcamara  is  a  little  masterpiece  of  animation,  the  ac- 
companiment of  which  is  as  interesting  as  the  vocal  parts. 


Gaetano  Donizetti  339 

The  most  striking  passages  of  the  second  act  are  the  chorus, 
'  Cantiamo,  facciam  brindisi ' ;  the  barcarole  for  two  voices, 
'lo  son  ricco,  e  tu  sei  bella';  the  quartet,  'Dell'  elisir  mira- 
bile';  the  duet  between  Adina  and  Dulcamara,  'Quanto 
amore';  and  finally  the  lovely  and  smoothly-flowing  ro- 
mance of  Nemorino,  '  Una  furtiva  lagrima, '  which  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  inspirations  of  Donizetti. " 

LUCREZIA  BORGIA 

Opera,  in  a  prologue  and  two  acts,  by  Donizetti;  words  by  Felice 
Romani,  after  Victor  Hugo.  Produced,  La  Scala,  Milan,  1834;  Thea- 
tre des  Italiens,  Paris,  1840;  London,  1839;  in  English,  1843;  New  York, 
Astor  Place  Opera  House,  1847;  with  Grisi,  September  5,  1854;  with 
Tietjens  and  Brignoli,  1876;  Academy  of  Music,  October  30,  1882; 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  with  Caruso,  1902. 

Characters 

Alfonso  d'Este,  Duke  of  Ferrara Baritone 

LucREziA  Borgia Soprano 

Maffio  Orsini Contralto 

Gennaro       Young  noblemen  in  [  Tenor 

LiVEROTTO    ■  the  service  of  the  |  Tenor 

ViTELLOZZO    Venetian  Republic  [Bass 

Gazello  Bass 

RusTiGHELLO,  in  the  service  of  Don  Alfonso Tenor 

Gubetta  )  .  .       , ,  .  (  Bass 

ASTOLFO   \  ^"  ^^^  ^^^^^  °^  L""^^^  I  Tenor 

Gentlemen-at-arms,  officers,  and  nobles  of  the 

Venetian  Republic;  same,  attached  to  court  of 

Alfonso ;  ladies-in-waiting.  Capuchin  monks,  etc. 

Time — Early  sixteenth  century.  Place — Venice  and  Ferrara. 


When  an  opera,  without  actually  maintaining  itself  in 
the  repertory,  nevertheless  is  an  object  of  occasional  re- 
vival, it  is  sure  to  contain  striking  passages  that  seem  to 
justify  the  experiment  of  bringing  it  forward  again.  "Lu- 
crezia  Borgia"  has  a  male  character,  Maffeo  Orsini,  sung  by 
a  contralto.     Orsini' s  ballata,  "II  segreto  per  esse  felice" 


340  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

(0  the  secret  of  bliss  in  perfection) ,  is  a  famous  contralto  air 
which  Ernestine  Schuman-Heink,  with  her  voice  of  extra- 
ordinary range,  has  made  well-known  all  over  the  United 
States. 

I  quote  the  lines  from  the  Ditson  libretto : 

O  the  secret  of  bliss  in  perfection, 

Is  never  to  raise  an  objection. 

Whether  winter  hang  tears  on  the  bushes. 

Or  the  summer-kiss  deck  them  with  blushes. 

Drink,  and  pity  the  fool  who  on  sorrow. 

Ever  wastes  the  pale  shade  of  a  thought. 
Never  hope  for  one  jot  from  the  morrow, 

Save  a  new  day  of  joy  by  it  bought! 

The  music  has  all  the  dash  and  abandon  that  the  words 
suggest.  Orsini  sings  it  at  a  banquet  in  Ferrara.  Sud- 
denly from  a  neighbouring  room  comes  the  sound  of  monks' 
voices  chanting  a  dirge.  A  door  opens.  The  penitents, 
still  chanting,  enter.  The  lights  grow  dim  and  one  by  one 
go  out.  The  central  doors  swing  back.  Lucrezia  Borgia 
appears  in  the  entrance.  The  banqueters  are  her  enemies. 
She  has  poisoned  the  wine  they  have  just  quaffed  to  Or- 
sini's  song.  They  are  doomed.  The  dirge  is  for  them. 
But — what  she  did  not  know — among  them  is  Gennaro, 
her  illegitimate  son,  whom  she  dearly  loves.  She  offers  him 
an  antidote,  but  in  vain.  He  will  not  save  himself,  while 
his  friends  die.  She  then  discloses  the  fact  that  she  is  his 
mother.  But,  even  then,  instead  of  accepting  her  proffered 
aid  to  save  his  life,  he  repulses  her.  Lucrezia  herself  then 
drains  the  poisoned  cup  from  which  he  has  quaffed,  and 
sinks,  dying,  upon  his  prostrate  form.  Such  is  the  sombre 
setting  for  the  Brindisi — the  drinking  song — "the  secret 
of  bliss  in  perfection" — when  heard  in  the  opera. 


Gaetano  Donizetti 


341 


The  tenor  r61e  of  Gennaro  also  has  tempted  to  occasional 
revivals  of  the  work.  Mario  introduced  for  this  character 
as  a  substitute  for  a  scene  in  the  second  act,  a  recitative 
and  air  by  Lillo,  "Com'  d  soave  quest'  ora  di  silenzio"  (Oh! 
how  delightful  this  pleasing  hour  of  silence),  a  change  which 
is  sometimes  followed. 

Prologue.  Terrace  of  the  Grimani  palace,  Venice. 
Festival  by  night.  Gennaro,  weary,  separates  from  his 
friends  and  falls  asleep  on  a  stone  bench  of  the  terrace. 
Here  he  is  discovered  by  Lucrezia,  who  is  masked.  She 
regards  him  with  deep  affection.  "Com'  e  bello  quale 
incanto"  (Holy  beauty,  child  of  nature)  she  sings. 


Gennaro  awakens.  In  answer  to  her  questions  he  tells 
her  that  he  has  been  brought  up  by  a  poor  fisherman  "  Di 
pescatore  ignobile"  (Deem'd  of  a  fisher's  lowly  race). 


Larfh.lU 


The  youth's  friends  come  upon  the  scene.  Maffeo  Orsini 
tears  the  mask  from  Lucrezia' s  face,  and  in  a  dramatic  con- 
certed number  he  and  his  friends  remind  Lucrezia,  for  the 
benefit  of  Gennaro,  who  had  been  struck  by  her  beauty  and 
was  unaware  that  she  was  the  hated  Borgia,  how  each  has 
lost  a  brother  or  other  relative  through  her.  "Maffio 
Orsini,  signora,  son'  io  cui  svenasto  il  dormente  fratello" 
(Madam,  I  am  Orsini.  My  brother  you  did  poison,  the 
while  he  was  sleeping) .     And  so  each  one  in  order. 


rla/Aa    Or  . 


Gennaro  turns  from  her  in  loathing.     She  faints. 


342  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Act  I.  A  public  place  in  Ferrara.  On  one  side  a  palace. 
Alfonso,  who,  incidentally,  is  Lticrezia's  fourth  husband, 
she  having  done  away  with  his  predecessors  by  poison,  or 
other  murderous  means,  is  jealous  of  Gennaro.  Like  the 
youth  himself,  he  is  ignorant  that  Lucrezia  is  his  mother,  and 
is  persuaded  that  he  is  her  paramour.  He  has  two  solos. 
The  first  is  "  Vieni  la  mia  vendetta"  (Haste  then  to  glut  a 
vengeance);  the  second,  "Qua  lunque  sia,  I'evento"  (On 
this  I  stake  my  fortune) . 


Gennaro  and  his  friends  come  into  the  Plaza.  They  see 
the  letters  borgia  under  the  escutcheon  of  the  palace. 
Gennaro,  to  show  his  detestation  of  Lucrezia' s  crimes,  rushes 
up  the  steps  and  with  his  sword  hacks  away  the  first  letter 
of  the  name,  leaving  only  orgia.  At  the  command  of  the 
Duke,  he  is  arrested. 

Lucrezia  not  knowing  who  has  committed  the  outrage,  de- 
mands of  her  husband  that  its  perpetrator  be  put  to  death. 
Alfonso,  with  cynical  readiness,  consents.  Gennaro  is  led 
in.  Lucrezia  now  pleads  for  his  life.  The  Duke  is  firm,  even 
though  Lucrezia  quite  casually  reminds  him  that  he  is  her 
fourth  husband  and  may  share  the  fate  of  the  other  three. 
("Aye,  though  the  fourth  of  my  husbands,  you  lord  it.") 
His  comment  is  the  command  that  Gennaro  shall  meet  death 
by  quaffing  a  goblet  of  poisoned  wine  handed  to  him  by 
Lucrezia  herself.  There  is  here  a  strong  trio  for  Lucrezia, 
Gennaro,  and  Alfonso,  as  Alfonso  pours  wine  for  himself  and 
Lucrezia  from  a  silver  flagon,  while  he  empties  the  poisoned 
contents  of  a  gold  vessel,  "the  Borgia  wine, "  into  Gennaro' s 
cup.  But  Lucrezia  has  the  antidote;  and,  the  Duke  having 
left  her  with  Gennaro,  in  order  that  she  shall  have  the  pleas- 
ure of  watching  the  death  of  the  man  of  whom  he  suspects 


Gaetano  Donizetti  343 

her  to  be  enamored,  she  gives  it  to  Gennaro,  and  bids  him 
flee  from  Ferrara. 

Act  II  is  laid  in  the  Negroni  palace,  and  is  the  scene  of  the 
banquet,  which  has  already  been  described. 

When  "Lucrezia  Borgia"  was  produced  in  Paris,  in  1840, 
Victor  Hugo,  author  of  the  drama  upon  which  the  Hbretto 
is  based,  objected.  The  French  have  long  gone  much 
further  than  we  do  in  protecting  the  property  rights  of 
authors  and  artists  in  their  creations.  The  producers  of 
the  opera  were  obliged  to  have  the  libretto  rewritten.  The 
title  was  changed  ^o  "La  Rinegata"  and  the  scene  was 
transferred  to  Turkey. 

LUCIA  DI  LAMMERMOOR 

_Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Donizetti;  words  by  Salvatore  Cammarano, 
after  Scott's  novel,  "The  Bride  of  Lammermoor. "  Produced,  San 
Carlo  Theatre,  Naples,  September  26,  1835,  with  Persiani  as  Lucia,  and 
Duprez  as  Edgardo,  the  r61es  having  been  especially  composed  for  these 
artists.  London,  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  April  5, 1838,  and,  in  English, 
at  the  Princess  Theatre,  January  19,  1848.  Paris,  1839.  New  York 
in  English,  at  the  Park  Theatre,  November  17,  1845;  ^"di  "i  Italian, 
November  14, 1 849.  Among  celebrated  Lucias  heard  in  this  country,  are 
Patti,  Gerster,  Melba,  Sembrich,  Tetrazzini  and  Galli-Curci  (Chicago, 
November  21,  19 16);  among  Edgar dos,  Italo  Campanini  and  Caruso. 

Characters 

Lord  Henry  Ashton,  of  Lammermoor Baritone 

Lucy,  his  sister Soprano 

Edgar,  Master  of  Ravenswood Tenor 

Lord  Arthur  Bucklaw Tenor 

Raymond,  chaplain  at  Lammermoor.. Bass 

Alice,  companion  to  Lucy Mezzo-Soprano 

Norman,  follower  of  Lord  Ashton Tenor 

Relatives,  Retainers,  and  Friends  of  the  House  of  Lammermoor 
Time — About  1700.  Place — Scotland. 

(Note.  The  characters  in  Italian  are  Enrico,  Lucia,  Edgardo,  Ar- 
turo,  Raimondo,  Alisa,  and  Normando.) 


344  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"Lucia  di  Lammermoor "  is  generally  held  to  be 
Donizetti's  finest  work.  "In  it  the  vein  of  melody — now 
sparkling,  now  sentimental,  now  tragic — which  embodies 
Donizetti's  best  claim  on  originality  and  immortality,  finds, 
perhaps,  freest  and  broadest  development."  These  words 
are  quoted  from  Baker's  Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Musicians,  a  voltmie  that  rarely  pauses  to  comment  on  an 
individual  work.  "Lucia"  is  indeed  its  composer's  master- 
piece ;  and  a  masterpiece  of  Italian  opera  in  the  older  defini- 
tion of  that  term.  Its  melodies  are  many  and  beautiful, 
and  even  when  ornate  in  passages,  are,  basically  expressive 
of  the  part  of  the  'tragic  story  to  which  they  relate.  More- 
over, the  sextet  at  the  end  of  the  second  act  when  Edgar 
of  Ravenswood  appears  upon  the  scene  just  as  Lucy  with 
trembling  hand  has  affixed  her  signature  to  the  contract  of 
marriage  between  Lord  Bucklaw  and  herself,  ranks  as  one 
of  the  finest  pieces  of  dramatic  music  in  all  opera,  and  as  a 
concerted  ntunber  is  rivalled,  in  Italian  opera,  by  only  one 
other  composition,  the  quartet  in  "Rigoletto." 

The  sextet  in  "  Lucia  "  rises  to  the  full  height  of  the  dram- 
atic situation  that  has  been  created.  It  does  so  becaase 
the  music  reflects  the  part  each  character  plays  in  the  action. 
It  has  "physiognomy" — individual  aspect  and  phraseology 
for  each  participant  in  the  drama;  but,  withal,  an  inter- 
dependence, which  blends  the  voices,  as  they  are  swept 
along,  into  one  grand,  powerful,  and  dramatic  climax. 

Another  number,  the  mad  scene  in  the  third  act,  gives 
coloratura  sopranos  an  opportunity  for  technical  display 
equal  to  that  afforded  by  the  lesson  scene  in  "II  Barbiere 
di  SivigHa";  and,  unlike  the  latter,  the  music  does  not  con- 
sist of  interpolated  selections,  but  of  a  complete  scena  with 
effective  recitatives  and  brilliant  solos,  that  belong  to  the 
score. 

In  the  story  of  "Lucia,"  the  heroine's  brother.  Lord 
Henry  Ashton  of  Lammermoor,  in  order  to  retrieve  his  fallen 


J^o     Gaetano  Donizetti  345 

fortunes,  and  extricate  himself  from  a  perilous  situation  in 
which  his  participation  in  political  movements  directed 
against  the  King  has  placed  him,  arranges  a  marriage  be- 
tween his  sister  and  Lord  Arthur  Bucklaw.  Lucy  herself 
knows  nothing  of  this  arrangement.  Henry,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  equally  ignorant  of  an  attachment  which  exists 
between  Lucy  and  Edgar  of  Ravenswood,  between  whose 
family  and  his  own  there  long  has  been  a  deadly  feud. 
When  he  discovers  it,  he  uses  the  most  underhand  methods 
to  break  it  off. 

Edgar  of  Ravenswood  is  the  last  of  his  race.  While  he  is 
absent  on  a  mission  to  France  in  the  interests  of  Scotland, 
he  despatches  many  letters  to  Lucy.  These  letters  are  inter- 
cepted by  Henry  who  also  arranges  that  a  forged  paper, 
tending  to  prove  the  infidelity  of  Edgar,  is  shown  to  Lucy. 
Urged  by  the  necessities  of  her  brother,  and  believing  herself 
deserted  by  her  lover,  Lucy  unwillingly  consents  to  become 
the  bride  of  Lord  Arthur  Bucklaw.  But,  just  as  she  has 
signed  the  marriage  contract,  Edgar  of  Ravenswood  suddenly 
appears.  He  has  returned  from  France,  and  now  comes  to 
claim  the  hand  of  Lucy — but  too  late.  Convinced  that 
Lu£y  has  betrayed  his  love,  he  casts  the  ring  she  gave  him 
at  her  feet  and  invokes  imprecations  upon  her  and  his  an- 
cient enemies,  the  House  of  Lammermoor. 

At  night  he  is  sought  out  in  his  gloomy  castle  by  Henry. 
They  agree  upon  a  duel  to  be  fought  near  the  tombs  of  the 
Ravenswoods,  on  the  ensuing  morning,  when  Edgar,  weary 
of  life,  and  the  last  of  a  doomed  race,  intends  to  throw  him- 
self on  his  adversary's  weapon.  But  the  burden  of  woe  has 
proved  too  much  for  Lucy  to  bear.  At  night,  after  retiring, 
she  goes  out  of  her  mind,  slays  her  husband,  and  dies  of  her 
sorrows. 

Edgar  awaits  his  enemy  in  the  churchyard  of  Ravenswood. 
But  Ashton  has  fled.  Instead,  Edgar's  solitude  is  inter- 
rupted by  a  train  of  mourners  coming  from  the  Castle  of 


346 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Lammermoor.  Upon  hearing  of  Lucy's  death  he  plunges 
his  dagger  into  his  breast,  and  sinks  down  lifeless  in  the 
churchyard  where  repose  the  remains  of  his  ancestors. 

On  the  stage  this  story  is  developed  so  that  shortly  after 
the  curtain  rises  on  Act  I,  showing  a  grove  near  the  Castle 
of  Lammermoor,  Henry  learns  from  Norman  the  latter's 
suspicions  that  Lucy  and  Edgar  have  been  meeting  secretly 
in  the  park  of  Lammermoor.  Norman  has  despatched  his 
huntsmen  to  discover,  if  they  can,  whether  or  not  his  sus- 
picions are  correct.  "Cruda  funesta  smania"  (each  nerve 
with  fury  trembleth)  sings  Henry. 

Returning,  the  hunters  relate,  in  a  brisk  chorus,  that 

Long   they    wander'd   o'er   the   mountain, 
Search 'd   each  cleft  around  the  fountain, 

finally  to  learn  by  questioning  a  falconer  that  the  intruder 
upon  the  domain  of  Lammermoor  was  none  other  than 
Edgar  of  Ravenswood.  Rage  and  the  spirit  of  revenge  are 
expressed  in  Henry's  vigorous  aria,  "La  pietade  in  sua 
favore  "  (From  my  breast  I  mercy  banish). 


The  scene  changes  to  the  park  near  a  fountain.  What  now 
occurs  is  usually  as  follows.  The  curtain  rises,  and  shows 
the  scene — evening  and  moonlight.  There  is  played  a 
beautiful  harp  solo,  an  unusual  and  charming  effect  in  opera. 
Having  prepared  the  mood  for  the  scene  which  is  to  follow, 
it  is  promptly  encored  and  played  all  over  again.  Then 
Lucy  appears  with  her  companion,  Alice.  To  her  she  re- 
lates the  legend  of  the  fountain,  "Regnava  nel  silenzio" 
(Silence  o'er  all  was  reigning). 


Gaetano  Donizetti 


347 


This  number  gives  an  idea  of  the  characteristics  of  Lucy's 
principal  solos.  It  is  brilliant  in  passages,  yet  its  melody 
is  dreamy  and  reflective.  Largely  due  to  this  combina- 
tion of  traits  is  the  popularity  of  "  Lucia  di  Lammermoor, " 
in  which,  although  there  is  comparatively  little  downright 
cheerful  music,  it  is  relieved  of  gloom  by  the  technical 
brilliancy  for  which  it  often  calls; — just  as,  in  fact,  Lucy's 
solo  following  the  legend  of  the  fountain,  dispels  the  dark 
forebodings  it  inspired.  This  second  solo  for  Lu£y,  one 
of  the  best  known  operatic  numbers  for  soprano,  is  the 
"Quando  rapita"  (Then  swift  as  thought). 


Another  beautiful  and  familiar  number  is  the  duet  be- 
tween Lucy  and  Edgar,  who  has  come  to  tell  her  of  his  im- 
pending departure  for  France  and  to  bid  her  farewell: 
"Verranno  Id  sull'  aure"  (My  sighs  shall  on  the  balmy 
breeze) . 


•-,    a,-.     </«.!  .  /.• 


Act  IL  Apartment  in  the  Castle  of  Lammermoor. 
"II  pallor  funesta  orrendo"  (See  these  cheeks  so  pale  and 
haggard). 


In  this  sad  air  Lucy  protests  to  her  brother  against  the 
marriage  which  he  has  arranged  for  her  with  Bucklaw. 
Henry  then  shows  her  the  forged  letter,  which  leads  her  to 
believe  that  she  has  been  betrayed  by  her  lover.  "Sof- 
friva  nel  pianto  languina  nel  dolore"  (My  sufferings  and 


348 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


sorrow  I've  borne  without  repining)  begins  the  duet 
between  Lucy  arid  Henry  with  an  especially  effective 
cadenza — a  dramatic  number. 

Though  believing  herself  deserted  by  Edgar,  Lucy  still 
holds  back  from  the  thought  of  marriage  with  another,  and 
yields  only  to  save  her  brother  from  a  traitor's  death,  and 
even  then  not  until  she  has  sought  counsel  from  Raymond, 
the  chaplain  of  Lammermoor,  who  adds  his  persuasions  to 
Henry's. 

The  scene  of  the  signing  of  the  dower  opens  with  a  quick, 
bright  chorus  of  guests  who  have  assembled  for  the 
ceremony. 


There  is  an  interchange  of  courtesies  between  Henry  and 
Arthur;  and  then  Lucy  enters.  The  sadness  of  her  mien  is 
explained  by  her  brother  to  Arthur  on  the  ground  that  she 
is  still  mourning  the  death  of  her  mother.  Desperate,  yet 
reluctant,  Lucy  signs  the  contracts  of  dower;  and  at  that 
moment,  one  of  the  most  dramatic  in  opera,  Edgar,  a 
sombre  figure,  but  labouring  under  evident  though 
suppressed  tension,  appears  at  the  head  of  the  broad 
flight  of  steps  in  the  background,  and  slowly  comes 
forward. 

The  orchestra  preludes  briefly : 


f*  6      |J  L           l--'9l"H'                        1                  1 

— ^       1      H 

\k\\Ki  1  ff^  n  ^  j' 

-^ 

^ 

-.  n 

t    fmprt    crtte. 

-3 

■      f     *     i 

"y-iWi  J    V      ^     JM 

^=^ -k = 

t.      ' "      -i^                      5 

i 

The  greatest  ensemble  number  in  Italian  opera,  the  sextet, 
has  begun.     Edgar  do:  "Chi  mi  frena  il  tal  moment©?     Chi 


Photo  by  ^?ishkin 

Caruso  as  Edgardo  in  "Lucia  di  Lammermoor" 


Photo  copyright,  1916,  by  Victor  Georg 

Galli-Curci  as  Lucia  in  "Lucia  di  Lammermoor' 


Gaetano  Donizetti 


349 


tronc6  dell'  ire  il  corso?"   (What  restrains  me  at  this  mo- 
ment?    Why  my  sword  do  I  not  straightway  draw?) : 


Because  he  sees  Lucy  "as  a  rose  'mid  tempest  bending"; 


Even  Henry  is  moved  to  exclaim,  "To  my  own  blood  I  am 
a  traitor": 


The  chorus  swells  the  volume  of  sound,  but  Lucy's  voice 
soars  despairingly  above  all: 


(^  ,l,u 

..-^f—f^--^f 

f       T       ^f 

MK^i:'^.'.':^T.^ 

y      

.pSr   iiijir^i^ 

^gi^L^iAiZ^-^ 

=*3-»— f— *— f * 

350  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Lucy  and  Edgar — they  are  the  victims  of  Henry's  treach- 
ery, as  will  soon  transpire. 

Act  III.  The  jfirst  scene  is  laid  in  Edgar's  gloomy  castle, 
whither  at  night  comes  Henry  to  challenge  him  to  a  duel  at 
morn. 

The  scene  then  changes  back  to  Lammermoor,  where  the 
wedding  guests  still  are  feasting.  Their  revels  are  halted 
by  Raymond,  who,  horror-stricken,  announces  to  them  that 
Lucy  has  gone  mad  and  slain  her  husband;  and  soon  the 
unhappy  bride  herself  appears.  Then  follows  the  mad 
scene,  one  of  the  greatest  "show  numbers "  for  soprano,  with 
the  further  merit  that  it  fits  perfectly  into  the  scheme  of  the 
work. 

This  is  an  elaborate  scena.  In  an  earlier  part  of  the  opera 
Donizetti  made  effective  use  of  a  harp.  In  the  mad  scene 
he  introduces  a  flute  obligato,  which  plays  around  the  voice, 
joins  with  it,  touches  it  with  sharp,  brilliant  accentuations, 
and  glides  with  it  up  and  down  the  scale  in  mellifluous 
companionship. 

In  a  brief  article  in  The  Musician,  Thomas  Tapper 
writes  that  "to  perform  the  mad  scene  has  been  an  inspira- 
tion and  incentive  to  attainment  for  many  singers.  Its 
demands  are  severe.  There  must  be  the  '  mood, '  that  is, 
the  characterization  of  the  mental  state  of  Lucy  rnnst  be 
evidenced  both  in  vocal  tone  and  physical  movement.  The 
aria  requires  an  unusual  degree  of  facility.  Its  transpar- 
ency demands  adherence  to  pitch  that  must  not  vary  a 
shade  from  the  truth  (note  the  passage  where  voice  and 
flute  are  in  unison) .  The  coloratura  soprano  is  here  afforded 
unusual  opportunity  to  display  fluency  and  flexibility  of 
voice,  to  portray  the  character  that  is  '  as  Ophelia  was ' ;  the 
dramatic  intensity  is  paramount  and  must  be  sustained  at 
a  lofty  eminence.     In  brief,  the  aria  is  truly  a  tour  deforce. " 

One  of  the  best  things  in  the  above  is  its  insistence  on 
the  "mood,"  the  emotional  situation  that  underlies  the 


Gaetano  Donizetti 


351 


music.  However  brilliant  the  singing  of  the  prima  donna, 
something  in  her  performance  must  yet  convey  to  her 
hearers  a  sense  of  the  sad  fortunes  of  Lucy  of  Lammermoor. 
To  the  accomplishment  of  this  Donizetti  lends  a  helping 
hand  by  introducing,  as  a  mournful  reminiscence,  the  theme 
of  the  first  act  love  duet  for  Lucy  and  Edgar  ("My  sighs 
shall  on  the  balmy  breeze");  also  by  the  dreaminess  of  the 
two  melodies,  "Alfin  son  tua"   (Thine  am  I  ever);  and 


'Spargi  d'amaro  pianto"  (Shed  thou  a  tear  of  sorrow). 


Preceding  the  first  of  these,  and  also  between  the  two,  are 
dramatic  recitatives,  in  which  the  flute,  possibly  introduced 
merely  for  musical  effect,  yet,  with  its  clear,  limpid  notes, 
by  no  means  untypical  of  Lucy's  pure  and  spiritual  person- 
ality, is  prominent  in  the  instrumental  part  of  the  score. 
Upon  a  brilHant  phrase  of  vocalization,  like  "Yet  shall  we 
meet,  dear  Edgar,  before  the  altar, " 


it  follows  with  this  phrase: 


352 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


[g  ji ,.  ,  .  ;  r  f  f 

4^ 

rPM 

'fUi   1 

y"\.LL^   "^ 

— ^ — f* — ' — f 

ttl.L    ..     ^'—                    — 

— 1 — ^"~ — 

~:f  .,  t 

/h'^' 

— 

which  simple,  even  commonplace,  as  it  seems,  nevertheless, 
in  place,  has  the  desired  effect  of  ingenuousness  and  charm; 
while  the  passage  beginning. 


fe 

:^*= 

C^ndi 

'         ^— 1 

M^ 

V  r   r 

-¥ 

'T^p   .,  =t 

Smr-t7 J- 

0^ 

:2.  ^^'i  t^  . 

^F— 

^ 

,1  J    ^J     -=^ 

Ir- 

)ffi    • 

' ^ 

i     *  i 

w 

has  decided  dramatic  significance. 

I  also  give  an  example  of  a  passage  in  which  flute  and 
voice  combine  in  a  manner  that  requires  impeccable  into- 
nation on  the  singer's  part. 


The  scena  ends  with  a  stretta,  a  concluding  passage  taken 
in  more  rapid  tempo  in  order  to  enhance  the  effect. 

It  is  always  interesting  to  me  to  hear  this  scene,  when  well 
rendered,  and  to  note  the  simple  means  employed  by  the 
composer  to  produce  the  impression  it  makes. 

The  flute  is  an  instrument  that  long  has  been  the  butt 
of  humorists.     "What  is  worse  than  one  flute?" — "Two 


Gaetaxio  Donizetti 


353 


flutes."  This  is  a  standard  musical  joke.  The  kind  sug- 
gestion also  has  been  volunteered  that  Lucy  of  Lammermoor 
went  out  of  her  head,  not  because  she  was  deserted  by  Edgar, 
but  because  she  was  accompanied  by  a  flute. 

Nevertheless  the  flute  is  precisely  the  instrument  required 
as  an  obligato  to  this  scene.  Italian  composers,  as  a  rule, 
pay  little  attention  to  instrumentation.  Yet  it  is  a  fact 
that,  when  they  make  a  special  choice  of  an  instrtunent  in 
order  to  produce  a  desired  effect,  their  selection  usually 
proves  a  happy  inspiration.  The  flute  and  the  harp  in 
"Lucia"  are  instances;  the  bassoons  in  the  introduction  to 
"Una  furtiva  lagrima"  (A  furtive  tear)  in  "L'EHsire  d'- 
Amore"  furnish  another;  and  the  wood  wind  in  the  "Semi- 
ramide"  duet,  "Giorno  d'Orrore"  (Dark  day  of  horror) 
may  also  be  mentioned. 

There  is  a  point  in  the  mad  scene  where  it  is  easy  to  modu- 
late into  the  key  of  G  major.  Donizetti  has  written  in 
that  key  the  aria  "Perch^  non  ho  del  vento"  (Oh,  for  an 
eagle's  pinions)  which  sopranos  sometimes  introduce  during 
the  scene,  since  it  was  composed  for  that  purpose. 

Probably  the  air  is  vmfamiliar  to  opera-goers  in  this 
country.  Lionel  Mapleson,  the  librarian  of  the  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  never  has  heard  it  sung  there,  and 
was  interested  to  know  where  I  had  found  it.  As  it  is  a 
florid,  brilliant  piece  of  music,  and  well  suited  to  the  scene, 
I  quote  a  line  of  it,  as  a  possible  hint  to  some  prima-donna. 


Lar^tlU 


During  the  finale  of  the  opera,  laid  near  the  churchyard 
where  lie  the  bones  of  Edgar's  ancestors,  Lucy's  lover  holds 
the  stage.     His  final  aria,  "Tu  che  a  Dio  spiegasti  Tali" 


a3 


354  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

(Tho'  from  earth  thou'st  flown  before  me),  is  a  passage  of 
mournful  beauty,  which  has  few  equals  in  Italian  opera. 


« 

Of  the  singers  of  former  days  who  have  been  heard  here 
as  Lucia,  Adelina  Patti  interpreted  the  role  with  the  least 
effort  and  the  greatest  brilliancy.  Hers  was  a  pure  flexible 
soprano,  which  seemed  to  flow  forth  spontaneously  from 
an  inexhaustible  reservoir  of  song.  Unfortunately  she  was 
heard  here  by  many  long  after  her  day  had  passed.  She 
had  too  many  "farewells."  But  those  who  heard  her  at 
her  best,  always  will  remember  her  as  the  possessor  of  a 
nattu-ally  beautiful  voice,  exquisitely  trained. 

Italo  Campanini,  a  tenor  who  was  in  his  prime  when 
Mapleson  was  impressario  at  the  Academy  of  Music,  was 
one  of  the  great  Edgardos.  He  was  an  elder  brother  of 
Cleofante  Campanini,  orchestral  conductor  and  director  of 
the  Chicago  Opera  Company. 

As  for  Caruso,  rarely  have  I  witnessed  such  excitement 
as  followed  the  singing  of  the  sextet  the  evening  of  his  first 
appearance  as  Edgardo  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House. 
It  is  a  fact  that  the  policeman  in  the  lobby,  thinking  a  riot 
of  some  sort  had  broken  loose  in  the  auditoritmi,  grabbed  his 
night  stick  and  pushed  through  the  swinging  doors — only 
to  find  an  audience  vociferously  demanding  an  encore. 
Even  granted  that  some  of  the  excitement  was  "worked 
up,"  it  was,  nevertheless,  a  remarkable  demonstration. 

The  role  of  Enrico,  though,  of  course,  of  less  importance 
than  Edgardo,  can  be  made  very  effective  by  a  baritone  of 
the  first  rank.  Such,  for  example,  was  Antonio  Galassi, 
who,  like  Campanini,  was  one  of  Mapleson's  singers.  He 
was  a  tall,  well  put-up-man;  and  when,  in  the  sextet,  at  the 
words  "E  mio  rosa  inaridita"  (Of  thine  own  blood  thou'rt 


Caetano  Donizetti  355 

the  betrayer) ,  he  came  forward  in  one  stride,  and  projected 
his  voice  into  the  proceedings,  it  seemed  as  if,  no  matter 
what  happened  to  the  others,  he  could  take  the  entire  affair 
on  his  broad  shoulders  and  carry  it  through  to  success. 

LA  FIGLIA  DEL  REGGIMENTO 

LA  FILLE   DU   REGIMENT — ^THE   DAUGHTER   OF   THE   REGIMENT. 

Opera  in  two  acts,  by  Donizetti;  words  by  Bayard  and  Jules  H. 
Vemoy  (Marquis  St.  Georges).  Produced,  Op^ra  Comique,  Paris,  as 
"La  Fille  du  Regiment,"  February  11,  1840;  Milan,  October  30,  1840; 
London,  in  English,  at  the  Surrey  Theatre,  December  21,  1847;  the  same 
season  in  Italian,  with  Jenny  Lind.  First  American  performance, 
New  Orleans,  March  7,  1843.  Marie  was  a  favorite  r61e  with  Jenny 
Lind,  Son  tag,  Lucca,  and  Patti,  all  of  whom  appeared  in  it  in  New  York; 
also  Sembrich,  with  Charles  Gilibert  as  Sulpice,  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  1902-03;  and  Hempel,  with  Scotti  as  Sulpice,  same  house, 
December  17,  1917.  Tetrazzini,  McCormack,  and  Gilibert,  Manhattan 
Opera  House,  1909.  An  opera  with  a  sHght  hold  on  the  repertoire, 
but  liable  to  occasional  revival  for  coloratura  sopranos. 

Characters 

Marie,     the     "Daughter     of     the     Regiment,"     but     really     the 

daughter   of  the   Marquise   de   Birkenf eld Soprano 

Sulpice,  Sergeant  of  French  Grenadiers Bass 

ToNio,  a  Tyrolese  peasant  in  love  with  Marie;  afterwards 

an  officer  of  Grenadiers Tenor 

Marquise  de  Birkenfeld Soprano 

Hortensio,  steward  to  the  Marquise Bass 

Corporal Bass 

Soldiers,  peasants,  friends  of  the  Marquise,  etc. 
Tirrie — 1815.  Place — Mountains  of  the  Swiss  Tyrol. 

Act  I.  A  passage  in  the  Tyrolese  mountains.  On  the 
right  is  a  cottage,  on  the  left  the  first  houses  of  a  village. 
Heights  in  the  background.  TjTolese  peasants  are  grouped 
on  rising  ground,  as  if  on  the  lookout.  Their  wives  and 
daughters  kneel  before  a  shrine  to  the  Virgin.     The  Mar- 


356 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


quise  de  Birkenfeld  is  seated  on  a  rustic  bench.  Beside  her 
stands  Hortensio,  her  steward.  They  have  been  caught  in 
the  eddy  of  the  war.  An  engagement  is  in  progress  not 
far  away.  The  Tyrolese  chorus  sings  valiantly,  the  women 
pray;  the  French  are  victorious.  And  why  not?  Is  not 
the  unbeaten  Twenty-first  Regiment  of  Grenadiers  among 
them? 

One  of  them  is  coming  now,  Sergeant  Sulpice,  an  old  grum- 
bler. After  him  comes  a  pretty  girl  in  uniform,  a  vivandiere 
— Marie,  the  daughter  of  the  regiment,  found  on  the  field 
of  battle  when  she  was  a  mere  child,  and  brought  up  by  a 
whole  regiment  of  fathers,  the  spoiled  darling  of  the  grena- 
diers.    She  sings  "Apparvi  alia  luce,  sul  campo  guerrier" 


c^p  .  yxtr.  >>ial-  la  /z,  . 


(I  first  saw  the  light  in  the  camp  of  my  brave  grenadiers), 
which  ends  in  a  brilliant  cadenza. 


J^kr. 


This  indicates  why  the  revival  of  this  opera  attends  the 
appearance  upon  the  horizon  of  a  colorature  star.  It  is 
typical  of  the  requirements  of  the  character. 

The  Sergeant  puts  her  through  a  drill.  Then  they  have 
a  "Rataplan"  duet,  which  may  be  called  a  repetition  of 
Marie's  solo  with  an  accompaniment  of  rataplans.  The 
drum  is  the  music  that  is  sweetest  to  her;  and,  indeed, 
Marie's  manipulation  of  the  drumsticks  is  a  feature  of  the 
r61e. 

But  for  a  few  days  Marie  has  not  been  as  cheerful  as 
formerly.     She  has  been  seen  with  a  young  man.     Sulpice 


Gaeteuio  Donizetti 


357 


asks  her  about  him.  She  tells  the  Sergeant  that  this  young 
man  saved  her  life  by  preventing  her  from  falling  over  a 
precipice.  That,  however,  establishes  no  claim  upon  her. 
The  regiment  has  decreed  that  only  a  grenadier  shall  have 
her  for  wife. 

There  is  a  commotion.  Some  soldiers  drag  in  Tonio, 
whom  they  charge  as  a  spy.  They  have  discovered  him 
sneaking  about  the  camp.  His  would  have  been  short 
shrift  had  not  Marie  pleaded  for  him,  for  he  is  none  other 
than  her  rescuer.  As  he  wants  to  remain  near  Marie,  he 
decides  to  become  a  soldier.  The  grenadiers  celebrate  his 
decision  by  drinking  to  his  health  and  calling  upon  Marie 
to  sing  the  "Song  of  the  Regiment,"  a  dapper  tune, 
which  is  about  the  best-known  nimiber  of  the  score: 
"Ciascun  lo  dice,  ciascumlos^!  E  il  Reggimento,  ch'equal 
non  ha." 

(All  men  confess  it, 

Go  where  we  will! 
Our  gallant  Regiment 

Is  welcome  still.) 


^'4t*eun   /»     ^t.cft^uttttn  Jo   **> :        ft/Aiy.fi'.    man. /a  CA't  .    ^na/ 

There  is  then  a  love  scene  for  Marie  and  Tonio,  followed 
by  a  duet  for  them,  "A  voti  cosi  ardente"  (No  longer  can  I 
doubt  it). 

Afterwards  the  grenadiers  sing  a  "Rataplan"  chorus. 


But,  alas,  the  Sergeant  has  been  informed  that  the  Jlfar- 
quisedeBirkenJelddies\ressa.ieQon6.vict.  Birkenfeld!  That 
is  the  very  name  to  which  were  addressed  certain  papers 


358  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

found  on  Marie  when  she  was  discovered  as  a  baby  on  the 
battlefield.  The  Marquise  examines  the  papers,  declares 
that  Marie  is  her  niece  and  henceforth  must  live  with  her 
in  the  castle.  Poor  Tonio  has  become  a  grenadier  in  vain. 
The  regiment  cannot  help  him.  It  can  only  lament  with 
him  that  their  daughter  is  lost  to  them.  She  herself  is  none 
too  happy.  She  sings  a  sad  farewell,  "Convien  partir!  o 
miei  compagni  d'arme"  (Farewell,  a  long  farewell,  my  dear 
companions). 

Act  II.  In  the  castle  of  the  Marquise.  Marie  is  learning 
to  dance  the  minuet  and  to  sing  classical  airs.  But  in  the 
midst  of  her  singing  she  and  Sulpice,  whom  the  Marquise 
also  has  brought  to  the  castle,  break  out  into  the  "Song  of 
the  Regiment"  and  stirring  "rataplans."  Their  liveliness, 
however,  is  only  temporary,  for  poor  Marie  is  to  wed,  at  her 
aunt's  command,  a  scion  of  the  ducal  house  of  Krakenthorp. 
The  march  of  the  grenadiers  is  heard.  They  come  in,  led 
by  Tonio,  who  has  been  made  a  captain  for  valour.  Sulpice 
can  now  see  no  reason  why  Marie  should  not  marry  him 
instead  of  the  nobleman  selected  by  her  aunt.  And,  indeed, 
Marie  and  Tonio  decide  to  elope.  But  the  Marquise  con- 
fesses to  the  Sergeant,  in  order  to  win  his  aid  in  influencing 
Marie,  that  the  girl  really  is  her  daughter,  born  out  of  wed- 
lock. Sulpice  informs  Marie,  who  now  feels  that  she  can- 
not go  against  her  mother's  wishes. 

In  the  end,  however,  it  is  Marie  herself  who  saves  the 
situation.  The  guests  have  assembled  for  the  signing  of 
the  wedding  contract,  when  Marie,  before  them  all,  sings 
fondly  of  her  childhood  with  the  regiment,  and  of  her  life 
as  a  vivandiere.  "Quando  il  destino  in  mezzo  a  stragiera" 
(When  I  was  left,  by  all  abandoned). 

The  society  people  are  scandalized.  But  the  Marquise 
is  so  touched  that  she  leads  Tonio  to  Marie  and  places  the 
girl's  hand  in  that  of  her  lover.  The  opera  ends  with  an 
ensemble,  "Salute  to  France!" 


Gaetano  Donizetti  359 

LA  FAVORITA 

THE   FAVORITE 

Opera  in  four  acts,  by  Donizetti;  words  by  Alphonse  Royer  and 
Gustave  Waez,  adapted  from  the  drama  "Lc  Comte  de  Commingcs, " 
of  Baculard-Damaud.  Produced  at  the  Grand  Opdra,  Paris,  December 
2,  1840.  London,  in  English,  1843;  in  Italian,  1847.  New  York,  Park 
Theatre,  October  4,  1848. 

Characters 

Alfonso  XI.,  King  of  Castile Baritone 

Ferdinand,  a  young  novice  of  the  Monastery  of  St.  James 

of  Compostella ;  afterwards  an  oiBcer Tenor 

Don  Caspar,  the  King's  Minister Tenor 

Balthazar,  Superior  of  the  Monastery  of  St.  James Bass 

Leonora  di  Gusmann Soprano 

Inez,  her  confidante Soprano 

Courtiers,  guards,  monks,  ladies  of  the  court,  attendants. 
Time — About  1340.  Place — Castile,  Spain. 

Leonora,  with  Campanini  as  Fernando,  was,  for  a  number 
of  seasons,  one  of  the  principal  r61es  of  Annie  Louise  Gary 
at  the  Academy  of  Music.  Mantelli  as  Leonora,  Cremonini 
as  Fernando,  Ancona,  as  King  Alfonso,  and  Plangon  as  Bal- 
thazar, appeared,  1895-96,  at  the  Metropolitan,  where  "La 
Favorita"  was  heard  again  in  1905;  but  the  work  never 
became  a  fixture,  as  it  had  been  at  the  Academy  of  Music. 
The  fact  is  that  since  then  American  audiences,  the  most 
spoiled  in  the  world,  have  established  an  operatic  conven- 
tion as  irrevocable  as  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians. 
In  opera  the  hero  must  be  a  tenor,  the  heroine  a  true  so- 
prano. "La  Favorita"  fulfils  the  first  requisite,  but  not 
the  second.  The  heroine  is  a  role  for  contralto,  or  mezzo- 
soprano.  Yet  the  opera  contains  some  of  Donizetti's 
finest  music,  both  solo  and  ensemble.  Pity  'tis  not  heard 
more  frequently. 

There  is  in  "  La  Favorita  "  a  strong,  dramatic  scene  at  the 


36o  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

end  of  the  third  act.  As  if  to  work  up  to  this  as  gradually 
as  possible,  the  opera  opens  quietly. 

Ferdinand,  a  novice  in  the  Monastery  of  St.  James  of 
Compostella,  has  chanced  to  see  and  has  fallen  in  love  with 
Leonora  the  mistress  of  Alfonso,  King  of  Castile.  He 
neither  knows  her  name,  nor  is  he  aware  of  her  equivocal 
position.  So  deeply  conceived  is  his  passion,  it  causes  him 
to  renounce  his  novitiate  and  seek  out  its  object. 

Act  I.  The  interior  of  the  monastery.  Ferdinand  makes 
known  to  Balthazar,  the  Superior,  that  he  desires  to  re- 
nounce his  novitiate,  because  he  has  fallen  in  love,  and 
cannot  banish  the  woman  of  his  affections  from  his  thoughts. 
He  describes  her  to  the  priest  as  "Una  vergine,  un  angel  di 
Dio"  (A  virgin,  an  angel  of  God). 


Although  this  air  bears  no  resemblance  to  "  Celeste  Aida  " 
its  flowing  measures  and  melodious  beauty,  combined  with 
its  position  so  early  in  the  opera,  recall  the  Verdi  aria — and 
prepare  for  it  the  same  fate — ^which  is  to  be  marred  by  the 
disturbance  caused  by  late-comers  and  to  remain  unheard 
by  those  who  come  still  later. 

Balthazar's  questions  elicit  from  Ferdinand  that  his  only 
knowledge  of  the  woman,  whose  praises  he  has  sung,  is  of  her 
youth  and  beauty.  Name  and  station  are  unknown  to  him, 
although  he  believes  her  to  be  of  high  rank.  Balthazar, 
who  had  hoped  that  in  time  Ferdinand  would  become  his 
successor  as  superior  of  the  monastery,  releases  him  reluct- 
antly from  his  obligations,  and  prophesies,  as  the  novice 
turns  away  from  the  peaceful  shades  of  the  cloister,  that  he 
will  retrace  his  steps,  disappointed  and  heart-broken,  to 
seek  refuge  once  more  within  the  monastery's  walls. 

The  scene  changes  to  an  idylHc  prospect  on  the  island  of 


Gaetano  Donizetti  361 

St.  Leon,  where  Leonora  lives  in  splendour.  She,  in  her 
turn,  is  deeply  enamoured  of  Ferdinand,  yet  is  convinced 
that,  because  of  her  relations  with  King  Alfonso,  he  will 
despise  her  should  he  discover  who  she  is.  But  so  great  is 
her  love  for  him,  that,  without  letting  him  learn  her  name 
or  station,  she  has  arranged  that  he  shall  be  brought,  blind- 
folded, to  the  island. 

"Bel  raggi  lucenti"  (Bright  sunbeams,  lightly  dancing), 
a  graceful  solo  and  chorus  for  Inez,  Lenora's  confidante,  and 
her  woman  companions,  opens  the  scene. 

It  is  followed  by  "Dolce  zeffiro  il  seconda"  (Gentle 
zephyr,  lightly  wafted),  which  is  sung  by  the  chorus  of 
women,  as  the  boat  conveying  Ferdinand  touches  the  island 
and  he,  after  disembarking,  has  the  bandage  withdrawn 
from  over  his  eyes,  and  looks  in  amazement  upon  the  charm- 
ing surroundings  amid  which  he  stands.  He  questions 
Inez  regarding  the  name  and  station  of  her  who  holds  gentle 
sway  over  the  island,  but  in  vain.  Inez  and  her  companions 
retire,  as  Leonora  enters.  She  interrupts  Ferdinand's  de- 
light at  seeing  her  by  telling  him — but  without  giving  her 
reasons — that  their  love  can  lead  only  to  sorrow;  that  they 
must  part.  He  protests  vehemently.  She,  however, 
cannot  be  moved  from  her  determination  that  he  shall 
not  be  sacrificed  to  their  love,  and  hands  him  a  parch- 
ment, which  she  tells  him  will  lead  him  to  a  career  of 
honour. 

He  still  protests.  But  at  that  moment  Inez,  entering 
hurriedly,  announces  the  approach  of  the  King.  Leonora 
bids  Ferdinand  farewell  and  goes  hastily  to  meet  Alfonso. 
Ferdinand  now  believes  that  the  woman  with  whom  he  has 
fallen  in  love  is  of  rank  so  high  that  she  cannot  stoop  to 
wed  him,  yet  expresses  her  love  for  him  by  seeking  to  ad- 
vance him.  This  is  confirmed  when,  on  reading  the  scroll 
she  has  given  him,  he  discovers  that  it  gratifies  his  highest 
ambition  and  confers  upon  him  a  commission  in  the  army. 


362  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  act  closes  with  his  martial  air,  "Si,  che  un  tuo  solo 
accento"  (Oh,  fame.'thy  voice  inspiring). 

He  sees  the  path  to  glory  open  up  before  him,  and  with 
it  the  hope  that  some  great  deed  may  yet  make  him  worthy 
to  claim  the  hand  of  the  woman  he  loves. 

Act  II.  Gardens  of  the  Palace  of  the  Alcazar.  Ferdi- 
nand's dream  of  glory  has  come  true.  We  learn,  through 
a  brief  colloquy  between  Alfonso  and  Don  Caspar,  his 
minister,  that  the  young  officer  has  led  the  Spanish  army 
to  victory  against  the  Moors.  Indeed,  this  very  palace 
of  the  Alcazar  has  been  wrested  from  the  enemy  by  the 
young  hero. 

Caspar  having  retired,  the  King,  who  has  no  knowledge 
of  the  love  between  Ferdinand  and  Leonora,  sings  of  his 
own  passion  for  her  in  the  expressive  air,  "Vien,  Leonora, 
a'  piedi  tuoi"  (Come,  Leonora,  before  the  kneeling). 

The  object  of  his  love  enters,  accompanied  by  her  con- 
fidante. The  King  has  prepared  a  fete  in  celebration  of 
Ferdinand's  victory,  but  Leonora,  while  rejoicing  in  the 
honours  destined  to  be  his,  is  filled  with  foreboding  because 
of  the  illicit  relations  between  herself  and  the  King,  when 
she  truly  loves  another.  Moreover,  these  fears  find  justi- 
fication in  the  return  of  Caspar  with  a  letter  in  Ferdinand's 
handwriting,  and  intended  for  Leonora,  but  which  the 
minister  has  intercepted  in  the  hand  of  Inez.  The  King's 
angry  questions  regarding  the  identity  of  the  writer  are 
interrupted  by  confused  sounds  from  without.  There 
enters  Balthazar,  preceded  by  a  priest  bearing  a  scroll  with 
the  Papal  seal.  He  faces  the  King  and  Leonora  while  the 
lords  and  ladies,  who  have  gathered  for  the  f6te,  look  on 
in  apprehension,  though  not  wholly  without  knowledge  of 
what  is  impending. 

For  there  is  at  the  court  of  Alfonso  a  strong  party  that 
condemns  the  King's  illicit  passion  for  Leonora,  so  openly 
shown.     This   party   has   appealed  to  the   Papal   throne 


Gaetano  Donizetti  363 

against  the  King.  The  Pope  has  sent  a  Bull  to  Balthazar, 
in  which  the  Superior  of  the  Monastery  of  St.  James  is 
authorized  to  pronounce  the  interdict  on  th2  King  if  the 
latter  refuses  to  dismiss  his  favourite  from  the  Court  and 
restore  his  legitimate  wife  to  her  rights.  It  is  with  this 
commission  Balthazar  has  now  appeared  before  the  King, 
who  at  first  is  inclined  to  refuse  obedience  to  the  Papal 
summons.  He  wavers,  Balthazar  gives  him  time  till  the 
morrow,  and  until  then  withholds  his  anathema. 

Balthazar's  vigorous  yet  dignified  denunciation  of  the 
King,  "Ah  paventa  il  furor  d'un  Dio  vendicatore "  (Do  not 
call  down  the  wrath  of  God,  the  avenger,  upon  thee),  forms 
a  broadly  sonorous  foundation  for  the  finale  of  the  act. 

Act  III.  A  salon  in  the  Palace  of  the  Alcazar.  In  a 
brief  scene  the  King  informs  his  minister  that  he  has  de- 
cided to  heed  the  behest  of  the  church  and  refrain  from 
braving  the  Papal  malediction.  He  bids  Caspar  send  Leo- 
nora to  him,  but,  at  the  first  opportunity,  to  arrest  Inez,  her 
accomplice. 

It  is  at  this  juncture,  aS  Caspar  departs,  that  Ferdinand 
appears  at  court,  returning  from  the  war,  in  which  he  has  not 
only  distinguished  himself  by  his  valour,  but  actually  has 
saved  the  kingdom.  Alfonso  asks  him  to  name  the  prize 
which  he  desires  as  recompense  for  his  services.  Leonora 
enters.  Ferdinand,  seeing  her,  at  once  asks  for  the  bestowal 
of  her  hand  upon  him  in  marriage.  The  King,  who  loves 
her  deeply,  and  has  nearly  risked  the  wrath  of  the  Pope 
for  her  sake,  nevertheless,  because  immediately  aware  of  the 
passion  between  the  two,  gives  his  assent,  but  with  reluct- 
ance, as  indeed  appears  from  the  irony  that  pervades  his 
solo,  "A  tanto  amor"  (Thou  flow'r  belov'd). 


364  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

He  then  retires  with  Ferdinand. 

Leonora,  touched  by  the  King's  magnanimity,  inspired 
by  her  love  for  Ferdinand,  yet  shaken  by  doubts  and  fears, 
because  aware  that  he  knows  nothing  of  her  past,  now  ex- 
presses these  conflicting  feelings  in  her  principal  air,  "O, 
mio  Fernando,"  one  of  the  great  Italian  airs  for  mezzo- 
soprano. 

CaniaoiU 


She  considers  that  their  future  happiness  depends  upon 
Ferdinand's  being  truthfully  informed  of  what  her  relations 
have  been  with  the  King,  thus  giving  him  full  opportunity 
to  decide  whether,  with  this  knowledge  of  her  guilt,  he  will 
marry  her,  or  not.  Accordingly  she  despatches  Inez  with 
a  letter  to  him.  Inez,  as  she  is  on  her  way  to  deliver  this 
letter,  is  intercepted  by  Caspar,  who  carries  out  the  King's 
command  and  orders  her  arrest.  She  is  therefore  unable  to 
place  in  Ferdinand' s  hands  the  letter  of  Leonora. 

Into  the  presence  of  the  assembled  nobles  the  King  now 
brings  Ferdinand,  decorates  him  with  a  rich  chain,  and  an- 
nounces that  he  has  created  him  Count  of  Zamora.  The 
jealous  lords  whisper  among  them^lves  about  the  scandal 
of  Ferdinand' s  coming  marriage  with  the  mistress  of  the 
King;  but  Leonora,  who  enters  in  bridal  attire,  finds  Ferdi- 
nand eagerly  awaiting  her,  and  ready  to  wed  her,  notwith- 
standing, as  she  believes,  his  receipt  of  her  communication 
and  complete  knowledge  of  her  past. 

While  the  ceremony  is  being  performed  in  another  apart- 
ment, the  nobles  discuss  further  the  disgrace  to  Ferdinand 
in  this  marriage.  That  Leonora  was  the  mistress  of  the 
King  is,  of  course,  a  familiar  fact  at  court,  and  the  nobles 
regard  Ferdinand' s  elevation  to  the  rank  of  nobility  as  a 
reward,  not  only  for  his  defeat  of  the  Moors,  but  also  for 


Gaetano  Donizetti  365 

accommodatingly  taking  Leonora  off  the  hands  of  the 
King,  when  the  latter  is  threatened  with  the  malediction 
of  Rome.  They  cannot  imagine  that  the  young  officer 
is  ignorant  of  the  relations  that  existed  between  his  bride 
and  the  King. 

Ferdinand  re-enters.  In  high  spirits  he  approaches  the 
courtiers,  offers  them  his  hand,  which  they  refuse.  Bal 
thazar  now  comes  to  learn  the  decision  of  the  King.  Fer- 
dinand, confused  by  the  taunting  words  and  actions  of  the 
courtiers,  hastens  to  greet  Balthazar,  who,  not  having  seen 
him  since  he  has  returned  victorious  and  loaded  with  hon- 
ours, embraces  him,  until  he  hears  Caspar's  ironical  exclama- 
tion, "Leonora's  bridegroom!"  Balthazar  starts  back, 
and  it  is  then  Ferdinand  learns  that  he  has  just  been 
wedded  "alia  bella  del'  Re" — to  the  mistress  of  the 
King. 

At  this  moment,  when  Ferdinand  has  but  just  been  in- 
formed of  what  he  can  only  interpret  as  his  betrayal  by  the 
King  and  the  royal  favourite,  Alfonso  enters,  leading 
Leonora,  followed  by  her  attendants.  In  a  stirring  scene, 
the  dramatic  climax  of  the  opera,  Ferdinand  tears  from  his 
neck  the  chain  Alfonso  has  bestowed  upon  him,  and  throws 
it  contemptuously  upon  the  floor,  breaks  his  sword  and 
casts  it  at  the  King's  feet,  then  departs  with  Balthazar,  the 
nobles  now  making  a  passage  for  them,  and  saluting,  while 
they  sing 

"Ferdinand,  the  truly  brave, 
We  salute,  and  pardon  crave!" 

Act  IV.  The  cloisters  of  the  Monastery  of  St.  James. 
Ceremony  of  Ferdinand's  entry  into  the  order.  "Splendor 
piu  belle — in  ciel  le  stelle"  (Behold  the  stars  in  splendour 
celestial),  a  distinguished  solo  and  chorus  for  5a//Ao2ar  and 
the  monks. 


366  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Left  alone,  Ferdinand  gives  vent  to  his  sorrow,  which  still 
persists,  in  the  romance,  "Spirto  gentil"  (Spirit  of  Light), 
one  of  the  most  exquisite  tenor  solos  in  the  Italian  repertory. 


In  1882,  thirty-four  years  after  Donizetti's  death,  there 
was  produced  in  Rome  an  opera  by  him  entitled  "II  Duca 
d'Alba"  (The  Duke  of  Alba).  Scribe  wrote  the  libretto  for 
Rossini,  who  does  not  appear  to  have  used  it.  So  it  was 
passed  on  to  Donizetti,  who  composed,  but  never  produced 
it.  "Spirto  gentil "  was  in  this  opera,  from  which  Donizetti 
simply  transferred  it. 

Balthazar  and  the  monks  return.  With  them  Ferdinand 
enters  the  chapel.  Leonora,  disguised  as  a  novice,  comes 
upon  the  scene.  She  hears  the  chanting  of  the  monks, 
Ferdinand' s  voice  enunciating  his  vows.  He  comes  out 
from  the  chapel,  recognizes  Leonora,  bids  her  be  gone, 
"Ah!  va,  t'in  vola!  e  questa  terra"  (These  cloisters  fly,  etc.). 

She,  however,  tells  him  of  her  unsuccessful  effort  to  let 
him  know  of  her  past,  and  craves  his  forgiveness  for  the 
seeming  wrong  she  has  wrought  upon  him.  "Clemente 
al  par  di  Dio"  (Forgiveness  through  God  I  crave  of 
thee). 

All  of  Ferdinand's  former  love  returns  for  her.  "Vieni, 
ah!  vieni, "  etc.  (Joy  once  more  fills  my  breast). 

He  would  bear  her  away  to  other  climes  and  there  happily 
pass  his  days  with  her.  But  it  is  too  late.  Leonora  dies 
in  his  arms.  "By  to-morrow  my  soul,  too,  will  want  your 
prayers,"  are  Ferdinand's  words  to  Balthazar,  who,  ap- 
proaching, has  drawn  Leonora's  cowl  over  her  dishevelled 
hair.  He  calls  upon  the  monks  to  pray  for  a  departed 
soul. 


Gaetano  Donizetti  367 

LINDA  DI   CHAMOUNIX 

LINDA   OF  CHAMOUNIX 

Opera,  in  three  acts,  by  Donizetti;  words  by  Rossi.  Produced,  May 
19,  1842,  Theatre  near  the  Carinthian  Gate  (Kamtherthor),  Vienna. 
London,  June,  1843.  New  York',  Palmo's  Opera  House,  January  4, 
1847,  with  Clothilda  Barili;  Academy  of  Music,  March  9,  1861,  with 
Clara  Louise  Kellogg,  later  with  Patti  as  Linda  and  Galassi  as  Antonio; 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  April  23,  1890,  with  Patti. 

CHARACTERS 

Marquis  de  Boisfleury Bass 

Charles,  Vicomte  de  Sirval Tenor 

Prefect Bass 

Pierrot Contralto 

Linda Soprano 

Antonio Baritone 

Madeline Soprano 

Intendant Tenor 

Peasant  men  and  women,  Savoyards,  etc. 

Time — 1760,  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XV. 

Place — Chamounix  and  Paris. 

"Linda  di  Chamounix"  contains  an  air  for  soprano  with- 
out which  no  collection  of  opera  arias  is  complete.  This  is 
Linda's  aria  in  the  first  act,  "0  luce  di  quest'  anima"  (Oh! 
star  that  guid'st  my  fervent  love).  When  Donizetti  was 
composing  "Linda  di  Chamounix"  for  Vienna,  with  this 
air  and  its  fluent  embellishments,  he  also  was  writing  for 
the  Imperial  chapel  a  "Miserere"  and  an  "Ave  Maria" 
which  were  highly  praised  for  a  style  as  severe  and  restrained 
as  "0  luce  di  quest'  anima"  is  light  and  graceful. 

"Linda  di  Chamounix"  is  in  three  acts,  entitled  "The 
Departure, "  "  Paris, "  "  The  Return. "  The  story  is  some- 
what naive,  as  its  exposition  will  show. 

Act  I.  The  village  of  Chamounix.  On  one  side  a  farm- 
house.    On  an  eminence  a  church.     Antonio  and  Madeline 


368 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


are  poor  villagers.  Linda  is  their  daughter.  She  has  fallen 
in  love  with  an  artist,  Charles,  who  really  is  the  Viscount  de 
Sirval,  but  has  not  yet  disclosed  his  identity  to  her.  When 
the  opera  opens  Linda's  parents  are  in  fear  of  being  dis- 
possessed by  the  Marquis  de  Boisfleury,  who  is  Charles's 
uncle,  but  knows  nothing  of  his  nephew's  presence  in 
Chamounix,  or  of  his  love  for  Linda.  She,  it  may  be  re- 
marked, is  one  of  those  pure,  sweet,  unsophisticated  crea- 
tures, who  exist  only  on  the  stage,  and  possibly  only  in  opera. 
When  the  opera  opens,  Antonio  returns  from  a  visit  to 
the  Marquis's  agent,  the  Intendant.  Hopes  have  been  held 
out  to  him  that  the  Marquis  will  relent.  Antonio  com- 
municates these  hopes  to  his  wife  in  the  beautiful  solo, 
"x\mbo  nati  in  questa  valle"  (We  were  both  in  this  valley 
nurtured) . 


There  are  shouts  of  "Viva!"  without.  The  Marquis  has 
arrived.  He  seems  kindness  itself  to  the  old  couple.  He 
asks  for  Linda,  but  she  has  gone  to  prayers  in  the  chapel. 
We  learn  from  an  aside  between  the  Marquis  and  his  In- 
tendant, that  the  Marquis's  apparent  benevolence  is  merely 
part  of  a  libidinous  scheme  which  involves  Linda,  whose 
beauty  has  attracted  the  titled  roue. 

After  this  scene,  Linda  comes  on  alone  and  sings  "O  luce 
di'  quest'  anima. " 


(.l€t    ^,  JU 


I  also  quote  the  concluding  phrase: 


/t/  m   •    Tn  *■'<?/  tf^  c/t/  g 


Gaetano  Donizetti  369 

Savoyards  are  preparing  to  depart  for  Paris  to  go  to  work 
there.  Among  them  is  Pierrot,  with  his  hurdy-gurdy.  He 
sings  a  charming  ballad,  "Per  sua  madre  ando  una  figlia" 
(Once  a  better  fortune  seeking). 

There  is  then  a  love  scene  between  Linda  and  Charles, 
with  the  effective  duet,  "A  consolarmi  affretisi"  (Oh! 
that  the  blessed  day  were  come,  when  standing  by  my  side), 
a  phrase  which  is  heard  again  with  significant  effect  in  the 
third  act. 


•^    *#/».  **-  <?»f-  mi  a/  *    /?»/.  /*',      »/^  ...  Tt^i  ft^r. 


Antonio  then  learns  from  the  good  Pr eject  of  the  village 
that  the  latter  suspects  the  Marquis  of  sinister  intentions 
toward  Linda.  Indeed  at  that  moment  Linda  comes  in 
with  a  paper  from  the  Marquis,  which  assures  to  her  parents 
their  home;  but,  she  adds,  naively,  that  she  has  been  invited 
by  the  Marquis  to  the  castle.  Parents  and  Prefect  are 
alarmed  for  her  safety.  Th«  Prefect  has  a  brother  in  Paris. 
To  his  protection  it  is  decided  that  Linda  shall  go  with  her 
Savoyard  friends,  who  even  now  are  preparing  to  depart. 

Act  II.  Room  in  a  handsome,  well-furnished  apartment 
in  Paris.  This  apartment  is  Linda's.  In  it  she  has  been 
installed  by  Charles.  The  natural  supposition,  that  it  has 
been  paid  for  by  her  virtue,  is  in  this  instance  a  mistake,  but 
one,  I  am  sure,  made  by  nine  people  out  of  ten  of  those  who 
see  the  opera,  since  the  explanation  of  how  she  got  there 
consists  merely  of  a  few  incidental  lines  in  recitative. 

Linda  herself,  but  for  her  incredible  naivete  would 
realize  the  impossibility  of  the  situation. 

A  voice  singing  in  the  street  she  recognizes  as  Pierrot's, 
calls  him  up  to  her,  and  assists  him  with  money,  of  which 
she  appears  to  have  plenty.  She  tells  him  that  the  Pre- 
34 


370  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Ject's  brother,  in  whose  house  she  was  to  have  found  pro- 
tection, had  died.  She  was  obliged  to  support  herself  by 
singing  in  the  street.  Fortunately  she  had  by  chance  met 
Charles^  who  disclosed  to  her  his  identity  as  the  Viscount 
de  Sirval.  He  is  not  ready  to  marry  her  yet  on  account  of 
certain  family  complications,  but  meanwhile  has  placed  her 
in  this  apartment,  where  he  provides  for  her.  There  is  a 
duet,  in  which  Linda  and  Pierrot  sing  of  her  happiness. 

Pierrot  having  left,  the  Marquis,  who  has  discovered  her 
retreat,  but  does  not  know  that  it  is  provided  by  his  nephew 
Charles,  calls  to  force  his  unwelcome  attentions  upon  her. 
He  laughs,  as  is  not  unnatural,  at  her  protestations  that  she 
is  supported  here  in  innocence ;  but  when  she  threatens  him 
with  possible  violence  from  her  intended,  he  has  a  neat  little 
solo  of  precaution,  ending  '  'Guardati,  pensaci,marchese  mio  " 
(Be  cautious — ponder  well,  Marquis  most  valiant). 

The  Marquis,  having  prudently  taken  his  departure, 
Linda  having  gone  to  another  room,  and  Charles  having 
come  in,  we  learn  from  his  recitative  and  air  that  his  mother, 
the  Marquise  de  Sirval,  has  selected  a  wife  for  him,  whom  she 
insists  he  shall  marry.  He  hopes  to  escape  from  this  mar- 
riage, but,  as  his  mother  has  heard  of  Linda  and  also  insists 
that  he  shall  give  her  up,  he  has  come  to  explain  matters 
to  her  and  temporarily  to  part  from  her.  But  when  he 
sees  her,  her  beauty  so  moves  him  that  his  courage  fails  him, 
although,  as  he  goes,  there  is  a  sadness  in  his  manner  that 
fills  her  with  sad  forebodings. 

For  three  months  Linda  has  heard  nothing  from  her  par- 
ents. Letters,  with  money,  which  she  has  sent  them,  have 
remained  unanswered — another  of  the  situations  in  which 
this  most  artless  heroine  of  opera  discovers  herself,  without 
seeking  the  simple  and  obvious  way  of  relieving  the  suspense. 

In  any  event,  her  parents  have  become  impoverished 
through  the  Marquis  de  Boisfleury's  disfavour,  for  at  this 
moment  her  father,  in  the  condition  of  a  mendicant,  comes 


Gaetano  Donizetti  371 

in  to  beg  the  intercession  in  his  behalf  of  the  Viscount  de 
Sirval  (Charles).  Not  recognizing  Linda,  he  mistakes  her 
for  Charles's  wife.  She  bestows  bounteous  alms  upon  him, 
but  hesitates  to  make  herself  known,  until,  when  he  bends 
over  to  kiss  her  hand  she  cannot  refrain  from  disclosing 
herself.  Her  surroundings  arouse  his  suspicions,  which  are 
confirmed  by  Pierrot,  who  comes  running  in  with  the  news 
that  he  has  learned  of  preparations  for  the  marriage  of 
Charles  to  a  lady  of  bis  mother's  choice.  In  a  scene  (which 
a  fine  singer  like  Galassi  was  able  to  invest  with  real  power) 
Antonio  hurls  the  alms  Linda  has  given  him  at  her  feet, 
denounces  her,  and  departs.  Pierrot  seeks  to  comfort  her. 
But  alas!  her  father's  denunciation  of  her,  and,  above  all, 
what  she  believes  to  be  Charles's  desertion,  have  unseated 
her  reason. 

Act  III.  The  village  of  Chamounix.  The  Savoyards  are 
returning  and  are  joyfully  greeted.  Charles,  who  has  been 
able  to  persuade  his  mother  to  permit  him  to  wed  Linda, 
has  come  in  search  of  her.  Incidentally  he  has  brought 
solace  for  Antonio  and  Madeline.  The  De  Sirvals  are  the 
real  owners  of  the  farm,  the  Marquis,  Charles's  uncle,  being 
only  their  representative.  Linda's  parents  are  to  remain 
in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  farm; — but  where  is  she? 

Pierrot  is  heard  singing.  Whenever  he  sings  he  is  able  to 
persuade  Linda  to  follow  him.  Thus  her  faithful  friend 
gradually  has  led  her  back  to  Chamounix.  And  when 
Charles  chants  for  her  a  phrase  of  their  first  act  duet,  "O 
consolarmi  affretisi,"  her  reason  returns,  and  it  is  "Ah!di 
tue  pene  sparve  il  sogno"  (Ah!  the  vision  of  my  sorrow 
fades). 

In  this  drama  of  naivete,  an  artlessness  which  I  mention 
again  because  I  think  it  is  not  so  much  the  music  as  the 
libretto  that  has  become  old-fashioned,  even  the  Marquis 
comes  in  for  a  good  word.  For  when  he  too  offers  his  con- 
gratulations, what  does  Linda  do  but  refer  to  the  old  liber- 


372  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

tine,  who  has  sought  her  ruin,  as  "him  who  will  be  my  uncle 
dear." 

DON  PASQUALE 

Opera,  in  three  acts,  by  Donizetti ;  words  by  Salvatore  Cammarano, 
adapted  from  his  earHer  Ubretto,  "Ser  Marc'  Antonio,"  which  Stefano 
Pavesi  had  set  to  music  in  1813.  Produced,  Paris,  January  4,  1843, 
Theatre  des  Itahens.  London,  June  30,  1843.  New  York,  March  9, 
1846,  in  English;  1849,  in  ItaHan;  revived  for  Bonci  (with  di  Pasquali, 
Scotti,  and  Pini-Corsi)  at  the  New  Theatre,  December  23,  1909;  given 
also  at  the  MetropoUtan  Opera  House  with  Sembrich  as  Norina. 

Characters 

Don  Pasquale,  an  old  bachelor Bass 

Dr.  Malatesta,  his  friend Baritone 

Ernesto,  nephew  of  Don  Pasquale Tenor 

Norina,  a  young  widow,  affianced  to  Ernesto Soprano 

A  Notary , Baritone 

Valets,  chambermaids,  majordomo,  dress-makers,  hairdresser. 
Time — Early  nineteenth  century.  Place — Rome. 

"Don  Pasquale"  concerns  an  old  man, about  to  marry. 
He  also  is  wealthy.  Though  determined  himself  to  have  a 
wife,  on  the  other  hand  he  is  very  angry  with  his  nephew, 
Ernesto,  for  wishing  to  marry,  and  threatens  to  disinherit 
him.  Ernesto  is  greatly  disturbed  by  these  threats.  So  is 
his  lady-love,  the  sprightly  young  widow,  Norina,  when  he 
reports  them  to  her. 

Pasquale' s  friend,  Dr.  Malatesta,  not  being  able  to  dis- 
suade him  from  marriage,  pretends  to  acquiesce  in  it.  He 
proposes  that  his  sister  shall  be  the  bride,  and  describes  her 
as  a  timid,  naive,  ingenious  girl,  brought  up,  he  says,  in  a 
convent.  She  is,  however,  none  other  than  Norina,  the 
clever  young  widow,  who  is  in  no  degree  related  to  Mala- 
testa. She  quickly  enters  into  the  plot,  which  involves  a 
mock  marriage  with  Don  Pasquale.  An  interview  takes 
place.     The  modest  graces  of  the  supposed  convent  girl 


Gaetano  Donizetti  373 

charm  the  old  man.  The  marriage — a  mock  ceremony,  of 
course — is  hurriedly  celebrated,  so  hurriedly  that  there  is  no 
time  to  inform  the  distracted  Ernesto  that  the  proceedings 
are  bogus. 

Norina  now  displays  toward  Don  Pasquale  an  ungovern- 
able temper.  Moreover  she  spends  money  like  water,  and 
devotes  all  her  energies  to  nearly  driving  the  old  man  crazy. 
When  he  protests,  she  boxes  his  ears.  He  is  on  the  point 
of  suicide.  Then  at  last  Malatesta  lets  him  know  that  he 
has  been  duped.  Notary  and  contract  are  fictitious.  He  is 
free.  With  joy  he  transfers  to  Ernesto  his  conjugal  burden 
— ^and  an  income. 

Act  I  plays  in  a  room  in  Don  Pasquale's  house  and  later 
in  a  room  in  Norina' s,  where  she  is  reading  a  romance.  She 
is  singing  "Quel  guardo"  (Glances  so  soft)  and  "So  anch' 
io  la  virtu  magica"  (I,  too,  thy  magic  virtues  know)  in 
which  she  appears  to  be  echoing  in  thought  what  she  has 
been  reading  about  in  the  book. 


The  duet,  in  which  she  and  Malatesta  agree  upon  the  plot 
— the  "duet  of  the  rehearsal" — is  one  of  the  sprightly 
numbers  of  the  score. 

Act  II  is  in  a  richly  furnished  salon  of  Don  Pasquale's 
house.  This  is  the  scene  of  the  mock  marriage,  of  Norina' s 
asstmied  display  of  temper  and  extravagance,  Don  Pas- 
quale's distraction,  Ernesto's  amazement  and  enlightenment, 
and  Malatesta's  amused  co-operation.  In  this  act  occur 
the  duet  of  the  box  on  the  ears,  and  the  quartet,  which 
begins  with  Pasquale's  "Son  ardito"  (I  am  betrayed).  It 
is  the  finale  of  the  act  and  considered  a  masterpiece. 

Act  III  is  in  two  scenes,  the  first  in  Don  Pasquale's 
house,  where  everything  is  in  confusion;  the  second  in  his 


374  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

garden,  where  Ernesto  sings  to  Norina  the  beautiful  seren- 
ade, "Com'  e  gentil"  (Soft  beams  the  light). 


Don  Pasquale,  who  has  suspected  Norina  of  having  a 
rendezvous  in  the  garden,  rushes  out  of  concealment  with 
Malatesta.  But  Ernesto  is  quick  to  hide,  and  Norina  pre- 
tends no  one  has  been  with  her.  This  is  too  much  for  Don 
Pasquale,  and  Malatesta  now  makes  it  the  occasion  for  bring- 
ing about  the  denouement,  and  secures  the  old  man's  most 
willing  consent  to  the  marriage  between  Ernesto  and  Norina. 

When  the  opera  had  its  original  production  in  Paris, 
Lablache  was  Don  Pasquale,  Mario  Ernesto,  Tamburini 
Malatesta,  and  Grisi  Norina.  Notwithstanding  this  brilliant 
cast,  the  work  did  not  seem  to  be  going  well  at  the  rehearsals. 
After  one  of  these,  Donizetti  asked  the  music  publisher, 
Dormoy,  to  go  with  him  to  his  lodgings.  There  he  rimi- 
maged  among  a  lot  of  manuscripts  until,  finding  what  he 
was  looking  for,  he  handed  it  to  Dormoy. 

"There, "  he  said,  "give  this  to  Mario  and  tell  him  to  sing 
it  in  the  last  scene  in  the  garden  as  a  serenade  to  Norina. " 

When  the  opera  was  performed  Mario  sang  it,  while 
Lablache,  behind  the  scenes,  played  an  accompaniment  on 
the  lute.  It  was  the  serenade.  Thus  was  there  introduced 
into  the  opera  that  air  to  which,  more  than  any  other  fea- 
ture of  the  work,  it  owes  its  occasional  resuscitation. 

A  one-act  comedy  opera  by  Donizetti,  "II  Campanello  di 
Notte"  (The  Night  Bell)  was  produced  in  Naples  in  1836. 
It  would  hardly  be  worth  referring  to  but  for  the  fact  that 
it  is  in  the  repertoire  of  the  Society  of  American  Singers, 
who  gave  it,  in  an  English  version  by  Sydney  Rosenfeld,  at 
the  Lyceum  Theatre,  New  York,  May  7,  191 7.  This  little 
WQrk  turns  on  the  attempts  of  a  lover,  who  has  been 


Gaetano  Donizetti  375 

thrown  over,  to  prevent  his  successful  rival,  an  apothecary, 
from  going  to  bed  on  the  night  of  his  marriage.  He  succeeds 
by  adopting  various  disguises,  ringing  the  night  bell,  and 
asking  for  medicine.  In  the  American  first  performance 
David  Bispham  was  the  apothecary,  called  in  the  adapta- 
tion, Don  Hannibal  Pistacchio.  Miss  Gates,  the  Serafina, 
interpolated  "O  luce  di  quest'  anima,"  from  "Linda  di 
Chamounix."    Mr.  Reiss  vfO-s  Enrico,  the  lover. 


/ 


Giuseppe  Verdi 

(1813-1901) 

VERDI  ranks  as  the  greatest  Italian  composer  of  opera. 
There  is  a  marked  distinction  between  his  career  and 
those  of  Bellini  and  Donizetti.  The  two  earlier  composers, 
after  reaching  a  certain  point  of  development,  failed  to  ad- 
vance. No  later  opera  by  Bellini  equals  ' '  La  Sonnambula ' ' ; 
none  other  by  Donizetti  ranks  with  "Lucia  di  Lammer- 
moor. " 

But  Verdi,  despite  the  great  success  of  "Ernani,"  showed 
seven  years  later,  with  "Rigoletto, "  an  amazing  progress 
in  dramatic  expression  and  skill  in  ensemble  work.  "II 
Trovatore"  and  "La  Traviata"  were  other  works  of  the 
period  ushered  in  by  "Rigoletto."  Eighteen  years  later 
the  composer,  then  fifty-eight  years  old,  gave  evidence  of 
another  and  even  more  notable  advance  by  producing 
"Aida,"  a  work,  which  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  period 
in  Italian  opera.  Still  not  satisfied  Verdi  brought  forward 
"Otello"  (1887)  and  "Falstaff "  (1893),  scores,  which  more 
nearly  resemble  music-drama  than  opera. 

Thus  the  steady  forging  ahead  of  Verdi,  the  unhalting 
development  of  his  genius,  is  the  really  great  feature  of  his 
career.  In  fact  no  Italian  composer  since  Verdi  has  caught 
up  with  "Falstaff,"  which  may  be  as  profitably  studied  as 
"Le  Nozze  di  Figaro,"  "II  Barbiere  di  Siviglia, "  "Die 
Meistersinger,"  and  "Der  Rosencavalier. "  Insert  "Fal- 
staff" in  this  list,  in  its  proper  place  between  "Meister- 

376 


Giuseppe  Verdi  377 

singer"  and  "Rosencavalier,"  and  you  have  the  succession 
of  great  operas  conceived  in  the  divine  spirit  of  comedy, 
from  1786  to  191 1. 

In  the  article  on  "  Un  Ballo  in  Maschera, "  the  political  use 
made  of  the  letters  of  Verdi's  name  is  pointed  out.  See 
p.  428. 

Verdi  was  bom  at  Roncole,  near  Busseto,  October  9,  1813. 
He  died  at  Rome,  January  27,  1901.  There  remains  to  be 
said  that,  at  eighteen,  he  was  refused  admission  to  the  Milan 
Conservatory  "on  the  score  of  lack  of  musical  talent. " 

What  fools  these  mortals  be ! 

ERNANI 

Opera,  in  four  acts,  by  Verdi;  words  by  Francesco  Maria  Piave, 
after  Victor  Hugo's  drama,  "Hemani. "  Produced,  Fenice  Theatre, 
Venice,  March  9,  1844;  London,  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  March  8, 
1845;  New  York,  1846,  at  the  Astor  Place  Theatre.  Patti,  at  the 
Academy  of  Music,  Sembrich  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  have 
been  notable  interpreters  of  the  r61e  of  Elvira. 

Characters 

Don  Carlos,  King  of  Castile Baritone 

Don  Ruy  Gomez  di  Silva,  Grandee  of  Spain Bass 

Ernani,  or  John  of  Aragon,  a  bandit  chief Tenor 

Don  Riccardo,  esquire  to  the  King Tenor 

Jago,  esquire  to  Silva Bass 

Elvira,  kinswoman  to  Silva Soprano 

Giovanna,  in  Elvira's  service • Soprano 

Mountaineers  and  bandits,  followers  of  Silva,  ladies  of 

Elvira,  followers  of  Don  Carlos,  electors  and  pages. 

Time — Early  sixteenth  century.  Place — Spain. 

John  of  Aragon  has  become  a  bandit.  His  father,  the 
Duke  of  Segovia,  had  been  slain  by  order  of  Don  Carlos's 
father.  John,  proscribed  and  pursued  by  the  emissaries  of 
the  King,  has  taken  refuge  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  mountains 
of  Aragon,  where,  under  the  name  of  Ernani,  he  has  become 
leader  of  a  large  band  of  rebel  mountaineers.     Ernani  is  in 


378  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

love  with  Donna  Elvira,  who,  although  she  is  about  to  be 
united  to  her  relative,  the  aged  Ruy  Gomez  di  Silva,  a 
grandee  of  Spain,  is  deeply  enamoured  of  the  handsome, 
chivalrous  bandit  chief. 

Don  Carlos,  afterwards  Emperor  Charles  V.,  also  has 
fallen  violently  in  love  with  Elvira.  By  watching  her  win- 
dows he  has  discovered  that  at  dead  of  night  a  young 
cavalier  (Ernani)  gains  admission  to  her  apartments.  He 
imitates  her  lover's  signal,  gains  admission  to  her  chamber, 
declares  his  passion.  Being  repulsed,  he  is  about  to  drag 
her  off  by  force,  when  a  secret  panel  opens,  and  he  finds 
himself  confronted  by  Ernani.  In  the  midst  of  a  violent 
scene  Silva  enters.  To  allay  his  jealousy  and  anger,  natur- 
ally aroused  by  finding  two  men,  apparently  rival  suitors, 
in  the  apartment  of  his  affianced,  the  King,  whom  Silva 
has  not  recognized,  reveals  himself,  and  pretends  to  have 
come  in  disguise  to  consult  him  about  his  approaching  elec- 
tion to  the  empire,  and  a  conspiracy  that  is  on  foot  against 
his  life.  Then  the  King,  pointing  to  Ernani,  says  to  Silva, 
"It  doth  please  us  that  this,  our  follower,  depart,"  thus 
insuring  Ernani' s  temporary  safety — for  a  Spaniard  does 
not  hand  an  enemy  over  to  the  vengeance  of  another. 

Believing  a  rumour  that  Ernani  has  been  run  down  and 
killed  by  the  King's  soldiers,  Elvira  at  last  consents  to  give 
her  hand  in  marriage  to  Silva.  On  the  eve  of  the  wedding, 
however,  Ernani,  pursued  by  the  King  with  a  detachment  of 
troops,  seeks  refuge  in  Suva's  castle,  in  the  disguise  of  a  pil- 
grim. Although  not  known  to  Silva,  he  is,  under  Spanish 
tradition,  his  guest,  and  from  that  moment  entitled  to  his 
protection. 

Elvira  enters  in  her  bridal  attire.  Ernani  is  thus  made 
aware  that  her  nuptials  with  Don  Silva  are  to  be  celebrated 
on  the  morrow.  Tearing  off  his  disguise,  he  reveals  him- 
self to  Silva,  and  demands  to  be  delivered  up  to  the  King, 
preferring  death  to  life  without  Elvira.     But  true  to  his 


Giuseppe  Verdi  379 

honour  as  a  Spanish  host,  Silva  refuses.  Even  his  enemy, 
Ernani,  is  safe  in  his  castle.  Indeed  he  goes  so  far  as  to 
order  his  guards  to  man  the  towers  and  prepare  to  defend  the 
castle,  should  the  King  seek  forcible  entry.  He  leaves  the 
apartment  to  make  sure  his  orders  are  being  carried  out. 
The  lovers  find  themselves  alone.  When  Silva  returns 
they  are  in  each  other's  arms.  But  as  the  King  is  at  the 
castle  gates,  he  has  no  time  to  give  vent  to  his  wrath.  He 
gives  orders  to  admit  the  King  and  his  men,  bids  Elvira 
retire,  and  hides  Ernani  in  a  secret  cabinet.  The  King 
demands  that  Silva  give  up  the  bandit.  The  grandee 
proudly  refuses.  Ernani  is  his  guest.  The  King's  wrath 
then  tiirns  against  Silva.  He  demands  the  surrender  of  his 
sword  and  threatens  him  with  death,  when  Elvira  interposes. 
The  King  pardons  Silva,  but  bears  away  Elvira  as  hostage 
for  the  loyalty  of  her  kinsman. 

The  King  has  gone.  From  the  wall  Silva  takes  down  two 
swords,  releases  his  guest  from  his  hiding-place,  and  bids 
him  cross  swords  with  him  to  the  death.  Ernani  refuses. 
His  host  has  just  protected  his  life  at  the  danger  of  his  own. 
But,  if  Silva  insists  upon  vengeance,  let  grandee  and  bandit 
first  unite  against  the  King,  with  whom  the  honour  of  Elvira 
is  unsafe.  Elvira  rescued,  Ernani  will  give  himself  up  to 
Silva,  to  whom,  handing  him  his  hunting-horn,  he  avows 
himself  ready  to  die,  whenever  a  blast  upon  it  shall  be 
sounded  from  the  lip  of  the  implacable  grandee.  Silva, 
who  has  been  in  entire  ignorance  of  the  King's  passion  for 
Elvira,  grants  the  reprieve,  and  stmimons  his  men  to  horse. 

He  sets  on  foot  a  conspiracy  against  the  King.  A  meeting 
of  the  conspirators  is  held  in  the  Cathedral  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  in  the  vault,  within  which  stands  the  tomb  of 
Charlemagne.  Here  it  is  resolved  to  murder  the  King. 
A  ballot  decides  who  shall  do  the  deed.  Ernani's  name  is 
drawn. 

The  King,  however,  has  received  information  of  the  time 


380  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

and  place  of  this  meeting.  From  the  tomb  he  has  been  an 
unobserved  witness  of  the  meeting  and  purpose  of  the  con- 
spirators. Booming  of  cannon  outside  tells  him  of  his  choice 
as  head  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Emerging  from  the 
tomb,  he  shows  himself  to  the  awed  conspirators,  who 
imagine  they  see  Charlemagne  issuing  forth  to  combat  them. 
At  the  same  moment  the  doors  open.  The  electors  of  the 
Empire  enter  to  pay  homage  to  Charles  V. 

"The  herd  to  the  dungeon,  the  nobles  to  the  headsman, " 
he  commands. 

Ernani  advances,  discovers  himself  as  John  of  Aragon, 
and  claims  the  right  to  die  with  the  nobles — "to  fall,  covered, 
before  the  King. ' '  But  upon  Elvira's  fervent  plea,  the  King , 
now  also  Emperor,  commences  his  reign  with  an  act  of  grace. 
He  pardons  the  conspirators,  restores  to  Ernani  his  titles 
and  estates,  and  unites  him  with  Elvira. 

Silva,  thwarted  in  his  desire  to  marry  Elvira,  waits  until 
Ernani  and  Elvira,  after  their  nuptials,  are  upon  the  terrace 
of  ErnanVs  castle  in  Aragon.  At  their  most  blissful  mo- 
ment he  sounds  the  fatal  horn.  Ernani,  too  chivalrous 
to  evade  his  promise,  stabs  himself  in  the  presence  of  the 
grim  avenger  and  of  Elvira  who  falls  prostrate  upon  his 
lifeless  body. 

In  the  opera,  this  plot  develops  as  follows:  Act  I.  opens 
in  the  camp  of  the  bandits  in  the  mountains  of  Aragon. 
In  the  distance  is  seen  the  Moorish  castle  of  Silva.  The 
time  is  near  sunset.  Of  Ernani' s  followers,  some  are  eating 
and  drinking,  or  are  at  play,  while  others  are  arranging 
their  weapons.  They  sing,  "Allegri,  beviamo"  (Haste! 
Clink  we  our  glasses). 

Ernani  sings  Elvira's  praise  in  the  air,  "Come  rugiada  al 
cespite"  (Balmier  than  dew  to  drooping  bud). 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


381 


This  expressive  number  is  followed  by  one  in  faster  time, 
"O  tu,  che  I'alma  adora"  (O  thou  toward  whom,  adoring 
soul). 


Enthusiastically  volimteering  to  share  any  danger 
Ernani  may  incur  in  seeking  to  carry  off  Elvira,  the  bandits, 
with  their  chief  at  their  head,  go  off  in  the  direction  of 
Silva's  castle. 

The  scene  changes  to  Elvira's  apartment  in  the  castle.  It 
is  night.  She  is  meditating  upon  £rna«t.  When  she  thinks 
of  Silva,  "the  frozen,  withered  spectre, "  and  contrasts  with 
him  Ernani,  who  "in  her  heart  ever  reigneth, "  she  voices 
her  thoughts  in  that  famous  air  for  sopranos,  one  of  Verdi's 
loveliest  inspirations,  "Ernani!  involami"  (Ernani!  fly 
with  me). 


tJfnd<"Aina 


It  ends  with  a  brilliant  cadenza,  "Un  Eden  quegli  antri  a 
me"  (An  Eden  that  opens  to  me). 


*^  un    f --.  d,r.^u.,l.«^lr,a.    m: 

Young  maidens  bearing  wedding  gifts  enter.  They  sing 
a  chorus  of  congratulation.  To  this  Elvira  responds  with  a 
graceful  air,  the  sentiment  of  which,  however,  is  expressed 
as  an  aside,  since  it  refers  to  her  longing  for  her  young,  hand- 
some and  chivalrous  lover.  "Tutto  sprezzo  che  d'Ernani" 
(Words  that  breathe  thy  name  Ernani). 


382  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  young  women  go.  Enter  Don  Carlos,  the  King. 
There  is  a  colloquy,  in  which  Elvira  protests  against  his 
presence;  and  then  a  duet,  which  the  King  begins,  "Da  quel 
di  che  t'ho  veduta"  (From  the  day,  when  first  thy  beauty). 

A  secret  panel  opens.  The  King  is  confronted  by  Ernani, 
and  by  Elvira,  who  has  snatched  a  dagger  from  his  belt. 
She  interposes  between  the  two  men.  Silva  enters.  What 
he  beholds  draws  from  him  the  melancholy  reflections — 
"  Infelice !  e  tu  credevi "  (Unhappy  me !  and  I  believed  thee), 


In   .     /> 


an  exceptionally  fine  bass  solo.  He  follows  it  with  the 
vindictive  "Infin,  che  un  brando  vindici"  (In  fine  a  swift, 
unerring  blade). 

Men  and  women  of  the  castle  and  the  King's  suite  have 
come  on.  The  monarch  is  recognized  by  Silva,  who  does 
him  obeisance,  and,  at  the  King's  command,  is  obliged  to 
let  Ernani  depart.     An  ensemble  brings  the  act  to  a  close. 

Act  II.  Grand  hall  in  Silva's  castle.  Doors  lead  to 
various  apartments.  Portraits  of  the  Silva  family,  sur- 
mounted by  ducal  coronets  and  coats-of-arms,  are  hung  on 
the  walls.  Near  each  portrait  is  a  complete  suit  of  eques- 
trian armour,  corresponding  in  period  to  that  in  which  lived 
the  ancestor  represented  in  the  portrait.  A  large  table  and 
a  ducal  chair  of  carved  oak. 

The  persistent  chorus  of  ladies,  though  doubtless  aware 
that  Elvira  is  not  thrilled  at  the  prospect  of  marriage  with 
her  "frosty"  kinsman,  and  has  consented  to  marry  him 
only  because  she  believes  Ernani  dead,  enters  and  sings 
" Escultiamo ! "  (Exultation!),  then  pays  tribute  to  the 
many  virtues  and  graces  of  the  bride. 

Tq  Silva,  in  the  full  costum§  ,of  a  Grandee  of  Spain,  and 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


383 


seated  in  the  ducal  chair,  is  brought  in  Ernani,  disguised 
as  a  monk.  He  is  welcomed  as  a  guest;  but,  upon  the 
appearance  of  Elvira  in  bridal  array,  throws  off  his  disguise 
and  offers  his  life,  a  sacrifice  to  Silva's  vengeance,  as  the 
first  gift  for  the  wedding.  Silva,  however,  learning  that  he 
is  pursued  by  the  King,  offers  him  the  protection  due  a  guest 
under  the  roof  of  a  Spaniard. 

"Ah,  morir  potessi  adesso"  (Ah,  to  die  would  be  a  blessing) 
is  the  impassioned  duet  simg  by  Elvira  and  Ernani,  when 
Silva  leaves  them  together. 


/9#.    /#/■  ft  4t  •     4dm-  tm       O  fnw  £r.    /»« 


Silva,  even  when  he  returns  and  discovers  Elvira  in 
Ernani' s  arms,  will  not  break  the  law  of  Spanish  hospitality, 
preferring  to  wreak  vengeance  in  his  own  way.  He  therefore 
hides  Ernani  so  securely  that  the  King's  followers,  after 
searching  the  castle,  are  obliged  to  report  their  complete 
failure  to  discover  a  trace  of  him.  Chorus:  "Fu  esplorato 
del  castello"  (We  have  now  explored  the  castle). 

Then  come  the  important  episodes  described — the  King's 
demand  for  the  surrender  of  Silva's  sword  and  threat  to 
execute  him;  Elvira's  interposition;  and  the  King's  sinister 
action  in  carrying  her  off  as  a  hostage,  after  he  has  sung  the 
significant  air,  "  Vieni  meco,  sol  di  rose"  (Come  with  me,  a 
brighter  dawning  waits  for  thee). 


Ernani's  handing  of  his  hunting  horn  to  Silva,  and  his 
arousal  of  the  grandee  to  an  understanding  o^the  danger 
that  threatens  Elvira  from  the  King,  is  followed  by  the 
finale,  a  spirited  call  to  arms  by  Silva,  Ernani,  and  chorus, 


384  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"In  arcione,  in  arcione,  cavalieri!"  (To  horse,  to  horse, 
cavaliers !) . 

Silva  and  Ernani  distribute  weapons  among  the  men, 
whichthey  brandish  as  they  rush  from  the  hall. 

Act  III.  The  scene  is  a  sepulchral  vault,  enclosing  the 
tomb  of  Charlemagne  in  the  Cathedral  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The  tomb  is  entered  by  a  heavy  door  of  bronze,  upon  which  is 
carved  in  large  characters  the  word  ' '  Charlemagne. ' '  Steps 
lead  to  the  great  door  of  the  vault.  Other  and  smaller  tombs 
are  seen  and  other  doors  that  give  on  other  passageways. 
Two  lamps,  suspended  from  the  roof,  shed  a  faint  light. 

It  is  into  this  sombre  but  grandiose  place  the  King  has 
come  in  order  to  overhear,  from  within  the  tomb  of  his  great- 
est ancestor,  the  plotting  ot  the  conspirators.  His  soliloquy, 
"Oh,  de'  verd'  anni  miei"  (Oh,  for  my  youthful  years  once 
more),  derives  impressiveness  both  from  the  solemnity  of 
the  situation  and  the  music's  flowing  measure. 


The  principal  detail  in  the  meeting  of  the  conspirators  is 
their  chorus,  "Si  ridesti  il  Leon  di  Castiglia"  (Let  the  lion 
awake  in  CastiUa).  Dramatically  effective,  too,  in  the 
midst  of  the  plotting,  is  the  sudden  booming  of  distant  can- 
non. It  startles  the  conspirators.  Cannon  boom  again. 
The  bronze  door  of  the  tomb  swings  open. 

Then  the  King  presents  himself  at  the  entrance  of  the 
tomb.  Three  times  he  strikes  the  door  of  bronze  with  the 
hilt  of  his  dagger.  The  principal  entrance  to  the  vault 
opens.  To  the  sound  of  trumpets  six  Electors  enter,  dressed 
in  cloth  of  gold.  They  are  followed  by  pages  carrying, 
upon  velvet  cushions,  the  sceptre,  crown,  and  other  imperial 
insignia.  Courtiers  surround  the  Emperor.  Elvira  ap- 
proaches.    The    banners    of    the    Empire    are    displayed. 


Giuseppe  Verdi  385 

Many  torches  borne  by  soldiers  illuminate  the  scene.  The 
act  closes  with  the  pardon  granted  by  the  King,  and  the 
stirring  finale,  "Oh,  sommo  Carlo!"  (Charlemagne!) 

Act  IV.,  on  the  terrace  of  Ernani's  castle,  is  brief,  and 
there  is  nothing  to  add  to  what  has  been  said  of  its  action. 
Ernani  asks  Silva  to  spare  him  till  his  lips  have  tasted  the 
chalice  filled  by  love.  He  recounts  his  sad  life:  "Solingo, 
errante  misero"  (To  linger  in  exiled  misery). 

Silva's  grim  reply  is  to  offer  him  his  choice  between  a  cup 
of  poison  and  a  dagger.  He  takes  the  latter.  "Ferma, 
crudele,  estinguere"  (Stay  thee,  my  lord,  for  me  at  least) 
cries  Elvira,  wishing  to  share  his  fate.  In  the  end  there  is 
left  only  the  implacable  avenger,  to  gloat  over  Ernani, 
dead,  and  Elvira  prostrate  upon  his  form. 

"Ernani,"  brought  out  in  1844,  is  the  earliest  work  by 
Verdi  that  maintains  a  foothold  in  the  modern  repertoire, 
though  by  no  means  a  very  firm  one.  And  yet  "Ernani "  is 
in  many  respects  a  fine  opera.  One  wonders  why  it  has  not 
lasted  better.  Hanslick,  the  Viennese  critic,  made  a  dis- 
criminating criticism  upon  it.  He  pointed  out  that  whereas 
in  Victor  Hugo's  drama  the  mournful  blast  upon  the  hunt- 
ing horn,  when  heard  in  the  last  act,  thrills  the  listener  with 
tragic  forebodings,  in  the  opera,  after  listening  to  solos, 
choruses,  and  a  full  orchestra  all  the  evening,  the  audience 
is  but  little  impressed  by  the  sounding  of  a  note  upon  a 
single  instrument.  That  comment,  however,  presupposes 
considerable  subtlety,  so  far  undiscovered,  on  the  part  of 
operatic  audiences. 

The  fact  is,  that  since  1844  the  whirligig  of  time  has  made 
one — two — three — perhaps  even  four  revolutions,  and  with 
each  revolution  the  public  taste  that  prevailed,  when  the 
first  audience  that  heard  the  work  in  the  Teatro  Fenice, 
went  wild  over  "Ernani  Involami"  and  "Sommo  Carlo," 
has  become  more  remote  and  undergone  more  and  more 

3S 


386  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

changes.  To  turn  back  operatic  time  in  its  flight  requires 
in  the  case  of  "Ernani,"  a  soprano  of  unusual  voice  and 
personality  for  Elvira,  a  tenor  of  the  same  qualities  for  the 
picturesque  role  of  Ernani,  a  fine  baritone  for  Don  Car- 
los, and  a  sonorous  basso,  who  doesn't  look  too  much  like  a 
meal  bag,  for  Don  Ruy  Gomez  di  Silva,  Grandee  of  Spain. 

Early  in  its  career  the  opera  experienced  various  vicissi- 
tudes. The  conspiracy  scene  had  to  be  toned  down  for 
political  reasons  before  the  production  of  the  work  was  per- 
mitted. Even  then  the  chorus,  "Let  the  lion  awake  in 
Castilia,"  caused  a  political  demonstration.  In  Paris, 
Victor  Hugo,  as  author  of  the  drama  on  which  the  libretto 
is  based,  raised  objections  to  its  representation,  and  it  was 
produced  in  the  French  capital  as  "II  Proscritto"  (The 
Proscribed)  with  the  characters  changed  to  Italians.  Victor 
Hugo's  "Hernani"  was  a  famous  play  in  Sarah  Bernhardt's 
repertoire  during  her  early  engagements  in  this  country. 
Her  Dona  Sol  {Elvira  in  the  opera)  was  one  of  her  finest 
achievements.  On  seeing  the  play,  with  her  in  it,  I  put  to 
test  Hanslick's  theory.  The  horn  was  thrilling  in  the  play. 
It  certainly  is  less  so  in  the  opera. 

RIGOLETTO 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Verdi;  words  by  Francesco  Maria  Piave, 
founded  on  Victor  Hugo's  play,  "Le  Roi  s'Amuse. "  Produced,  Fenice 
Theatre,  Venice,  March  ii,  1851;  London,  Covent  Garden,  May  14, 
1853;  Paris,  Th6S.tre  des  Italiens,  January  19,  1857;  New  York, 
Academy  of  Music,  November  4,  1857,  with  Bignardi  and  Frezzolini. 
Caruso  made  his  dfebut  in  America  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
New  York,  as  the  Duke  in  "  Rigoletto,"  November  23,  1903;  Galli- 
Curci  hers,  as  Gilda,  Chicago,  November  18,  19 16. 

CHARACTERS 

The  Dukb  of  Mantua Tenor 

Rigoletto,  his  jester,  a  hunchback Baritone 

Count  Ceprano  )  C       Bass 

Count  Monterone     >-  Nobles }  Baritone 

Sparafucile,  a  bravo )  (^       Bass 


Giuseppe  Verdi  387 

BoRSA,  in  the  Duke's  service Tenor 

Marullo Bass 

Countess  Ceprano Soprano 

Gu^DA,  daughter  of  Rigoletto Soprano 

.  Giovanni,  her  duenna Soprano 

'  Maddalena,  sister  to  Sparaf ucile Contralto 

Courtiers,  nobles,  pages,  servants. 
Time — Sixteenth  century.  Place — Mantua. 


"Rigoletto"  is  a  distingmshed  opera.  Composed  in 
forty  days  in  1851,  nearing  three-quarters  of  a  century  of 
life  before  the  footlights,  it  still  retains  its  vitality.  Twenty 
years,  with  all  they  imply  in  experience  and  artistic  growth, 
lie  between  "Rigoletto"  and  "Aida. "  Yet  the  earlier 
opera,  composed  so  rapidly  as  to  constitute  a  tour  deforce 
of  musical  creation,  seems  destined  to  remain  a  close  second 
in  popularity  to  the  more  mature  work  of  its  great  com- 
poser. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  the  public's  abiding  interest 
in  "Rigoletto. "  It  is  based  upon  a  most  effective  play  by 
Victor  Hugo,  "Le  Roi  s' Amuse,"  known  to  English  play- 
goers in  Tom  Taylor's  adaptation  as  "The  Fool's  Revenge. " 
The  jester  was  one  of  Edwin  Booth's  great  roles.  This  role 
of  the  deformed  court  jester,  Rigoletto,  the  hunchback,  not 
only  figures  in  the  opera,  but  has  been  vividly  character- 
ized by  Verdi  in  his  music.  It  is  a  vital,  centralizing  force 
in  the  opera,  concentrating  and  holding  attention,  a  char- 
acter creation  that  appeals  strongly  both  to  the  singer  who 
enacts  it  and  to  the  audience  who  sees  and  hears  it.  The 
r61e  has  appealed  to  famous  artists.  Ronconi  (who  taught 
singing  in  New  York  for  a  few  years,  beginning  in  1867)  was 
a  notable  Rigoletto;  so  was  Galassi,  whose  intensely  dramatic 
performance  still  is  vividly  recalled  by  the  older  opera-goers; 
Renaud  at  the  Manhattan  Opera  House,  Titta  Ruffo  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  Philadelphia,  both  made  their 
American  debuts  as  Rigoletto. 


388  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

But  the  opera  offers  other  roles  of  distinction.  Mario 
was  a  famous  Duke  in  other  days.  Caruso  made  his  sensa- 
tional dt^but  at  the  Metropolitan  in  the  character  of  the 
volatile  Duca  di  Mantua,  November  23,  1903.  We  have 
had  as  Gilda  Adelina  Patti,  Melba,  and  Tetrazzini,  to  men- 
tion but  a  few;  and  the  heroine  of  the  opera  is  one  of  the 
r61es  of  Galli-Curci,  who  appeared  in  it  in  Chicago,  Novem- 
ber 18,  1 91 6.  No  coloratura  soprano  can,  so  to  speak,  afford 
to  be  without  it. 

Thus  the  opera  has  plot,  a  central  character  of  vital 
dramatic  importance,  and  at  least  two  other  characters  of 
strong  interest.  But  there  is  even  more  to  be  said  in  its 
behalf.  For,  next  to  the  sextet  in  "Lucia,"  the  quartet  in 
the  last  act  of  "Rigoletto"  is  the  finest  piece  of  concerted 
music  in  Italian  opera — and  many  people  will  object 
to  my  placing  it  only  "next"  to  that  other  famous 
ensemble,  instead  of  on  complete  equality  with,  or  even 
ahead  of  it. 

The  "argument"  of  "Rigoletto"  deals  with  the  amatory 
escapades  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua.  In  these  he  is  aided  by 
Rigoletto,  his  jester,  a  hunchback.  Rigoletto,  both  by  his 
caustic  wit  and  unscrupulous  conduct,  has  made  many 
enemies  at  court.  Count  Monterone,  who  comes  to  the  court 
to  demand  the  restoration  of  his  daughter,  who  has  been 
dishonoured  by  the  Duke,  is  met  by  the  jester  with  laughter 
and  derision.  The  Count  curses  Rigoletto,  who  is  stricken 
with  superstitious  terror. 

For  Rigoletto  has  a  daughter,  Gilda,  whom  he  keeps  in 
strict  seclusion.  But  the  Duke,  without  being  aware  who 
she  is,  has  seen  her,  unknown  to  her  father,  and  fallen  in 
love  with  her.  Count  Ceprano  who  many  times  has  suffered 
under  Rigoletto's  biting  tongue,  knowing  that  she  is  in 
some  way  connected  with  the  jester,  in  fact  believing  her  to 
be  his  mistress,  and  glad  of  any  opportunity  of  doing  him 
an  injury,  forms  a  plan  to  carry  off  the  young  girl,  and  so 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


389 


arranges  it  that  RigoleUo  unwittingly  assists  in  her  abduc* 
tion.  When  he  finds  that  it  is  his  own  daughter  whom  he  has 
aided  to  place  in  the  power  of  the  Duke,  he  determines  to 
murder  his  master,  and  engages  Sparafucile,  a  bravo,  to  do 
so.  This  man  has  a  sister,  Maddalena,  who  entices  the 
Duke  to  a  lonely  inn.  She  becomes  fascinated  with  him, 
however,  and  begs  her  brother  to  spare  his  life.  This  he 
consents  to  do  if  before  midnight  any  one  shall  arrive  at  the 
inn  whom  he  can  kill  and  pass  off  as  the  murdered  Duke. 
Rigoletto,  who  has  recovered  his  daughter,  brings  her  to  the 
inn  so  that,  by  being  a  witness  of  the  Duke's  inconstancy, 
she  may  be  cured  of  her  unhappy  love.  She  overhears  the 
plot  to  murder  her  lover,  and  Sparafucile's  promise  to  his 
sister.  Determined  to  save  the  Duke,  she  knocks  for  ad- 
mittance, and  is  stabbed  on  entering.  Rigoletto  comes  at 
the  appointed  time  for  the  body.  Sparafucile  brings  it 
out  in  a  sack.  The  jester  is  about  to  throw  it  into  the  water, 
sack  and  all,  when  he  hears  the  Duke  singing.  He  tears 
open  the  sack,  only  to  find  his  own  daughter,  at  the  point  of 
death. 

Act  I  opens  in  a  salon  in  the  Duke's  palace.  A  suite  of 
other  apartments  is  seen  extending  into  the  background. 
All  are  brilliantly  lighted  for  the  f^te  that  is  in  progress. 
Courtiers  and  ladies  are  moving  about  in  all  directions. 
Pages  are  passing  to  and  fro.  From  an  adjoining  salon 
music  is  heard  and  bursts  of  merriment. 


There  is  effervescent  gayety  in  the  orchestral  accompani- 
ment to  the  scene.     A  minuet  played  by  an  orchestra  on  the 


390  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

stage  is  curiously  reminiscent  of  the  minuet  in  Mozart's 
"  Don  Giovanni. "  The  Duke  and  Borsa  enter  from  the 
back.  They  are  conversing  about  an  "unknown  charmer  " — 
none  other  than  Gilda — whom  the  Duke  has  seen  at  church. 
He  says  that  he  will  pursue  the  adventure  to  the  end,  al- 
though a  mysterious  man  visits  her  m'ghtly. 

Among  a  group  of  his  guests  the  Duke  sees  the  Countess 
Ceprano,  whom  he  has  been  wooing  quite  openly,  in  spite  of 
the  Count's  visible  annoyance.  The  dashing  gallant  cares 
nothing  about  what  any  one  may  think  of  his  escapades, 
least  of  all  the  husbands  or  other  relatives  of  the  ladies. 
"Questo  e  quella  per  me  pari  sono"  (This  one,  or  that  one, 
to  me  'tis  the  same). 


This  music  floats  on  air.  It  gives  at  once  the  cue  to  the 
Duke's  character.  Like  Don  Giovanni  he  is  indifferent  to 
fate,  flits  from  one  affair  to  another,  and  is  found  as  fascin- 
ating as  he  is  dangerous  by  all  women,  of  whatever  degree, 
upon  whom  he  confers  his  doubtful  favours. 

Rigoletto,  hunchbacked  but  agile,  sidles  in.  He  is  in  cap 
and  bells,  and  carries  the  jester's  bauble.  The  immediate 
object  of  his  satire  is  Count  Ceprano,  who  is  watching  his 
wife,  as  she  is  being  led  off  on  the  Duke's  arm.  Rigoletto 
then  goes  out  looking  for  other  victims.  Marullo  joins  the 
nobles.  He  tells  them  that  Rigoletto,  despite  his  hiunp, 
has  an  inamorata.  The  statement  makes  a  visible 
impression  upon  Count  Ceprano,  and  when  the  nobles, 
after  another  sally  from  the  jester,  who  has  returned 
with  the  Duke,  inveigh  against  his  bitter  tongue,  the 
Count  bids  them  meet  him  at  night  on  the  morrow 
and  he  will  guarantee  them  revenge  upon  the  hunchback 
for  the  gibes  they  have  been  obliged  to  endure  from 
him. 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


m 


The  gay  music,  which  forms  a  restless  background  to  the 
recitatives  of  which  I  have  given  the  gist,  trips  buoyantly 


along,  to  be  suddenly  broken  in  upon  by  the  voice  of  one 
struggling  without,  and  who,  having  freed  himself  from  those 
evidently  striving  to  hold  him  back,  bursts  in  upon  the  scene. 
It  is  the  aged  Count  Monterone.  His  daughter  has  been 
dishonoured  by  the  Duke,  and  he  denounces  the  ruler  of 
Mantua  before  the  whole  assembly.  His  arrest  is  ordered. 
Rigoletto  mocks  him  until,  drawing  himself  up  to  his  full 
height,  the  old  noble  not  only  denounces  him,  but  calls  down 
upon  him  a  father's  curse. 

Rigoletto  is  strangely  affrighted.  He  cowers  before  Mon- 
terone's  malediction.  It  is  the  first  time  since  he  has  ap- 
peared at  the  gathering  that  he  is  not  gibing  at  some  one. 
Not  only  is  he  subdued;  he  is  terror-stricken. 

Monterone  is  led  off  between  halberdiers.  The  gay  music 
again  breaks  in.  The  crowd  follows  the  Duke.  But 
Rigoletto? 

The  scene  changes  to  the  street  outside  of  his  house.  It 
is  secluded  in  a  courtyard,  from  which  a  door  leads  into 
the  street.  In  the  courtyard  are  a  tall  tree  and  a  marble 
seat.  There  is  also  seen  at  the  end  of  the  street,  which  has 
no  thoroughfare,  the  gable  end  of  Count  Ceprano's  palace. 
It  is  night. 

As  Rigoletto  enters,  he  speaks  of  Monterone' s  curse.  His 
entrance  to  the  house  is  interrupted  by  the  appearance  of 
Sparafucile,  an  assassin  for  hire.  In  a  colloquy,  to  which 
the  orchestra  supplies  an  accompaniment,  interesting  be- 
cause in  keeping  with  the  scene  he  offers  to  Rigoletto  his 


392 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


services,  should  they  be  needed,  in  putting  enemies  out  of 
the  way — and  his  charges  are  reasonable. 


Rigoletto  has  no  immediate  need  of  him,  but  ascertains 
where  he  can  be  found. 

Sparafucile  goes.  Rigoletto  has  a  soliloquy,  beginning, 
"How  like  are  we ! — the  tongue,  my  weapon,  the  dagger  his ! 
to  make  others  laugh  is  my  vocation, — his  to  make  them 
weep!  .  .  .  Tears,  the  common  solace  of  htimanity,  are 
to  me  denied.  .  .  .  'Amuse  me  buffoon' — and  I  must 
obey."  His  mind  still  dwells  on  the  curse — a  father's 
curse,  pronounced  upon  him,  a  father  to  whom  his  daughter 
is  a  jewel.  He  refers  to  it,  even  as  he  unlocks  the  door  that 
leads  to  his  house,  and  also  to  his  daughter,  who,  as  he 
enters,  throws  herself  into  his  arms. 

He  cautions  her  about  going  out.  She  says  she  never 
ventures  beyond  the  courtyard  save  to  go  to  church.  He 
grieves  over  the  death  of  his  wife — Gilda's  mother — that 
left  her  to  his  care  while  she  was  still  an  infant.  "Deh 
non  parlare  al  misero"  (Speak  not  of  one  whose  loss  to  me). 


Tfon        par. 


He  charges  her  attendant,  Giovanna,  carefully  to  guard 
her.  Gilda  endeavours  to  dispel  his  fears.  The  result  is 
the  duet  for  Rigoletto  and  Gilda,  beginning  with  his  words 
to  Giovanna,  "  Veglia,  o  donna,  questo  fiore"  (Safely  guard 
this  tender  blossom). 

Rigoletto  hears  footsteps  in  the  street  and  goes  out  through 


Photo  copyright,  1916,  by  Victor  Georg 

Galli-Curci  as  Gilda  in  "Rigoletto' 


Copyright  phot' 


Caruso  as  the  Duke  in  "Rigoletto' 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


393 


the  door  of  the  courtyard  to  see  who  may  be  there.  As  the 
door  swings  out,  the  Duke,  for  it  is  he,  in  the  guise  of  a 
student,  whose  stealthy  footsteps  have  been  heard  by  the 
jester,  conceals  himself  behind  it,  then  slips  into  the  court- 
yard, tosses  a  purse  to  Ciovanna,  and  hides  in  the  shadow  of 
the  tree.  Rigoletto  reappears  for  a  brief  moment  to  say 
good-bye  to  Gilda  and  once  more  to  warn  Giovanna  to  guard 
her  carefully. 

When  he  has  gone  Gilda  worries  because  fear  drove  her  to 
refrain  from  revealing  to  her  father  that  a  handsome  youth 
has  several  times  followed  her  from  church.  This  youth's 
image  is  installed  in  her  heart.  "I  long  to  say  to  him  'I 
lo'— '" 

The  Duke  steps  out  of  the  tree's  shadow,  motions  to 
Giovanna  to  retire  and,  throwing  himself  at  Gilda' s  feet,  takes 
the  words  out  of  her  mouth  by  exclaiming,  "I  love  thee!" 

No  doubt  taken  by  surprise,  yet  also  thrilled  with  joy, 
she  hearkens  to  him  rapturously  as  he  declares,  "E  il 
sol  deir  anima,  la  vita  e  amore"  (Love  is  the  sun  by  which 
passion  is  kindled). 


The  meeting  is  brief,  for  again  there  are  footsteps  out- 
side. But  their  farewell  is  an  impassioned  duet,  "Addio 
speranza  ed  anima"  (Farewell,  my  hope,  my  soul,  farewell). 

He  has  told  her  that  he  is  a  student,  by  name  Walter 
Maldd.  When  he  has  gone,  she  muses  upon  the  name,  and, 
when  she  has  lighted  a  candle  and  is  ascending  the  steps  to 
her  room,  she  sings  the  enchanting  coloratura  air,  "Caro 
nome  che  il  mio  cor"  (Dear  name,  my  heart  enshrines). 


394  Th©  Complete  Opera  Book 

If  the  Gilda  be  reasonably  slender  and  pretty,  the  scene, 
with  the  courtyard,  the  steps  leading  up  to  the  room,  and 
the  young  maiden  gracefully  and  tenderly  expressing  her 
heart's  first  romance,  is  charming,  and  in  itself  sufficient 
to  account  for  the  attraction  which  the  r61e  holds  for  prima 
donnas. 

Tiptoeing  through  the  darkness  outside  come  Marullo, 
Ceprano,  Borsa,  and  other  nobles  and  courtiers,  intent  upon 
seeking  revenge  for  the  gibes  Rigoletto  at  various  times  has 
aimed  at  them,  by  carrying  off  the  damsel,  whom  they  as- 
strnie  to  be  his  inamorata.  At  that  moment,  however,  the 
jester  himself  appears.  They  tell  him  they  have  come  to 
abduct  the  Countess  Ceprano  and  bear  her  to  the  Ducal 
palace.  To  substantiate  this  statement  Marullo  quickly 
has  the  keys  to  Ceprano' s  house  passed  to  him  by  the  Count, 
and  in  the  darkness  holds  them  out  to  Rigoletto,  who,  his 
suspicions  allayed  because  he  can  feel  the  Ceprano  crest  in 
basso-relievo  on  the  keys,  volunteers  to  aid  in  the  escapade. 
Marullo  gives  him  a  mask  and,  as  if  to  fasten  it  securely, 
ties  it  with  a  handkerchief,  which  he  passes  over  the  pierc- 
ings for  the  eyes.  Rigoletto,  confused,  holds  a  ladder  against 
what  he  believes  to  be  the  wall  of  Ceprano' s  house.  By  it, 
the  abductors  climb  his  own  wall,  enter  his  house,  gag,  seize, 
and  carry  away  Gilda,  making  their  exit  from  the  courtyard, 
but  in  their  hurry  failing  to  observe  a  scarf  that  has  fluttered 
from  their  precious  burden. 

Rigoletto  is  left  alone  in  the  darkness  and  silence.  He 
tears  off  his  mask.  The  door  to  his  courtyard  is  open.  Be- 
fore him  lies  Gilda' s  scarf.  He  rushes  into  the  house,  into 
her  room;  reappears,  staggering  under  the  weight  of  the 
disaster,  which,  through  his  own  unwitting  connivance, 
has  befallen  him. 

"Ah!  La  maledizione ! "  he  cries  out.  It  is  Monterone's 
curse. 

Act  II  has  its  scene  laid  in  the  ducal  palace.     This  salon 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


395 


has  large  folding  doors  in  the  background  and  smaller  ones 
on  each  side,  above  which  are  portraits  of  the  Duke  and  of 
the  Duchess,  a  lady  who,  whether  from  a  sense  of  delicacy 
or  merely  to  serve  the  convenience  of  the  stage,  does  not 
otherwise  appear  in  the  opera. 

The  Duke  is  disconsolate.  He  has  returned  to  Rigoletto's 
house,  found  it  empty.  The  bird  had  flown.  The  scamp 
mourns  his  loss — in  affecting  language  and  music,  "Parmi 
veder  le  lagrime"(Fair  maid,  each  tear  of  mine  that  flows). 

In  a  capital  chorus  he  is  told  by  Marullo  and  the  others 
that  they  have  abducted  Rigoletto's  inamorata. 


The  Duke  well  knows  that  she  is  the  very  one  whose 
charms  are  the  latest  that  have  enraptured  him.  "Pos- 
sente  amor  mi  chiama"  (To  her  I  love  with  rapttu-e). 

He  learns  from  the  courtiers  that  they  have  brought  her 
to  the  palace.  He  hastens  to  her,  "to  console  her,"  in  his 
own  way.  It  is  at  this  moment  Rigoletto  enters.  •  He  knows 
his  daughter  is  in  the  palace.  He  has  come  to  search  for  her. 
Aware  that  he  is  in  the  presence  of  those  who  took  advantage 
of  him  and  thus  secured  his  aid  in  the  abduction  of  the  night 
before,  he  yet,  in  order  to  accomplish  his  purpose,  must 
appear  light-hearted,  question  craftily,  and  be  diplomatic, 
although  at  times  he  cannot  prevent  his  real  feelings  break- 
ing through.  It  is  the  ability  of  Verdi  to  give  expression 
to  such  varied  emotions  which  make  this  scene  one  of  the 
most  significant  in  his  operas.  It  is  dominated  by  an  or- 
chestral motive,  that  of  the  clown  who  jests  while  his  heart 
is  breaking. 


396  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Finally  he  turns  upon  the  crowd  that  taunts  him,  hurls 
invective  upon  them;  and,  when  a  door  opens  and  Gilda, 
whose  story  can  be  read  in  her  aspect  of  despair,  rushes 
into  his  arms,  he  orders  the  courtiers  out  of  sight  with  a 
sense  of  outrage  so  justified  that,  in  spite  of  the  flippant 
words  with  which  they  comment  upon  his  command,  they 
obey  it. 

Father  and  daughter  are  alone.  She  tells  him  her 
story — of  the  handsome  youth,  who  followed  her  from 
church — "Tutte'  le  feste  all  tempio"  (One  very  festal 
morning). 

Then  follows  her  account  of  their  meeting,  his  pretence 
that  he  was  a  poor  student,  when,  in  reality,  he  was 
the  Duke — to  whose  chamber  she  was  borne  after  her 
abduction.  It  is  from  there  she  has  just  come.  Her 
father  strives  to  comfort  her — "Piangi,  fanciulla"  (Weep, 
my  child). 

At  this  moment  he  is  again  reminded  of  the  curse  pro- 
nounced upon  him  by  the  father  whose  grief  with  him  had 
been  but  the  subject  of  ribald  jest.  Count  Monterone, 
between  guards,  is  conducted  through  the  apartment  to 
the  prison  where  he  is  to  be  executed  for  denouncing  the 
Duke.  Then  Rigoletto  vows  vengeance  upon  the  betrayer 
of  Gilda. 

But  such  is  the  fascination  which  the  Duke  exerts  over 
women  that  Gilda,  fearing  for  the  life  of  her  despoiler,  pleads 
with  her  father  to  "pardon  him,  as  we  ourselves  the  pardon 
of  heaven  hope  to  gain,"  adding,  in  an  aside,  "I  dare  not 
say  how  much  I  love  hini. " 

It  was  a  corrupt,  care-free  age.  Victor  Hugo  created  a 
debonair  character — a  libertine  who  took  life  lightly  and 
flitted  from  pleastire  to  pleasure.  And  so  Verdi  lets  him 
flit  from  tune  to  tune — gay,  melodious,  sentimental.  There 
still  are  plenty  of  men  like  the  Duke,  and  plenty  of  women 
like  Gilda  to  love  them;  and  other  women,  be  it  recalled,  as 


Giuseppe  Verdi  397 

discreet  as  the  Duchess,  who  does  not  appear  in  this  opera 
save  as  a  portrait  on  the  wall,  from  which  she  calmly  looks 
down  upon  a  jester  invoking  vengeance  upon  her  husband, 
because  of  the  wrong  he  has  done  the  girl,  who  weeps  on  the 
breast  of  her  hunchback  father. 

To  Act  III  might  be  given  as  a  sub-title,  "The  Fool's 
Revenge, "  the  title  of  Tom  Taylor's  adaptation  into  English 
of  Victor  Hugo's  play.  The  scene  shows  a  desolate  spot 
on  the  banks  of  the  Mincio.  On  the  right,  with  its  front  to 
the  audience,  is  a  house  two  stories  high,  in  a  very  delapi- 
dated  state,  but  still  used  as  an  inn.  The  doors  and  walls 
are  so  full  of  crevices  that  whatever  is  going  on  within  can 
be  seen  from  without.  In  front  are  the  road  and  the  river; 
in  the  distance  is  the  city  of  Mantua.     It  is  night. 

The  house  is  that  of  Sparafticile.  With  him  lives  his 
sister,  Maddalena,  a  handsome  young  gypsy  woman,  who 
lures  men  to  the  inn,  there  to  be  robbed — or  killed,  if  there 
is  more  money  to  be  had  for  murder  than  for  robbery. 
Sparafucile  is  seen  within,  cleaning  his  belt  and  sharpening 
his  sword. 

Outside  are  Rigoletto  and  Gilda.  She  cannnot  banish  the 
image  of  her  despoiler  from  her  heart.  Hither  the  hunch- 
back has  brought  her  to  prove  to  her  the  faithlessness  of  the 
Duke.  She  sees  him  in  the  garb  of  a  soldier  coming  along 
the  city  wall.  He  descends,  enters  the  inn,  and  calls  for  wine 
and  a  room  for  the  night.  Shuffling  a  pack  of  cards,  which 
he  finds  on  the  table,  and  pouring  out  the  wine,  he  sings  of 
woman.  This  is  the  famous  "Donna  k  mobile"  (Fickle  is 
woman  fair). 


It  has  been  highly  praised  and  violently  criticized;  and 
usually  gets  as  many  encores  as  the  singer  cares  to  give. 


398 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


As  for  the  criticisms,  the  cadenzas  so  ostentatiously  intro- 
duced by  singers  for  the  sake  of  catching  applause,  are  no 
more  Verdi's  than  is  the  high  C  in  "II  Trovatore. "  The 
song  is  perfectly  in  keeping  with  the  Duke's  character.  It 
has  grace,  verve,  and  buoyancy;  and,  what  is  an  essential 
point  in  the  development  of  the  action  from  this  point  on, 
it  is  easily  remembered.  In  any  event  I  am  glad  that 
among  my  operatic  experiences  I  can  count  having  heard 
"Donna  h  mobile"  sung  by  such  great  artists  as  Cam- 
panini,  Caruso,  and  Bonci,  the  last  two  upon  their  first 
appearances  in  the  role  in  this  country. 

At  a  signal  from  Sparafucile,  Maddalena  joins  the  Duke. 
He  presses  his  love  upon  her.  With  professional  coyness 
she  pretends  to  repulse  him.  This  leads  to  the  quartet,  with 
its  dramatic  interpretation  of  the  different  emotions  of  the 
four  participants.  The  Duke  is  gallantly  urgent  and  plead- 
ing: "Bella  figlia  dell'  amore"  (Fairest  daughter  of  the 
graces). 


(JlnJ^i^ei 


Maddalena  laughingly  resists  his  advances:  "I  am  proof, 
my  gentle  wooer,  'gainst  your  vain  and  empty  nothings." 


Gilda  is  moved  to  despair; 
spoke." 


"Ah,  thus  to  me  of  love  he 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


399 


Rigoletto  mutters  of  vengeance. 

It  is  the  Duke  who  begins  the  quartet;  Maddalena  who 
first  joins  in  by  coyly  mocking  him ;  Gilda  whose  voice  next 
falls  upon  the  night  with  despairing  accents;  Rigoletto 
whose  threats  gi  vengeance  then  are  heard.  With  the  re- 
turn of  the  theme,  after  the  first  cadence,  the  varied  ele- 
ments are  combined. 

They  continue  so  to  the  end.  Gilda's  voice,  in  brief 
cries  of  grief,  rising  twice  to  effective  climaxes,  then  be- 
coming even  more  poignant  through  the  syncopation  of  the 
rhythm. 

Rising  to  a  beautiful  and  highly  dramatic  climax,  the 
quartet  ends  pianissimo. 

This  quartet  usually  is  sung  as  the  pi^ce  de  resistance  of 
the  opera,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  great  event  of  the  per- 
formance. I  cannot  recall  a  representation  of  the  work  with 
Nilsson  and  Campanini  in  which  this  was  not  the  case,  and 
it  was  so  at  the  Manhattan  when  "Rigoletto"  was  sung 
there  by  Melba  and  Bonci.  But  at  the  Metropolitan,  since 
Caruso's  advent,  "Rigoletto"  has  become  a  "Caruso 
opera,"  and  the  stress  is  laid  on  " Donna d  mobile,"  for 
which  nimierous  encores  are  demanded,  while  with  the 
quartet,  the  encore  is  deliberately  side-stepped — a  most 
interesting  process  for  the  initiated  to  watch. 

After  the  quartet,  Sparafucile  comes  out  and  receives 
from  Rigoletto  half  of  his  fee  to  murder  the  Duke,  the  balance 
to  be  paid  when  the  body,  in  a  sack,  is  delivered  to  the 
hunchback.  Sparafucile  offers  to  throw  the  sack  into  the 
river,  but  that  does  not  suit  the  fool's  desire  for  revenge. 


400  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

He  wants  the  grim  satisfaction  of  doing  so  himself.  Satis- 
fied that  Cilda  has  seen  enough  of  the  Duke's  perfidy,  he 
sends  her  home,  where,  for  safety,  she  is  to  don  male  attire 
and  start  on  the  way  to  Verona,  where  he  will  join  her.  He 
himself  also  goes  out. 

A  storm  now  gathers.  There  are  flashes  of  lightning; 
distant  rumblings  of  thunder.  The  wind  moans.  (In- 
dicated by  the  chorus,  d,  bouche  fermie,  behind  the  scenes.) 
The  Duke  has  gone  to  his  room,  after  whispering  a  few  words 
to  Maddalena.  He  lays  down  his  hat  and  sword,  throws 
himself  on  the  bed,  sings  a  few  snatches  of  "Donna  h  mo- 
bile," and  in  a  short  time  falls  asleep.  Maddalena,  below, 
stands  by  the  table.  Sparafucile  finishes  the  contents  of  the 
bottle  left  by  the  Duke.     Both  remain  silent  for  awhile. 

Maddalena,  fascinated  by  the  Duke,  begins  to  plead  for 
his  life.  The  storm  is  now  at  its  height.  Lightning  plays 
vividly  across  the  sky,  thunder  crashes,  wind  howls,  rain 
falls  in  torrents.  Through  this  uproar  of  the  elements,  to 
which  night  adds  its  terrors,  comes  Gilda,  drawn  as  by  a 
magnet  to  the  spot  where  she  knows  her  false  lover  to  be. 
Through  the  crevices  in  the  wall  of  the  house  she  can  hear 
Maddalena  pleading  with  Sparafucile  to  spare  the  Duke's 
life.  "Kill  the  hunchback, "  she  counsels,  "when  he  comes 
with  the  balance  of  the  money.  "  But  there  is  honour  even 
among  assassins  as  among  thieves.  The  bravo  will  not  be- 
tray a  customer. 

Maddalena  pleads  yet  more  urgently.  Well — Spara- 
fucile will  give  the  handsome  youth  one  desperate  chance  for 
life:  Should  any  other  man  arrive  at  the  inn  before  mid- 
night, that  man  will  he  kill  and  put  in  the  sack  to  be  thrown 
into  the  river,  in  place  of  Maddalena' s  temporary  favourite. 
A  clock  strikes  the  half-hour.  Gilda  is  in  male  attire.  She 
determines  to  save  the  Duke's  life — to  sacrifice  hers  for  his. 
She  knocks.  There  is  a  moment  of  surprised  suspense  with- 
in.    Then  everything  is  made  ready.     Maddalena  opens  the 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Riccardo  Martin  as  Maiirico  in  "II  Trovatore" 


Giuseppe  Verdi  401 

door,  and  runs  forward  to  close  the  outer  one.  Gilda  enters. 
For  a  moment  one  senses  her  form  in  the  darkness.  A  half- 
stifled  outcry.     Then  all  is  buried  in  silence  and  gloom. 

The  storm  is  abating.  The  rain  has  ceased ;  the  lightning 
become  fitful,  the  thunder  distant  and  intermittent.  Rigo- 
letto  returns.  "At  last  the  hour  of  my  vengeance  is  nigh. " 
A  bell  tolls  midnight.  He  knocks  at  the  door.  Spara- 
fucile  brings  out  the  sack,  receives  the  balance  of  his  money, 
and  retires  into  the  house.  "This  sack  his  winding  sheet ! " 
exclaims  the  hunchback,  as  he  gloats  over  it.  The  night  has 
cleared.     He  must  hurry  and  throw  it  into  the  river. 

Out  of  the  second  story  of  the  house  and  on  to  the  wall 
steps  the  figure  of  a  man  and  proceeds  along  the  wall  toward 
the  city.  Rigoletto  starts  to  drag  the  sack  with  the  body 
toward  the  stream.  Lightly  upon  the  night  fall  the  notes  of 
a  familiar  voice  singing : 

Donna  h  mobile 
Qual  piuma  al  vento; 
Muta  d'accento, 
£  di  pensiero. 

(Fickle  is  woman  fair, 
Like  feather  wafted; 
Changeable  ever, 
Constant,  ah,  never.) 

It  is  the  Duke.  Furiously  the  hunchback  tears  open  the 
sack.  In  it  he  beholds  his  daughter.  Not  yet  quite  dead, 
she  is  able  to  whisper,  "Too  much  I  loved  him — now  I  die 
for  him. "  There  is  a  duet :  Gilda,  "  Lassu — in  cielo  "  (From 
yonder  sky);  Rigoleito,  "Non  morir"  (Ah,  perish  not). 

"  Maledizione ! " — The  music  of  Monterone's  curse  upon 
the  ribald  jester,  now  bending  over  the  corpse  of  his  own 
despoiled  daughter,  resounds  on  the  orchestra.  The  fool 
has  had  his  revenge. 

For  political  reasons  the  performance  of  Victor  Hugo's 
36 


402  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"Le  Roi  s' Amuse"  was  forbidden  in  France  after  the  first 
representation.  In  Hugo's  play  the  principal  character  is 
Triboulet,  the  jester  of  Frangois  I.  The  ICing,  of  course, 
also  is  a  leading  character;  and  there  is  a  pen-portrait  of 
Saint- Vallier.  It  was  considered  unsafe,  after  the  revolu- 
tionary uprisings  in  Europe  in  1848,  to  present  on  the  stage 
so  licentious  a  story  involving  a  monarch.  Therefore,  to 
avoid  political  complications,  and  copyright  ones  possibly 
later,  the  Italian  librettist  laid  the  scene  in  Mantua. 
Triboulet  became  Rigoletto;  Francois  I.  the  Duke,  and  Saint- 
Vallier  the  Count  Monterone.  Early  in  its  career  the  opera 
also  was  given  under  the  title  of  "  Viscardello. " 

XL  TROVATORE 

THE   TROUBADOUR 

Opera  in  four  acts,  by  Verdi;  words  by  Salvatore  Cammanaro,  based 
on  the  Spanish  drama  of  the  same  title  by  Antonio  Garcia  Gatteerez. 
Produced,  Apollo  Theatre,  Rome,  January  19,  1853.  Paris,  Theatre 
des  Italiens,  December  23,  1854;  Grand  Op^ra,  in  French  as  "Le  Trou- 
vfere, "  January  12,  1857.  London,  Covent  Garden,  May  17,  1855;  in 
English,  as  "The  Gypsy's  Vengeance,"  Drury  Lane,  March  24,  1856. 
America:  New  York,  April  30,  1855,  with  Brignoli  {Manrico),  Steffanone 
(Leonora)  Amodio  (Count  di  Luna),  and  Vestvali  (Azucena);  Philadel- 
phia, Walnut  Street  Theatre,  January  14,  1856,  and  Academy  of  Music, 
February  25,  1857;  New  Orleans,  April  13,  1857.  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  New  York,  in  German,  1889;  1908,  Caruso,  Eames,  and  Homer. 
Frequently  performed  at  the  Academy  of  Music,  New  York,  with  Cam- 
panini  (Manrico),  Nilsson  (Leonora),  and  Annie  Louise  Gary  (Azucena); 
and  Del  Puente  or  Galassi  as  Count  di  Luna. 

CHARACTERS 

Count  di  Luna,  a  young  noble  of  Aragon Baritone 

Ferrando,  Di  Luna's  captain  of  the  guard Bass 

Manrico,  a  chieftain  under  the  Prince  of  Biscay,  and  reputed 

son  of  Azucena Tenor 

Ruiz,  a  soldier  in  Manrico's  service Tenor 

An  Old  Gypsy Baritone 


Giuseppe  Verdi  403 

Duchess  Leonora,  lady-in-waiting  to  a  Princess  of  Aragon . . .  Soprano 

Inez,  confidante  of  Leonora Soprano 

AzucENA,  a  Biscayan  gypsy  woman Mezzo-Soprano 

Followers  of  Count  di  Luna  and  of  Manrico;  messenger,  gaoler, 

soldiers,  nuns,  gypsies. 

Time — Fifteenth  century.  PUiu — Biscay  and  Aragon. 

For  many  years  "II  Trovatore"  has  been  an  opera  of 
world-wide  popularity,  and  for  a  long  time  could  be  ac- 
counted the  most  popular  work  in  the  operatic  repertoire  of 
practically  every  land.  While  it  cannot  be  said  to  retain 
its  former  vogue  in  this  country,  it  is  still  a  good  drawing 
card,  and,  with  special  excellences  of  cast,  an  exceptional 
one. 

The  libretto  of  "II  Trovatore"  is  considered  the  acme 
of  absurdity;  and  the  popularity  of  the  opera,  notwith- 
standing, is  believed  to  be  entirely  due  to  the  almost 
unbroken  melodiousness  of  Verdi's  score. 

While  it  is  true,  however,  that  the  story  of  this  opera 
seems  to  be  a  good  deal  of  a  mix-up,  it  is  also  a  fact  that, 
under  the  spur  of  Verdi's  music,  even  a  person  who  has  not  a 
clear  grasp  of  the  plot  can  sense  the  dramatic  power  of  many 
of  the  scenes.  It  is  an  opera  of  immense  verve,  of  tempera- 
ment almost  unbridled,  of  genius  for  the  melodramatic  so 
unerring  that  its  composer  has  taken  dance  rhythms,  like 
those  of  mazurka  and  waltz,  and  on  them  developed  melo- 
dies most  passionate  in  expression  and  dramatic  in  effect. 
Swift,  spontaneous,  and  stirring  is  the  music  of  "II  Trova- 
tore. "  Absurdities,  complexities,  unintelligibilities  of  story 
are  swept  away  in  its  unrelenting  progress.  "  II  Trovatore  " 
is  the  Verdi  of  forty  working  at  white  heat. 

One  reason  why  the  plot  of  "II  Trovatore"  seems  such  a 
jimibled-up  affair  is  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  story  is 
supposed  to  have  transpired  before  the  curtain  goes  up. 
These  events  are  narrated  by  Ferrando,  the  Count  di  Luna's 


404  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

captain  of  the  guard,  soon  after  the  opera  begins.  But  as 
even  spoken  narrative  on  the  stage  makes  little  impression, 
narrative  when  sung  may  be  said  to  make  none  at  all. 
Could  the  audience  know  what  Ferrando  is  singing  about, 
the  subsequent  proceedings  would  not  appear  so  hopelessly- 
involved,  or  appeal  so  strongly  to  humorous  rhymesters, 
who  usually  begin  their  parodies  on  the  opera  with. 

This  is  the  story 
of  "II  Trovatore. " 

What  is  supposed  to  have  happened  before  the  curtain 
goes  up  on  the  opera  is  as  follows :  The  old  Count  di  Luna, 
sometime  deceased,  had  two  sons  nearly  of  the  same  age. 
One  night,  when  they  still  were  infants,  and  asleep,  in  a 
nurse's  charge  in  an  apartment  in  the  old  Count's  castle, 
a  gypsy  hag,  having  gained  stealthy  entrance  into  the  cham- 
ber, was  discovered  leaning  over  the  cradle  of  the  younger 
child,  Garzia.  Though  she  was  instantly  driven  away,  the 
child's  health  began  to  fail  and  she  was  believed  to  have 
bewitched  it.  She  was  pursued,  apprehended  and  burned 
alive  at  the  stake. 

Her  daughter,  Azucena,  at  that  time  a  young  gypsy 
woman  with  a  child  of  her  own  in  her  arms,  was  a  witness 
to  the  death  of  her  mother,  which  she  swore  to  avenge. 
During  the  following  night  she  stole  into  the  castle,  snatched 
the  younger  child  of  the  Count  di  Luna  from  its  cradle,  and 
hurried  back  to  the  scene  of  execution,  intending  to  throw 
the  baby  boy  into  the  flames  that  still  raged  over  the  spot 
where  they  had  consumed  her  mother.  Almost  bereft  of 
her  senses,  however,  by  her  memory  of  the  horrible  scene 
she  had  witnessed,  she  seized  and  hurled  into  the  flames  her 
own  child,  instead  of  the  young  Count  (thus  preserving, 
with  an  almost  supernatural  instinct  for  opera,  the  baby 
that  was  destined  to  grow  up  into  a  tenor  with  a  voice  high 
enough  to  sing  "Di  quella  pira"). 


Giuseppe  Verdi  405 

Thwarted  for  the  moment  in  her  vengeance,  Azucena 
was  not  to  be  completely  baffled.  With  the  infant  Coimt  in 
her  arms  she  fled  and  rejoined  her  tribe,  entrusting  her 
secret  to  no  one,  but  bringing  him  up — Manrico,  the  Trouba- 
dour— as  her  own  son;  and  always  with  the  thought  that 
through  him  she  might  wreak  vengeance  upon  his  own 
kindred. 

When  the  opera  opens,  Manrico  has  grown  up;  she  has 
become  old  and  wrinkled,  but  is  still  unrelenting  in  her  quest 
of  vengeance.  The  old  Count  has  died,  leaving  the  elder 
son,  Count  di  Luna  of  the  opera,  sole  heir  to  his  title  and 
possessions,  but  always  doubting  the  death  of  the  younger, 
despite  the  heap  of  infant's  bones  found  among  the  ashes 
about  the  stake. 

"After  this  preliminary  knowledge,"  quaintly  says  the 
English  libretto,  "we  now  come  to  the  actual  business  of 
the  piece."  Each  of  the  four  acts  of  this  "piece"  has  a 
title:  Act  I,  "II  Duello"  (The  Duel);  Act  II,  "La  Gitana" 
(The  Gypsy);  Act.  Ill,  "II  Figlio  della  Zingara"  (The 
Gypsy's  Son);  Act  IV,  "II  Supplizio"  (The  Penalty). 

Act  I.  Atrium  of  the  palace  of  Aliaferia,  with  a  door 
leading  to  the  apartments  of  the  Count  di  Luna.  Ferrando, 
the  captain  of  the  guard,  and  retainers,  are  reclining  near 
the  door.  Armed  men  are  standing  guard  in  the  back- 
ground. It  is  night.  The  men  are  on  guard  because  Count 
di  Luna  desires  to  apprehend  a  minstrel  knight,  a  trouba- 
dour, who  has  been  heard  on  several  occasions  to  be  serenad- 
ing from  the  palace  garden,  the  Duchess  Leonora,  for  whom 
a  deep,  but  unrequited  passion  sways  the  Count. 

Weary  of  the  watch,  the  retainers  beg  Ferrando  to  tell 
them  the  story  of  the  Count's  brother,  the  stolen  child. 
This  Ferrando  proceeds  to  do  in  the  ballad,  "Abbietta 
zingara"  (Sat  there  a  gypsy  hag). 

Ferrando's  gruesome  ballad  and  the  comments  of  the 
horror-stricken  chorus  dominate  the  opening  of  the  opera. 


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The  scene  is  an  unusually  effective  one  for  a  subordinate 
character  like  Ferrando.  But  in  "II  Trovatore"  Verdi  is 
lavish  with  his  melodies — more  so,  perhaps,  than  in  any  of 
his  other  operas. 

The  scene  changes  to  the  gardens  of  the  palace.  On 
one  side  a  flight  of  marble  steps  leads  to  Leonora's  apart- 
ment. Heavy  clouds  obscure  the  moon.  Leonora  and 
Inez  are  in  the  garden.  From  the  confidante's  questions 
and  Leonora's  answers  it  is  gathered  that  Leonora  is  en- 
amoured of  an  unknown  but  valiant  knight  who,  lately 
entering  a  tourney,  won  all  contests  and  was  crowned  victor 
by  her  hand.  She  knows  her  love  is  requited,  for  at  night 
she  has  heard  her  Troubadour  singing  below  her  window.  In 
the  course  of  this  narrative  Leonora  has  two  solos.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  romantic  "Tacea  la  notte  placida"  (The 
night  calmly  and  peacefully  in  beauty  seemed  reposing) . 


</!nd{< 


It  is  followed  by  the  graceful  and  engaging  "  Di  tale  amor 
che  dirsi"  (Of  such  a  love  how  vainly), 


with  its  brilliant  cadenza. 

Leonora  and  Inez  then  ascend  the  steps  and  retire  into 
the  palace.  The  Count  di  Luna  now  comes  into  the  garden. 
He  has  hardly  entered  before  the  voice  of  the  Troubadour, 
accompanied  on  a  lute,  is  heard  from  a  nearby  thicket  sing- 
ing the  familiar  romanza,  "Deserto  sulla  terra"  (Lonely 
on  earth  abiding). 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


¥*J 


From  the  palace  comes  Leonora.  Mistaking  the  Count 
in  the  shadow  of  the  trees  for  her  Troubadour,  she  hastens 
toward  him.  The  moon  emerging  from  a  cloud,  she  sees 
the  figure  of  a  masked  cavalier,  recognizes  it  as  that  of  her 
lover,  and  turns  from  the  Count  toward  the  Troubadour. 
Unmasking,  the  Troubadour  now  discloses  his  identity  as 
Manrico,  one  who,  as  a  follower  of  the  Prince  of  Biscay,  is 
proscribed  in  Aragon.  The  men  draw  their  swords.  There 
is  a  trio  that  fairly  seethes  with  passion — "Di  geloso  amor 
spezzato"  (Fires  of  jealous,  despised  affection). 


These  are  the  words,  in  which  the  Count  begins  the  trio. 
It  continues  with  "Un  istante  almen  dia  loco"  (One  brief 
moment  thy  fury  restraining) . 


The  men  rush  off  to  fight  their  duel.     Leonora  faints. 

Act  II.  An  encampment  of  gypsies.  There  is  a  ruined 
house  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain  in  Biscay;  the  interior  partly 
exposed  to  view;  within  a  great  fire  is  lighted.  Day  begins 
to  dawn. 

Azuxena  is  seated  near  the  fire.  Manrico,  enveloped  in 
his  mantle,  is  lying  upon  a  mattress;  his  helmet  is  at  his 
feet;  in  his  hand  he  holds  a  sword,  which  he  regards  fixedly. 
A  band  of  gypsies  are  sitting  in  scattered  groups  around  them. 

Since  an  almost  unbroken  sequence  of  melodies  is  a  char- 
acteristic of  "II  Trovatore, "  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
at  the  opening  of  this  act  two  famous  nimibers  in  quick 
succession; — the  famous  "Anvil  Chorus," 


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in  which  the  gypsies,  working  at  the  forges,  swing  their 
hammers  and  bring  them  down  on  clanking  metal  in  rhythm 
with  the  music;  the  chorus  being  followed  immediately  by 
Azucend's  equally  famous  "Stride  la  vampa"  (Upward 
the  flames  roll). 

cMlUgrtlle  ''■^— - ^  > 


In  this  air,  which  the  old  gypsy  woman  sings  as  a  weird, 
but  impassioned  upwelling  of  memories  and  hatreds,  while 
the  tribe  gathers  about  her,  she  relates  the  story  of  her 
mother's  death.  "Avenge  thou  me!"  she  murmurs  to 
Manrico,  when  she  has  concluded. 

The  corps  de  ballet  which,  in  the  absence  of  a  regular 
ballet  in  "II  Trovatore, "  utilizes  this  scene  and  the  music 
of  the  "Anvil  Chorus"  for  its  picturesque  saltations,  dances 
off.  The  gypsies  now  depart,  singing  their  chorus.  With 
a  pretty  effect  it  dies  away  in  the  distance. 


vSwept  along  by  the  emotional  stress  under  which  she 
labours,  Azucena  concludes  her  narrative  of  the  tragic 
events  at  the  pyre,  voice  and  orchestral  accompaniment 
uniting  in  a  vivid  musical  setting  of  her  memories.  Na- 
turally, her  words  arouse  doubts  in  Manrico's  mind  as  to 
whether  he  really  is  her  son.  She  hastens  to  dispel  these; 
they  were  but  wandering  thoughts  she  uttered.  Moreover, 
after  the  recent  battle  of  Petilla,  between  the  forces  of  Bis- 
cay and  Aragon,  when  he  was  reported  slain,  did  she  not 
search  for  and  find  him,  and  has  she  not  been  tenderly 
nursing  him  back  to  strength? 

The  forces  of  Aragon  were  led  by  Count  di  Luna,  who  but 
a  short  time  before  had  been  overcome  by  Manrico  in  a 


Giuseppe  Verdi  409 

duel  in  the  palace  garden ; — ^why ,  on  that  occasion,  asks  the 
gypsy,  did  he  spare  the  Count's  life? 

Manrico's  reply  is  couched  in  a  bold,  martial  air,  "Mai 
reggendo  all'  aspro  assalto"  (111  sustaining  the  furious  en- 
counter) . 

But  at  the  end  it  dies  away  to  pp.,  when  he  tells  how,  when 
the  Count's  life  was  his  for  a  thrust,  a  voice,  as  if  from  heaven, 
bade  him  spare  it — a  suggestion,  of  course,  that  although 
neither  Manrico  nor  the  Count  know  that  they  are  brothers, 
Manrico  unconsciously  was  swayed  by  the  relationship,  a 
touch  of  psychology  rare  in  Italian  opera  librettos,  most  un- 
expected in  this,  and,  of  course,  completely  lost  upon  those 
who  have  not  familiarized  themselves  with  the  plot  of  "II 
Trovatore. "  Incidentally,  however,  it  accounts  for  a 
musical  effect — the  pp.,  the  sudden  softening  of  the  ex- 
pression, at  the  end  of  the  martial  description  of  the 
duel. 

Enter  now  Ruiz,  a  messenger  from  the  Prince  of  Biscay, 
who  orders  Manrico  to  take  command  of  the  forces  defend- 
ing the  stronghold  of  Castellor,  and  at  the  same  time  in- 
forms him  that  Leonora,  believing  reports  of  his  death  at 
Petilla,  is  about  to  take  the  veil  in  a  convent  near  the 
castle. 

The  scene  changes  to  the  cloister  of  this  convent.  It  is 
night.  The  Count  and  his  followers,  led  by  Ferrando,  and 
heavily  cloaked,  advance  cautiously.  It  is  the  Count's 
plan  to  carry  off  Leonora  before  she  becomes  a  nun. 
He  sings  of  his  love  for  her  in  the  air,  "II  Balen"  (The 
Smile) — "II  balen  del  suo  sorriso"  (Of  her  smile,  the 
radiant  gleaming) — which  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of 
the  most  chaste  and  beautiful  baritone  solos  in  Italian 
opera. 


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The  Complete  Opera  Book 


It  is  followed  by  an  air  alia  marcia,  also  for  the  Count, 
"Per  me  ora  fatale"  (Oh,  fatal  hour  impending). 


c^lla  W^r-^. 


A  chorus  of  nuns  is  heard  from  within  the  convent. 
Leonora,  with  Inez,  and  her  ladies,  come  upon  the  scene. 
They  are  about  to  proceed  from  the  cloister  into  the  con- 
vent when  the  Count  interposes.  But  before  he  can  seize 
Leonora,  another  figure  stands  between  them.  It  is 
Manrico.  With  him  are  Ruiz  and  his  followers.  The 
Count  is  foiled. 

"E  deggio! — e  posso  crederlo?"  (And  can  I  still  my  eyes 
believe !)  exclaims  Leonora,  as  she  beholds  before  her  Man- 
rico, whom  she  had  thought  dead.  It  is  here  that  begins 
the  impassioned  finale,  an  ensemble  consisting  of  a  trio  for 
Leonora,  Manrico,  and  the  Count  di  Luna,  with  chorus. 

Act  III.     The  camp  of  Count  di  Luna,  who  is  laying  siege 
to  Castellor,  whither  Manrico  has  safely  borne  Leonora. 
There  is  a  stirring  chorus  for  Ferrando  and  the  soldiers. 


The  Count  comes  from  his  tent.  He  casts  a  lowering 
gaze  at  the  stronghold  from  where  his  rival  defies  him. 
There  is  a  commotion.  Soldiers  have  captured  a  gypsy 
woman  found  prowling  about  the  camp.  They  drag  her  in. 
She  is  Azucena.  Questioned,  she  sings  that  she  is  a  poor 
wanderer,  who  means  no  harm.  "Giorni  poveri  vivea" 
(I  was  poor,  yet  uncomplaining). 

But  Ferrando,  though  she  thought  herself  masked  by  the 
grey  hairs  and  wrinkles  of  age,  recognizes  her  as  the  gypsy 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Schumann-Heink  as  Azucena  in  "II  Trovatore" 


Copyright  photo  by  Mishkin 

Galli-Curci  as  Violetta  in  "La  Traviata' 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


411 


who,  to  avenge  her  mother,  gave  over  the  infant  brother  of 
the  Count  to  the  flames.  In  the  vehemence  of  her  denials, 
she  cries  out  to  Manrico,  whom  she  names  as  her  son,  to 
come  to  her  rescue.  This  still  further  enrages  the  Count. 
He  orders  that  she  be  cast  into  prison  and  then  burned  at 
the  stake.     She  is  dragged  away. 

The  scene  changes  to  a  hall  adjoining  the  chapel  in  the 
stronghold  of  Castellor.  Leonora  is  about  to  become  the 
bride  of  Manrico,  who  sings  the  beautiful  lyric,  "Amor — 
sublime  amore"  (Tis  love,  sublime  emotion). 

Its  serenity  makes  all  the  more  effective  the  tumultuous 
scene  that  follows.  It  assists  in  giving  to  that  episode,  one 
of  the  most  famous  in  Italian  opera,  its  true  significance  as 
a  dramatic  climax. 

Just  as  Manrico  takes  Leonora's  hand  to  lead  her  to  the 
altar  of  the  chapel,  Ruiz  rushes  in  with  word  that  Azucena 
has  been  captured  by  the  besiegers  and  is  about  to  be  burned 
to  death.  Already  through  the  windows  of  Castellor  the 
glow  of  flames  can  be  seen.  Her  peril  would  render  delay 
fatal.  Dropping  the  hand  of  his  bride,  Manrico,  draws  his 
sword,  and,  as  his  men  gather,  sings  "Di  quella  pira  I'or- 
rendo  foco"  (See  the  pyre  blazing,  oh,  sight  of  horror),  and 
rushes  forth  at  the  head  of  his  soldiers  to  attempt  to  save 
Azucena. 


The  line,  "O  teco  almeno,  corro  a  morir"  (Or,  all  else 
failing,  to  die  with  thee),  contains  the  famous  high  C. 


412  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

This  is  a  tour  de  force,  which  has  been  condemned  as 
vulgar  and  ostentatious,  but  which  undoubtedly  adds  to  the 
effectiveness  of  the  number.  There  is,  it  should  be  re- 
marked, no  high  C  in  the  score  of  "  Di  quella  pira. "  In 
no  way  is  Verdi  responsible  for  it.  It  was  introduced 
by  a  tenor,  who  saw  a  chance  to  make  an  effect  with 
it,  and  succeeded  so  well  that  it  became  a  fixture. 
A  tenor  now  content  to  sing  "O  teco  almeno"  as  Verdi 
wrote  it 


would  never  be  asked  to  sing  it. 

Dr.  Frank  E.  Miller,  author  of  The  Voice  and  Vocal 
Art  Science,  the  latter  the  most  complete  exposition 
of  the  psycho-physical  functions  involved  in  voice- 
production,  informs  me  that  a  series  of  photographs  have 
been  made  (by  an  apparatus  too  complicated  to  de- 
scribe) of  the  vibrations  of  Caruso's  voice  as  he  takes 
and  holds  the  high  C  in  "Di  quella  pira."  The  record 
measures  fifty-eight  feet.  While  it  might  not  be 
correct  to  say  that  Caruso's  high  C  is  fifty-eight  feet 
long,  the  record  is  evidence  of  its  being  superbly  taken 
and  held. 

Not  infrequently  the  high  C  in  "Di  quella  pira"  is  faked 
for  tenors  who  cannot  reach  it,  yet  have  to  sing  the  role  of 
Manrico,  or  who,  having  been  able  to  reach  it  in  their 
younger  days  and  at  the  height  of  their  prime,  still  wish  to 
maintain  their  fame  as  robust  tenors.  For  such  the  nimiber 
is  transposed.  The  tenor,  instead  of  singing  high  C,  sings 
B  flat,  a  tone  and  a  half  lower,  and  much  easier  to  take.  By 
flourishing  his  sword  and  looking  very  fierce  he  usually 
manages  to  get  away  with  it.  Transpositions  of  operatic 
airs,  requiring  unusually  high  voices,  are  not  infrequently 


Giuseppe  Verdi  413 

made  for  singers,  both  male  and  female,  no  longer  in  their 
prime,  but  still  good  for  two  or  three  more  "farewell" 
tours.  All  they  have  to  do  is  to  step  up  to  the  footlights  with 
an  air  of  perfect  confidence,  which  indicates  that  the  great 
moment  in  the  performance  has  arrived,  deliver,  with  a  cer- 
tain assumption  of  effort — the  semblance  of  a  real  tour  de 
force — the  note  which  has  conveniently  been  transposed, 
and  receive  the  enthusiastic  plaudits  of  their  devoted  ad- 
mirers. But  the  assumption  of  effort  must  not  be  omitted. 
The  tenor  who  sings  the  high  C  in  "  Di  quella  pira"  without 
getting  red  in  the  face  will  hardly  be  credited  with  having 
sung  it  at  all. 

Act  IV.  Manrico's  sortie  to  rescue  his  supposed  mother 
failed.  His  men  were  repulsed,  and  he  himself  was  cap- 
tured and  thrown  into  the  dungeon  tower  of  Aliaferia,  where 
Azucena  was  already  enchained.  The  scene  shows  a  wing 
of  the  palace  of  Aliaferia.  In  the  angle  is  a  tower  with 
window  secured  by  iron  bars.  It  is  night,  dark  and 
clouded. 

Leonora  enters  with  Ruiz  who  points  out  to  her  the  place 
of  Manrico's  confinement,  and  retires.  That  she  has  con- 
ceived a  desperate  plan  to  save  her  lover  appears  from  the 
fact  that  she  wears  a  poison  ring,  a  ring  with  a  swift  poison 
concealed  under  the  jewel,  so  that  she  can  take  her  own  life, 
if  driven  thereto. 

Unknown  to  Manrico,  she  is  near  him.  Her  thoughts 
wander  to  him; — "  D'amor  sull  ali  rosee"  (On  rosy  wings  of 
love  depart). 


It  is  followed  by  the  "Miserere,"  which  was  for  many 
years  and  perhaps  still  is  the  world  over  the  most  popular 
of  all  melodies  from  opera,  although  at  the  present  time 


414 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


it  appears  to  have  been  superseded  by  the  "Intermezzo" 
from  "  Cavalleria  Rusticana." 

The  "Miserere"  is  chanted  by  a  chorus  within. 


Against  this  as  a  sombre  background  are  projected  the 
heart-broken  ejaculations  of  Leonora. 


'    Then  Manrico's  voice  in  the  tower  intones  "Ah!  che  la 
morte  ognora"  (Ah  !  how  death  still  delayeth). 


One  of  the  most  characteristic  phrases,  suggestions  of 
which  occur  also,  in  "La  Traviata  "  and  even  in  "Aida," 
is  the  following :  J 


'  Familiarity  laaay"  breed  contempt,  and  nothing  could 
well  be  more  fam'ilia  r  than  the  "Miserere"  from  "II  Trova- 
tore. ' '  Yet,  well  sui.  \g,  it  never  fails  of  effect ;  and  the  gaoler 
always  has  to  let  Mt^nrico  come  out  of  the  tower  and  ac- 
knowledge the  app'laUi'^e  of  an  excited  house,  while  Leonora 
stands  by  and  pretends  not  to  see  him,  one  of  those  little 


Giuseppe  Verdi  415 

fictions  and  absurdities  of  old-fashioned  opera  that  really 
add  to  its  charm. 

The  Count  enters,  to  be  confronted  by  Leonora.  She 
promises  to  become  his  wife  if  he  will  free  Manrico.  Di 
Luna's  passion  for  her  is  so  intense  that  he  agrees.  There 
is  a  solo  for  Leonora,  "Mira,  di  acerbe  lagrime"  (Witness 
the  tears  of  agony) ,  followed  by  a  duet  between  her  and  the 
Count,  who  little  suspects  that,  Manrico  once  freed,  she  will 
escape  a  hated  union  with  himself  by  taking  the  poison  in 
her  ring. 

The  scene  changes  to  the  interior  of  the  tower.  Manrico 
and  Azucena  sing  a  duet  of  mournful  beauty,  "Ai  nostri 
monti"  (Back  to  our  mountains). 


Leonora  enters  and  bids  him  escape.  But  he  suspects  the 
price'she  has  paid ;  and  his  suspicions  are  confirmed  by  her- 
self, when  the  poison  she  has  drained  from  beneath  the  jewel 
in  her  ring  begins  to  take  effect  and  she  feels  herself  sink- 
ing in  death,  while  Azucena,  in  her  sleep,  croons  dreamily, 
"Back  to  our  mountains." 

'  The  Count  di  Luna,  coming  upon  the  scene,  finds  Leonora 
dead  in  her  lover's  arms.  He  orders  Manrico  to  be  led  to 
the  block  at  once  and  drags  Azucena  to  the  window  to  wit- 
ness the  death  of  her  supposed  son. 

"  It  is  over ! "  exclaims  Di  Luna,  when  the  executioner  has 
done  his  work. 

"The  victim  was  thy  brother!"  shrieks  the  gypsy  hag. 
"Thou  art  avenged,  0  mother!" 

She  falls  near  the  window. 

"And  I  still  live!"  exclaims  the  Count. 

With  that  exclamation  the  cumulative  horrors,  set  to  the 
most  tuneful  score  in  Italian  opera,  are  over. 


4i6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

LA  TRAVIATA 

THE   FRAIL   ONE 

Opera  in  three  acts  by  Verdi;  words  by  Francesco  Maria  Piave,  after 
the  play  "La  Dame  aux  CameUas, "  by  Alexandre  Dumas,  fils.  Pro- 
duced Fenice  Theatre,  Venice,  March  6,  1853.  London,  May  24,  1856, 
wnth  Piccolomini.  Paris,  in  French,  December  6,  1856;  in  Italian,  Oc- 
tober 27,  1864,  with  Christine  Nilsson.  New  York,  Academy  of  Music, 
December  3,  1856,  with  La  Grange  (Violetta),  Brignoli  (Alfredo),  and 
Amodio  {Germont,  pere).  Nilsson,  Patti,  Melba,  Sembrich  and  Tetraz- 
zini  have  been  among  famous  interpreters  of  the  r61e  of  Violetta  in  Amer- 
ica. Galli-Curci  first  sang  Violetta  in  this  country  in  Chicago,  December 
I,  1916. 

Characters 

Alfredo  Germont,  lover  of  Violetta Tenor 

Giorgio   Germont,   his  father Baritone 

Gaston^  de  Letorieres Tenor 

Baron  Dauphol,  a  rival  of  Alfredo Bass 

Marquis  d'Obigny Bass 

Doctor  Grenvil Bass 

Giuseppe,  servant  to  Violetta Tenor 

Violetta  Valery,  a  courtesan Soprano 

Flora  Bervoix,  her  friend Mezzo-soprano 

Annina,  confidante  of  Violetta Soprano 

Ladies  and  gentlemen  who  are  friends  and  guests  in  the  houses 

of  Violetta  and  Flora ;  servants  and  masks ;  dancers 

and  guests  as  matadors,  picadors,  and  gypsies. 

Time — Louis  XIV.  Place — Paris  and  vicinity. 

At  its  production  in  Venice  in  1853  "La  Traviata"  was  a 
failure,  for  which  various  reasons  can  be  advanced.  The 
younger  Dumas's  play,  "La  Dame  aux  Camelias, "  familiar 
to  English  playgoers  under  the  incorrect  title  of  "  Camille, " 
is  a  study  of  modem  life  and  played  in  modem  costume. 
When  Piave  reduced  his  "Traviata"  libretto  from  the  play, 
he  retained  the  modem  period.  This  is  said  to  have  non- 
plussed an  audience  accustomed  to  operas  laid  in  the  past 
and  given  in  ' '  costume. "     But  the  chief  blame  for  the  fiasco 


Giuseppe  Verdi  417 

appears  to  have  rested  with  the  singers.  Graziani,  the 
Alfredo,  was  hoarse,  Salvini-Donatelli,  the  Violetta,  was 
inordinately  stout.  The  result  was  that  the  scene  of  her 
death  as  a  consumptive  was  received  with  derision.  Varesi, 
the  baritone,  who  sang  Giorgio  Germont,  who  does  not  appear 
until  the  second  act,  and  is  of  no  importance  save  in  that 
part  of  the  opera,  considered  the  rdle  beneath  his  reputation 
— notwithstanding  Germont' s  beautiful  solo,  "  Di  Provenza" 
— and  was  none  too  cheerful  over  it.  There  is  evidence  in 
Verdi's  correspondence  that  the  composer  had  complete 
confidence  in  the  merits  of  his  score,  and  attributed  its 
failure  to  its  interpreters. 

When  the  opera  was  brought  forward  again  a  year  later, 
the  same  city  which  had  decried  it  as  a  failure  acclaimed  it  a 
success.  On  this  occasion,  however,  the  period  of  the  action 
differed  from  that  of  the  play.  It  was  set  back  to  the  time 
oi  Louis  XIV.,  and  costumed  accordingly.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  other  opera  today  in  which  this  matter  of  costume 
is  so  much  a  go-as-you-please  affair  for  the  principals,  as  it 
is  in  "La  Traviata. "  I  do  not  recall  if  Christine  Nilsson 
dressed  Violetta  according  to  the  Louis  XIV.  period,  or  not; 
but  certainly  Adelina  Patti  and  Marcella  Sembrich,  both 
of  whom  I  heard  many  times  in  the  rdle  (and  each  of  them 
the  first  time  they  sang  it  here)  wore  the  conventional  even- 
ing gown  of  modern  times.  To  do  this  has  become  entirely 
permissible  for  prima  donnas  in  this  character.  Meanwhile 
the  Alfredo  may  dress  according  to  the  Louis  XIV.  period, 
or  wear  the  swallow-tail  costume  of  today,  or  compromise, 
as  some  do,  and  wear  the  swallow-tail  coat  and  modern  waist- 
coat with  knee-breeches  and  black  silk  stockings.  As  if 
even  this  diversity  were  not  yet  quite  enough,  the  most 
notable  Germont  of  recent  years,  Renaud,  who,  at  the  Man- 
hattan Opera  House,  sang  the  r61e  with  the  most  exquisite 
refinement,  giving  a  portrayal  as  finished  as  a  genre  painting 
by  Meissonnier,  wore  the  costume  of  a  gentleman  of  Pro- 


41 8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

vence  of,  perhaps,  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  But,  as 
I  have  hinted  before,  in  old-fashioned  opera,  these  incon- 
gruities, which  would  be  severely  condemned  in  a  modern 
work,  don't  amount  to  a  row  of  pins.  Given  plenty  of 
melody,  beautifully  sung,  and  everything  else  can  go  hang. 

Act  I.  A  salon  in  the  house  of  Violetta.  In  the  back 
scene  is  a  door,  which  opens  into  another  salon.  There  are 
also  side  doors.  On  the  left  is  a  fireplace,  over  which  is  a 
mirror.  In  the  centre  of  the  apartment  is  a  dining-table, 
elegantly  laid.  Violetta,  seated  on  a  couch,  is  conversing 
with  Dr.  Grenvil  and  some  friends.  Others  are  receiving  the 
guests  who  arrive,  among  whom  are  Baron  Dauphol  and 
Flora  on  the  arm  of  the  Marquis. 

The  opera  opens  with  a  brisk  ensemble.  Violetta  is  a 
courtesan  (traviata).  Her  house  is  the  scene  of  a  revel. 
Early  in  the  festivities  Gaston,  who  has  come  in  with  Alfred, 
informs  Violetta  that  his  friend  is  seriously  in  love  with  her. 
She  treats  the  matter  with  outward  levity,  but  it  is  apparent 
that  she  is  touched  by  Alfred's  devotion.  Already,  too,  in 
this  scene,  there  are  slight  indications,  more  emphasized  as 
the  opera  progresses,  that  consiunption  has  undermined 
Violetta' s  health. 

First  in  the  order  of  solos  In  this  act  is  a  spirited  drinking 
song  for  A  If  red,  which  is  repeated  by  Violetta.  After  each 
measure  the  chorus  joins  in.  This  is  the  "Libiamo  ne'liete 
calici"  (Let  us  quaff  from  the  wine-cup  o'erflowing). 


'  Music  is  heard  from  an  adjoining  salon,  toward  which  the 
guests  proceed.  Violetta  is  about  to  follow,  but  is  seized 
with  a  coughing-spell  and  sinks  upon  a  lounge  to  recover. 
Alfred  has  remained  behind.  She  asks  him  why  he  has  not 
joined  the  others.     He  protests  his  love  for  her.     At  first 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


419 


taking  his  words  in  banter,  she  becomes  more  serious,  as 
she  begins  to  reahze  the  depth  of  his  affection  for  her.  How 
long  has  he  loved  her?  A  year,  he  answers.  "Un  di  felice 
eterea"  (One  day  a  rapture  ethereal),  he  sings. 

In  this  the  words,  "Di  quell'  amor  ch'e  palpito"  (Ah, 
'tis  with  love  that  palpitates)  are  set  to  a  phrase  which 
Violetta  repeats  in  the  famous  "Ah,  fors  e'  lui,"  just  as  she 
has  previously  repeated  the  drinking  song. 

Verdi  thus  seems  to  intend  to  indicate  in  his  score  the 
effect  upon  her  of  A  If  red's  genuine  affection.  She  repeated 
his  drinking  song.  Now  she  repeats,  like  an  echo  of  heart- 
beats, his  tribute  to  a  love  of  which  she  is  the  object. 

It  is  when  Alfred  and  the  other  guests  have  retired  that 
Violetta,  lost  in  contemplation,  her  heart  touched  for  the 
first  time,  sings  "Ah  fors'  ^  lui  che  I'anima"  (For  him,  per- 
chance, my  longing  soul). 


M  fin'    i        l^tiflm.Ki.ma      w>./,n.3am'  („,jf^il.J,\      u./otf 


Then  she  repeats,  in  the  nature  of  a  refrain,  the  measures 
already  sung  by  Alfred.  Suddenly  she  changes,  as  if  there 
were  no  hope  of  lasting  love  for  woman  of  her  character,  and 
dashes  into  the  brilliant  "Sempre  libera  degg'  io  folleggiare 
di  gioja  in  gioja"  (Ever  free  shall  I  still  hasten  madly  on 
from  pleasure  to  pleasure). 


1-prt       ^h-,  i:\ra ^'99' 


With  this  solo  the  act  closes. 

Act  II.  Salon  on  the  ground  floor  of  a  country  house 
near  Paris,  occupied  by  A  If  red  and  Violetta,  who  for  him  has 
deserted  the  allurements  of  her  former  life.  Alfred  enters 
in  sporting  costume,  _  He  sings  of  his  joy  in  possessing 


420  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Violetta:  "Di  miei  boUenti  spiriti"  (Wild  my  dream  of 
ecstasy) . 

From  Annina,  the  maid  of  Violetta,  he  learns  that  the 
expenses  of  keeping  up  the  country  house  are  much  greater 
than  Violetta  has  told  him,  and  that,  in  order  to  meet  the 
cost,  which  is  beyond  his  own  means,  she  has  been  selling 
her  jewels.  He  immediately  leaves  for  Paris,  his  intention 
being  to  try  to  raise  money  there  so  that  he  may  be  able  to 
reimburse  her. 

After  he  has  gone,  Violetta  comes  in.  She  has  a  note  from 
Flora  inviting  her  to  some  festivities  at  her  house  that 
night.  She  smiles  at  the  absurdity  of  the  idea  that  she 
should  return,  even  for  an  evening,  to  the  scenes  of  her  form- 
er life.  Just  then  a  visitor  is  announced.  She  supposes  he 
is  a  business  agent,  whom  she  is  expecting.  But,  instead, 
the  man  who  enters  announces  that  he  is  Alfred's  father. 
His  dignity,  his  courteous  yet  restrained  manner,  at  once 
fill  her  with  apprehension.  She  has  foreseen  separation 
from  the  man  she  loves.  She  now  senses  that  the  dread 
moment  is  impending. 

The  elder  Germont's  plea  that  she  leave  Alfred  is  based 
both  upon  the  blight  threatened  his  career  by  his  liaison 
with  her,  and  upon  another  misfortune  that  will  result  to  the 
family.  There  is  not  only  the  son;  there  is  a  daughter. 
"  Pura  siccome  un  angelo  "  (Pure  as  an  angel)  sings  Germont, 
in  the  familiar  air:  • 


M'mojf^ 


Should  the  scandal  of  Alfred's  liaison  with  Violetta 
continue,  the  family  of  a  youth,  whom  the  daughter  is 
to  marry,  threaten  to  break  off  the  alliance.  Therefore 
it  is  not  only  on  behalf  of  his  son,  it  is  also  for  the  future 
of  his  daughter,  that  the  elder  Germont  pleads.     As   in 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Farrar  as  V'ioletta  in  "  La  Traviata" 


Photo  by  Mishkin 


Scotti  as  Germont  in  "La  Traviata" 


Giuseppe  Verdi  421 

the  play,  so  in  the  opera,  the  reason  why  the  rdle  of  the 
heroine  so  strongly  appeals  to  us  is  that  she  makes  the 
sacrifice  demanded  of  her — though  she  is  aware  that  among 
other  unhappy  consequences  to  her,  it  will  aggravate  the 
disease  of  which  she  is  a  victim  and  hasten  her  death,  where- 
in, indeed,  she  even  sees  a  solace.  She  cannot  yield  at  once. 
She  prays,  as  it  were,  for  mercy:  "Non  sapete"  (Ah,  you 
know  not). 

Finally  she  yields:  "Dite  alia  giovine"  (Say  to  thy 
daughter);  then  "Imponete"  (Now  command  me);  and, 
after  that,  "  Morro — la  mia  memoria  "  (I  shall  die — but  may 
my  memorjO- 

Germont  retires.  Violetta  writes  a  note,  rings  for  Annina, 
and  hands  it  to  her.  From  the  maid's  surprise  as  she  reads 
the  address,  it  can  be  judged  to  be  for  Flora,  and,  pre- 
sumably, an  acceptance  of  her  invitation.  When  Annina 
has  gone,  she  writes  to  Alfred  informing  him  that  she  is 
returning  to  her  old  life,  and  that  she  will  look  to  Baron 
Dauphol  to  maintain  her.  Alfred  enters.  She  conceals 
the  letter  about  her  person.  He  tells  her  that  he 
has  received  word  from  his  father  that  the  latter  is 
coming  to  see  him  in  an  attempt  to  separate  him  from 
her.  Pretending  that  she  leaves,  so  as  not  to  be  pre- 
sent during  the  interview,  she  takes  of  him  a  tearful 
farewell. 

Alfred  is  left  alone.  He  picks  up  a  book  and  reads  list- 
lessly. A  messenger  enters  and  hands  him  a  note.  The 
address  is  in  Violetla's  handwriting.  He  breaks  the  seal, 
begins  to  read,  staggers  as  he  realizes  the  import,  and  would 
collapse,  but  that  his  father,  who  has  quietly  entered 
from  the  garden,  holds  out  his  arms,  in  which  the  youth, 
believing  himself  betrayed  by  the  woman  he  loves,  finds 
refuge. 

"Di  Provenza  il  mar,  il  suol  chi  dal  corti  cancello" 
(From  fair  Provence's  sea  and  soil,  who  hath  won  thv 


422  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

heart  away) ,  sings  the  elder  Germont,  in  an  effort  to  soften 
the  blow  that  has  fallen  upon  his  son. 


Alfred  rouses  himself.  Looking  about  vaguely,  he  sees 
Flora's  letter,  glances  at  the  contents,  and  at  once  concludes 
that  Violetta's  first  plunge  into  the  vortex  of  gayety,  to  re- 
turn to  which  she  has,  as  he  supposes,  abandoned  him,  will 
be  at  Flora's  fete. 

"Thither  will  I  hasten,  and  avenge  myself!"  he  exclaims, 
and  departs  precipitately,  followed  by  his  father. 

The  scene  changes  to  a  richly  furnished  and  brilliantly 
lighted  salon  in  Flora's  palace.  The  fete  is  in  full  swing. 
There  is  a  ballet  of  women  gypsies,  who  sing  as  they  dance 
"Noi  siamo  zingarelli"  (We're  gypsies  gay  and  youthful). 

Gaston  and  his  friends  appear  as  matadors  and  others  as 
picadors.  Gaston  sings,  while  the  others  dance,  "E  Piquil- 
lo,  un  bel  gagliardo"  ('Twas  Piquillo,  so  young  and  so 
daring) . 

It  is  a  lively  scene,  upon  which  there  enters  Alfred,  to 
be  followed  soon  by  Baron  Dauphol  with  Violetta  on  his 
arm.  Alfred  is  seated  at  a  card  table.  He  is  steadily  win- 
ning. "Unlucky  in  love,  lucky  in  gambling!"  he  exclaims. 
Violetta  winces.  The  Baron  shows  evidence  of  anger  at 
Alfred's  words  and  is  with  difficulty  restrained  by  Violetta. 
The  Ba/on,  with  asstimed  nonchalance,  goes  to  the  gaming 
table  and  stakes  against  Alfred.  Again  the  latter's  win- 
nings are  large.  A  servant's  announcement  that  the  ban- 
quet is  ready  is  an  evident  relief  to  the  Baron.  All  retire  to 
an  adjoining  salon.  For  a  brief  moment  the  stage  is 
empty. 

Violetta  enters.  She  has  asked  for  an  interview  with 
Alfred.     He  joins  her.     She  begs  him  to  leave.     She  fears 


Giuseppe  Verdi  423 

the  Baron's  anger  will  lead  him  to  challenge  Alfred  to  a  duel. 
The  latter  sneers  at  her  apprehensions ;  intimates  that  it  is 
the  Baron  she  fears  for.  Is  it  not  the  Baron  Dauphol  for 
whom  he,  Alfred,  has  been  cast  off  by  her?  Violetta's 
emotions  almost  betray  her,  but  she  remembers  her  promise 
to  the  elder  Germont,  and  exclaims  that  she  loves  the  Baron. 

Alfred  tears  open  the  doors  to  the  salon  where  the  ban- 
quet is  in  progress.     "Come  hither,  all ! "  he  shouts. 

They  crowd  upon  the  scene.  Violetta,  almost  fainting, 
leans  against  the  table  for  support.  Facing  her,  Alfred 
hurls  at  her  invective  after  invective.  Finally,  in  payment 
of  what  she  has  spent  to  help  him  maintain  the  house  near 
Paris  in  which  they  have  lived  together,  he  furiously  casts 
at  her  feet  all  his  winnings  at  the  gaming  table.  She  faints 
in  the  arms  of  Flora  and  Dr.  Grenvil. 

The  elder  Germont  enters  in  search  of  his  son.  He  alone 
knows  the  real  significance  of  the  scene,  but  for  the  sake  of 
his  son  and  daughter  cannot  disclose  it.  A  dramatic  en- 
semble, in  which  Violetta  sings,  "Alfredo,  Alfredo,  di  questo 
core  non  puoi  comprendere  tutto  I'amore"  (Alfred,  Alfred, 
little  canst  thou  fathom  the  love  within  my  heart  for  thee) 
brings  the  act  to  a  close. 

Act  III.  Violetta's  bedroom.  At  the  back  is  a  bed  with 
the  curtains  partly  drawn.  A  window  is  shut  in  by  inside 
shutters.  Near  the  bed  stands  a  tabouret  with  a  bottle  of 
water,  a  crystal  cup,  and  different  kinds  of  medicine  on  it. 
In  the  middle  of  the  room  is  a  toilet-table  and  settee.  A 
little  apart  from  this  is  another  piece  of  furniture  upon  which 
a  night-lamp  is  burning.  On  the  left  is  a  fireplace  with  a 
fire  in  it. 

Violetta  awakens.  In  a  weak  voice  she  calls  Annina, 
who,  waking  up  confusedly,  opens  the  shutters  and  looks 
down  into  the  street,  which  is  gay  with  carnival  prepara- 
tions. Dr.  Grenvil  is  at  the  door.  Violetta  endeavours  to 
rise,  but  falls  back  again.     Then,  supported  by  Annina, 


424 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


she  walks  slowly  toward  the  settee.  The  doctor  enters  in 
time  to  assist  her.  A  nnina  places  cushions  about  her.  To 
Violetta  the  physician  cheerfully  holds  out  hope  of  recovery, 
but  to  Annina  he  whispers,  as  he  is  leaving,  that  her  mistress 
has  but  few  hours  more  to  live. 

Violetta  has  received  a  letter  from  the  elder  Germont 
telling  her  that  A  If  red  has  been  apprised  by  him  of  her  sacri- 
fice and  has  been  sent  for  to  come  to  her  bedside  as  quickly 
as  possible.  But  she  has  little  hope  that  he  will  arrive  in  time. 
She  senses  the  near  approach  of  death.  "  Addio  del  passato  " 
(Farewell  to  bright  visions)  she  sighs.     For  this  solo, 


when  sung  in  the  correct  interpretive  mood,  should  be  like 
a  sigh  from  the  depths  of  a  once  frail,  but  now  purified  soul. 
A  bacchanalian  chorus  of  carnival  revellers  floats  up  from 
the  street.  Annina,  who  had  gone  out  with  some  money 
which  Violetta  had  given  her  to  distribute  as  alms,  returns. 
Her  manner  is  excited.  Violetta  is  quick  to  perceive  it 
and  divine  its  significance.  Annina  has  seen  Alfred.  He 
is  waiting  to  be  announced.  The  dying  woman  bids 
Annina  hasten  to  admit  him.  A  moment  later  he  holds 
Violetta  in  his  arms.  Approaching  death  is  forgotten. 
Nothing  again  shall  part  them.  They  will  leave  Paris  for 
some  quiet  retreat.  "Parigi,  o  cara,  noi  lasceremo"  (We 
shall  fly  from  Paris,  beloved),  they  sing. 


tUnJanll  metii 


But  it  is  too  late.  The  hand  of  death  is  upon  the 
woman's  brow.  "Gran  Dio!  morir  si  giovane"  (O,  God! 
to  die  so  young). 


Giuseppe  Verdi  425 

The  elder  Germont  and  Dr.  Grenvil  have  come  in.  There 
is  nothing  to  be  done.  The  cough  that  racked  the  poor 
frail  body  has  ceased.     La  traviata  is  dead. 

Not  only  were  "II  Trovatore"  and  "La  Traviata"  pro- 
duced in  the  same  year,  but  "La  Traviata"  was  written 
between  the  date  of  "  Trovatore's "  premiere  at  Rome 
(January  19th)  and  March  6th.  Only  four  weeks  in  all  are 
said  to  have  been  devoted  to  it,  and  part  of  the  time  Verdi 
was  working  on  "Trovatore  "  as  well.  Nothing  could  better 
illustrate  the  fecundity  of  his  genius,  the  facility  with  which 
he  composed.  But  it  was  not  the  fatal  facility  that  sacri- 
fices real  merit  for  temporary  success.  There  are  a  few 
echoes  of  "Trovatore"  in  "Traviata";  but  the  remarkable 
achievement  of  Verdi  is  not  in  having  written  so  beautiful 
an  opera  as  "La  Traviata"  in  so  short  a  time,  but  in  having 
produced  in  it  a  work  in  a  style  wholly  different  from  "II 
Trovatore. ' '  The  latter  palpitates  with  the  passions  of  love, 
hatred,  and  vengeance.  The  setting  of  the  action  encourages 
these.  It  consists  of  palace  gardens,  castles,  dungeons. 
But  "La  Traviata"  plays  in  drawing-rooms.  The  music 
corresponds  with  these  surroundings.  It  is  vivacious, 
graceful,  gentle.  When  it  palpitates,  it  is  with  sorrow. 
The  opera  also  contains  a  notably  beautiful  instrumental 
number — the  introduction  to  the  third  act.  This  was  a 
favourite  piece  with  Theodore  Thomas.  Several  times — 
years  ago — I  heard  it  conducted  by  him  at  his  Popular 
Concerts. 

Oddly  enough,  although  "II  Trovatore"  is  by  far  the 
more  robust  and  at  one  time  was,  as  I  have  stated,  the  most 
popular  opera  in  the  world,  I  believe  that  today  the  ad- 
vantage lies  with  "La  Traviata, "  and  that,  as  between  the 
two,  there  belongs  to  that  opera  the  ultimate  chance  of  sur- 
vival. I  explain  this  on  the  ground  that,  in  "  II  Trovatore" 
the  hero  and  heroine  are  purely  musical  creations,  the  real 
character  drawing,  dramatically  and  musically,  being  in  the 


426  .  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

role  of  Azucena,  which,  while  a  principal  role,  has  not  the 
prominence  of  Leonora  or  Manrico.  In  "La  Traviata, " 
on  the  other  hand,  we  have  in  the  original  of  Violetta — the 
Marguerite  Gauthier  of  Alexandre  Dumas,  fils — one  of  the 
great  creations  of  modern  drama,  the  frail  woman  redeemed 
by  the  touch  of  an  artist.  Piave,  in  his  libretto,  preserves 
the  character.  In  the  opera,  as  In  the  play,  one  compre- 
hends the  injunction,  "Let  him  who  is  not  guilty  throw  the 
first  stone. "  For  Verdi  has  clothed  Violetta  in  music  that 
brings  out  the  character  so  vividly  and  so  beautifully  that 
whenever  I  see  "Traviata"  I  recall  the  first  performance 
in  America  of  the  Dumas  play  by  Bernhardt,  then  in  her 
slender  and  supple  prime,  and  the  first  American  appearance 
in  it  of  Duse,  with  her  exquisite  intonation  and  restraint  of 
gesture. 

In  fact,  operas  survive  because  the  librettist  has  known 
how  to  create  a  character  and  the  composer  how  to  match  it 
with  his  musical  genius.  Recall  the  dashing  Don  Giovanni; 
the  resourceful  Figaro,  both  in  the  Mozart  and  the  Rossini 
opera;  the  real  interpretive  quality  of  a  mild  and  gracious 
order  in  the  heroine  of  "La  Sonnambula" — innocence  per- 
sonified; the  gloomy  figure  of  Edgardo  stalking  through 
"Lucia  di  Lammermoor";  the  hunchback  and  the  titled 
gallant  in  "Rigoletto,"  and  you  can  understand  why  these 
very  old  operas  have  lived  so  long.  They  are  not  make- 
believe;  they  are  real. 

UN  BALLO  IN  MASCHERA 

THE   MASKED   BALL 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Verdi;  words  by  Somma,  based  on  Scribe's 
libretto  for  Auber's  opera,  "Gustave  III.,  ou  Le  Bal  Masque  "  (Gustavus 
III.,  or  the  Masked  Ball).  Produced,  Apollo  Theatre,  Rome,  February 
17,  1859.  Paris,  Theatre  des  Italiens,  January  13,  1861.  London,  June 
15,  1 86 1.  New  York,  February  11,  1861.  Re\'ivals,  Metropolitan 
Opera  House,  N.  Y.,  with  Jean  de  Reszke,  1903;  with  Caniso,  Eames, 


. /•enemies  of  the  Governor Bass 


Giuseppe  Verdi  427 

Homer,  Scotti,  Plangon,  and  Joumet,  February  6,  1905;  with  Caruso, 
Destinn,  Matzenauer,  Hempel,  and  Amato,  November  22,  1913. 

Characters 

Richard,  Count  of  Warwick  and  Governor  of  Boston  (or  Riccardo, 

Duke  of  Olivares  and  Governor  of  Naples) Tenor 

Amelia  (Adelia) Soprano 

Reinhart  (Renato),  secretary  to  the  Governor  and  husband  of 

Amelia Baritone 

Samuel 

Tom  (Tommaso)J 

Silvan,  a  sailor Soprano 

Oscar  (Edgardo),  a  page Soprano 

Ulrica,  a  negress  astrologer / Contralto 

A  judge,  a  servant  of  Amelia,  populace,  guards,  etc.,  conspirators, 

maskers,  and  dancing  couples. 
Place — Boston,  or  Naples.     Time — Late  seventeenth  or  middle  eight- 
eenth century. 

The  English  libretto  of  "Un  Ballo  in  Maschera, "  literally 
"A  Masked  Ball,"  but  always  called  by  us  "The  Masked 
Ball, "  has  the  following  note: 

"The  scene  of  Verdi's  'Ballo  in  Maschera'  was,  by  the 
author  of  the  libretto,  originally  laid  in  one  of  the  European 
cities.  But  the  government  censors  objected  to  this,  prob- 
ably, because  the  plot  contained  the  record  of  a  successful 
conspiracy  against  an  established  prince  or  governor.  By 
a  change  of  scene  to  the  distant,  and,  to  the  author,  little- 
known,  city  of  Boston,  in  America,  this  difficulty  seems  to 
have  been  obviated.  The  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  by 
Bostonians  and  others,  who  may  be  somewhat  astonished 
at  the  events  which  are  supposed  to  have  taken  place  in  the 
old  Puritan  city. " 

Certainly  the  events  in  "The  Masked  Ball"  are  amazing 
for  the  Boston  of  Puritan  or  any  other  time,  and  it  was  only 
through  necessity  that  the  scene  of  the  opera  was  laid  there. 
Now  that  political  reasons  for  this  no  longer  exist,  it  is 
usually  played  with  the  scene  laid  in  Naples. 


428  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Auber  produced,  in  1833,  an  opera  on  a  libretto  by  Scribe, 
entitled  "Gustave  III.,  ou  Le  Bal  Masqu^."  Upon  this 
Scribe  libretto  the  book  of  "Un  Ballo  in  Maschera"  is 
based.  Verdi's  opera  was  originally  called  "Gustavo  III. , " 
and,  like  the  Scribe- Auber  work,  was  written  around  the 
assassination  of  Gustavus  III.,  of  Swederi,  who,  March  16, 
1792,  was  shot  in  the  back  during  a  masked  ball  at  Stock- 
holm. 

Verdi  composed  the  work  for  the  San  Carlo  Theatre, 
Naples,  where  it  was  to  have  been  produced  for  the  carnival 
of  1858.  But  January  14th  of  that  year,  and  while  the  re- 
hearsals were  in  progress,  Felice  Orsini,  an  Italian  revolu- 
tionist, made  his  attempt  on  the  life  of  Napoleon  III.  In 
consequence  the  authorities  forbade  the  performance  of  a 
work  dealing  with  the  assassination  of  a  king.  The  sugges- 
tion that  Verdi  adapt  his  music  to  an  entirely  different  li- 
bretto was  put  aside  by  the  composer,  and  the  work  was 
withdrawn,  with  the  result  that  a  revolution  nearly  broke 
out  in  Naples.  People  paraded  the  street,  and  by  shouting 
"Viva  Verdi! "  proclaimed,  under  guise  of  the  initials  of  the 
popular  composer's  name,  that  they  favoured  the  cause  of  a 
imited  Italy,  with  Victor  Emanuel  as  King;  viz.:  Vittorio 
Emmanuele  Re  D'ltalia  (Victor  Emanuel,  King  of  Italy). 
Finally  the  censor  in  Rome  suggested,  as  a  way  out  of  the 
difficulty,  that  the  title  of  the  opera  be  changed  to  "Un 
Ballo  in  Maschera"  and  the  scene  transferred  to  Boston. 
For  however  nervous  the  authorities  were  about  having  a 
king  murdered  on  the  stage,  they  regarded  the  assassina- 
tion of  an  English  governor  in  far-off  America  as  a  quite 
harmless  diversion.  So,  indeed,  it  proved  to  be,  the  only 
excitement  evinced  by  the  audience  of  the  Apollo  Theatre, 
Rome,  on  the  evening  of  February  18,  1859,  being  the  result 
of  its  enthusiasm  over  the  various  musical  nimibers  of  the 
work,  this  enthusiasm  not  being  at  all  dampened  by  the  fact 
that,  v/ith  the  transfer  to  Boston,  two  of  the  conspirators, 


Giuseppe  Verdi  429 

Samuel  and  Tommaso,  became  negroes,  and  the  astrologer 
who  figures  in  the  opera,  a  negress. 

The  sensible  change  of  scene  from  Boston  to  Naples  is  said 
to  have  been  initiated  in  Paris  upon  the  instance  of  Mario, 
who  "would  never  have  consented  to  sing  his  ballad  in  the 
second  act  in  short  pantaloons,  silk  stockings,  red  dress,  and 
big  epaulettes  of  gold  lace.  He  would  never  have  been  satis- 
fied with  the  title  of  Earl  of  Warwick  and  the  office  of 
governor.  He  preferred  to  be  a  grandee  of  Spain,  to  call 
himself  the  Duke  of  Olivares,  and  to  disguise  himself  as  a 
Neapolitan  fisherman,  besides  paying  little  attention  to  the 
strict  accuracy  of  the  r61e,  but  rather  adapting  it  to  his  own 
gifts  as  an  artist. "  The  ballad  referred  to  in  this  quotation 
undoubtedly  is  Richard's  barcarolle,  "Di'  tu  se  fidele  il 
flutto  m'a  spetta"  (Declare  if  the  waves  will  faithfully  bear 
me). 

Act  I.  Reception  hall  in  the  Governor's  house.  Richard, 
Earl  of  Warwick,  is  giving  an  audience.  Oscar,  a  page, 
brings  him  the  list  of  guests  invited  to  a  masked  ball. 
Richard  is  especially  delighted  at  seeing  on  it  the  name  of 
Amelia,  the  wife  of  his  secretary,  Reinhart,  although  his 
conscience  bitterly  reproaches  him  for  loving  Amelia,  for 
Reinhart  is  his  most  faithful  friend,  ever  ready  to  defend 
him.  The  secretary  also  has  discovered  a  conspiracy 
against  his  master;  but  as  yet  has  been  unable  to  learn  the 
names  of  the  conspirators. 

At  the  audience  a  judge  is  announced,  who  brings  for 
signature  the  sentence  of  banishment  against  an  old  fortune 
teller,  the  negress  Ulrica.  Oscar,  however,  intercedes  for 
the  old  woman.  Richard  decides  to  visit  her  in  disguise  and 
test  her  powers  of  divination. 

The  scene  changes  to  Ulrica's  hut,  which  Richard  enters 
disguised  as  a  fisherman.  Without  his  knowledge,  Amelia 
also  comes  to  consult  the  negress.  Concealed  by  a  curtain 
he  hears  her  ask  for  a  magic  herb  to  cure  her  of  the  love 


430  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

which  she,  a  married  woman,  bears  to  Richard.  The  old 
woman  tells  her  of  such  an  herb,  but  Amelia  must  gather 
it  herself  at  midnight  in  the  place  where  stands  the  gibbet. 
Richard  thus  learns  that  she  loves  him,  and  of  her  purpose  to 
be  at  the  place  of  the  gibbet  at  midnight.  When  she  has 
gone  he  comes  out  of  his  concealment  and  has  his  fortune 
told.  Ulrica  predicts  that  he  will  die  by  the  hand  of  a  friend. 
The  conspirators,  who  are  in  his  retinue,  whisper  among 
themselves  that  they  are  discovered.  "Who  will  be  the 
slayer?"  asks  Richard.  The  answer  is,  "Whoever  first 
shall  shake  your  hand. "  At  this  moment  Reinhart  enters, 
greets  his  friend  with  a  vigorous  shake  of  the  hand,  and 
Richard  laughs  at  the  evil  prophecy.  His  retinue  and  the 
populace  rejoice  with  him. 

Act  II.  Midnight,  beside  the  gallows.  Amelia,  deeply 
veiled,  comes  to  pluck  the  magic  herb.  Richard  arrives  to 
protect  her.  Amelia  is  unable  to  conceal  her  love  for  him. 
But  who  comes  there?  It  is  Reinhart.  Concern  for  his 
master  has  called  him  to  the  spot.  The  conspirators  are 
lying  in  wait  for  him  nearby.  Richard  exacts  from  Rein- 
hart a  promise  to  escort  back  to  the  city  the  deeply  veiled 
woman,  without  making  an  attempt  to  learn  who  she  is, 
while  he  himself  returns  by  an  unfrequented  path.  Rein- 
hart and  his  companion  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  conspira- 
tors. The  latter  do  not  harm  the  secretary,  but  want  at 
least  to  learn  who  the  Governor's  sweetheart  is.  They  lift 
the  veil.  Reinhart  sees  his  own  wife.  Rage  grips  his  soul. 
He  bids  the  leaders  of  the  conspiracy  to  meet  with  him  at 
his  house  in  the  morning. 

Act  III.  A  study  in  Reinhart' s  dwelling.  For  the  dis- 
grace he  has  suffered  he  intends  to  kill  Amelia.  Upon  her 
plea  she  is  allowed  to  embrace  her  son  once  more.  He 
reflects  that,  after  all,  Richard  is  much  the  more  guilty  of  the 
two.  He  refrains  from  killing  her,  but  when  he  and  the 
conspirators  draw  lots  to  determine  who  shall  kill  Richard, 


Giuseppe  Verdi  431 

he  calls  her  in,  and,  at  his  command,  she  draws  a  piece  of 
paper  from  an  um.  It  bears  her  husband's  name,  drawn 
unwittingly  by  her  to  indicate  the  person  who  is  to  slay  the 
man  she  loves.  Partly  to  remove  Amelia's  suspicions, 
Reinhart  accepts  the  invitation  to  the  masked  ball  which 
Oscar  brings  him,  Richard,  of  course,  knowing  nothing  of 
what  has  transpired. 

In  the  brilliant  crowd  of  maskers,  the  scene  having 
cfianged  to  that  of  the  masked  ball,  Reinhart  learns  from 
Oscar  what  disguise  is  worn  by  Richard.  Amelia,  who, 
with  the  eyes  of  apprehensive  love,  also  has  recognized 
Richard,  implores  him  to  flee  the  danger  that  threatens  him. 
But  Richard  knows  no  fear.  In  order  that  the  honour  of 
his  friend  shall  remain  secure,  he  has  determined  to  send 
him  as  an  envoy  to  England,  accompanied  by  his  wife. 
Her,  he  tells  Amelia,  he  will  never  see  again.  "Once  more 
I  bid  thee  farewell,  for  the  last  time,  farewell. " 

"And  thus  receive  thou  my  farewell!"  exclaims  Reinhart, 
stabbing  him  in  the  side. 

With  his  last  words  Richard  assures  Reinhart  of  the  guilt- 
lessness of  Amelia,  and  admonishes  all  to  seek  to  avenge  his 
death  on  no  one. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  how  astonishing  these 
proceedings  are  when  supposed  to  take  place  in  Colonial 
Boston.  Even  the  one  episode  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Warwick, 
singing  a  barcarolle  in  the  hut  of  a  negress  who  tells  for- 
tunes is  so  impossible  that  it  affects  the  whole  story  with 
incredibility.  But  Naples — well,  anything  will  go  there. 
In  fact,  as  truth  is  stranger  than  fiction,  we  even  can  regard 
the  events  of  "The  Masked  Ball"  as  occurring  more  natur- 
ally in  an  Italian  city  than  in  Stockholm,  where  the  assas- 
sination of  Gustavus  III.  at  a  masquerade  actually  occurred. 

Although  the  opera  is  a  subject  of  only  occasional  revival, 
it  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  good  music  and  a 
quintet  of  exceptional  quality. 


432 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Early  in  the  first  act  comes  Richard's  solo,  "La  revedra 
neir  stasi"  (I  shall  again  her  face  behold). 


This  is  followed  by  the  faithful  Reinhart's  "Alia  vita 
che  t'arride"  (To  thy  life  with  joy  abounding),  with  hopi 
solo. 

Strikingly  effective  is  Oscar's  song,  in  which  the  page 
vouches  for  the  fortune  teller.  "Volta  la  terrea  f route  alle 
Stella"  (Lift  up  thine  earthly  gaze  to  where  the  stars  are 
shining). 


,M.  /* 


In  the  scene  in  the  fortune  teller's  hut  are  a  trio  for 
Amelia,  Ulrica,  and  Richard,  while  the  latter  overhears 
Amelia's  welcome  confession  of  love  for  himself,  and 
Richard's  charming  barcarolle  addressed  to  the  sorceress, 
a  Neapolitan  melody,  "Di,  tu  se  fidele  il  flutto  m'a  spetta" 
(Declare  if  the  waves  will  faithfully  bear  me). 


The  quintet  begins  with  Richard's  laughing  disbelief  in 
Ulrica's  prophecy  regarding  himself,  "E  scherzo  od  e  fol- 
lia"  ('Tis  an  idle  folly). 

Concluding  the  scene  is  the  chorus,  in  which,  after  the 
people  have  recognized  Richard,  they  sing  what  has  been 
called,  "a  kind  of  'God  Save  the  King'  tribute  to  his 
worth" — "O  figlio  d'  Inghilterra"  (O  son  of  mighty  Eng- 
land) . 


Giuseppe  Verdi  433 

The  second  act  opens  with  a  beautiful  air  for  Amelia, 
"Ma  dair  arido  stelo  divulsa"  (From  the  stem,  dry  and 
withered,  dissevered). 

An  impassioned  duet  occurs  during  the  meeting  at  the 
place  of  the  gibbet  between  Richard  and  Amelia:  "O  qual 
soave  brivido"  (Oh,  what  delightful  ecstasies). 

The  act  ends  with  a  quartet  for  Amelia,  Reinhart,  Sam- 
uel,  and  Tom. 

In  the  last  act  is  Amelia^ s  touching  supplication  to  her 
husband,  in  which  "The  weeping  of  the  violoncello  and  the 
veiled  key  of  E  fiat  minor  stretch  to  the  last  limits  of  grief 
this  prayer  of  the  wife  and  mother," — "Morro,  ma  prima 
in  grazia"  (I  die,  but  first  in  mercy). 

"O  dolcezze  perdutte!"  (0  delights  now  lost  for  ever) 
sings  her  husband,  in  a  musical  inspiration  prefaced  by  harp 
and  flute. 

During  the  masked  ball  there  is  a  quintet  for  Amelia, 
Oscar,  Reinhart,  Samuel,  and  Tom,  from  which  the  sprightly 
butterfly  allegro  of  Oscar,  "Di  che  fulgor,  che  musiche" 
(What  brilliant  lights,  what  music  gay)  detaches  itself, 
while  later  on  the  Page  has  a  buoyant  "tra-la-la"  solo,  be- 
ginning, in  reply  to  Reinhart' s  question  concerning  Richard's 
disguise,  "Saper  vorreste,  di  che  si  veste"  (You'd  fain  be 
hearing  what  mask  he's  wearing). 

There  is  a  colloquy  between  Richard  and  Amelia.  Then 
the  catastrophe. 

BEFORE  AND  AFTER  "  UN  BALLO  " 

Prior  to  proceeding  to  a  consideration  of  "Aida, "  I  will 
refer  briefly  to  certain  works  by  Verdi,  which,  although  not 
requiring  a  complete  accotmt  of  story  and  music,  should  not 
be  omitted  from  a  book  on  opera. 

At  the  Teatro  San  Carlo,  Naples,  December  8,  1849, 
Verdi  brought  out  the  three-act  opera  "Luisa  Miller," 
38 


434  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

based  on  a  play  by  Schiller,  "Kabale  und  Liebe"  (Love  and 
Intrigue).  It  appears  to  have  been  Verdi's  first  real  suc- 
cess since  "Ernani "  and  to  have  led  up  to  that  achieved  by 
"  Rigoletto  "  a  year  later,  and  to  the  successes  of  "  II  Trova- 
tore"  and  "La  Traviata. "  "Luisa  Miller"  was  given  at 
the  Academy  of  Music,  New  York,  October  20,  1886,  by 
Angelo's  Italian  Opera  Company.  Giulia  Valda  was 
Luisa  and  Vicini  Rodolfo. 

The  story  is  a  gloomy  one.  The  first  act  is  entitled 
"Love,"  the  second  "Intrigue,"  the  third  "Poison." 

Characters 

Count  Walter Bass 

Rodolfo,  his  son Tenor 

Miller,  an  old  soldier '. Bass 

Luisa,  his  daughter •. . Soprano] 

Frederica,  Duchess  of  Ostheim,  Walter's  niece Contralto 

Laura,  a  peasant  girl Contralto 

Ladies  attending  the  Duchess,  pages,  servants,  archers,  and  villagers. 

Luisa  is  the  daughter  of  Miller,  an  old  soldier.  There  is 
ardent  love  between  her  and  Rodolfo,  the  son  of  Count 
Walter,  who  has  concealed  his  real  name  and  rank  from  her 
and  her  father  and  is  known  to  them  as  a  peasant  named 
Carlo.  Old  Miller,  however,  has  a  presentiment  that  evil 
will  result  from  their  attachment.  This  is  confirmed  on  his 
being  informed  by  Wurm  that  Carlo  is  Rodolfo,  his  master's 
son.     Wurm  is  himself  in  love  with  Luisa. 

The  Duchess  Frederica,  Count  Walter's  niece,  arrives  at 
the  castle.  She  had  been  brought  up  there  with  Rodolfo, 
and  has  from  childhood  cherished  a  deep  affection  for  him ; 
but,  compelled  by  her  father  to  marry  the  Duke  d 'Ostheim, 
has  not  seen  Rodolfo  for  some  years.  The  Duke,  however, 
having  died,  she  is  now  a  widow,  and,  on  the  invitation  of 
Count  Walter,  who  has,  unknown  to  Rodolfo,  made  pro- 
posals of  marriage  to  her  on  his  son's  behalf,  she  arrives 


Giuseppe  Verdi  435 

at  the  castle,  expecting  to  marry  at  once  the  love  of  her 
childhood.  The  Count  having  been  informed  by  Wurm 
of  his  son's  love  for  Luisa,  resolves  to  break  off  their  in- 
timacy. Rodoljo  reveals  to  the  Duchess  that  he  loves 
another.  He  also  discloses  his  real  name  and  position  to 
Luisa  and  her  father.  The  Count  interrupts  this  interview 
between  the  lovers.  Enraged  at  his  son's  persistence  in 
preferring  a  union  with  Luisa,  he  calls  in  the  guard  and  is 
about  to  consign  her  and  her  father  to  prison,  when  he  is, 
for  the  moment,  deterred  and  appalled  by  Rodolfo's  threat 
to  reveal  that  the  Count,  aided  by  Wurm,  assassinated  his 
predecessor,  in  order  to  obtain  possession  of  the  title  and 
estates. 

Luisa's  father  has  been  seized  and  imprisoned  by  the 
Count's  order.  She,  to  save  his  life,  consents,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Wurm,  to  write  a  letter  in  which  she  states  that 
she  had  never  really  loved  Rodolfo,  but  only  encouraged  him 
on  account  of  his  rank  and  fortune,  of  which  she  was  always 
aware;  and  finally  offering  to  fly  with  Wurm.  This  letter, 
as  the  Count  and  his  steward  have  arranged,  falls  into  the 
hands  of  Rodoljo,  who,  enraged  by  the  supposed  treachery 
of  the  woman  he  loves,  consents  to  marry  the  Duchess,  but 
ultimately  resolves  to  kill  Luisa  and  himself. 

Luisa  also  has  determined  to  put  an  end  to  her  existence. 
Rodoljo  enters  her  home  in  the  absence  of  Miller,  and,  after 
extracting  from  Luisa's  own  lips  the  avowal  that  she  did 
write  the  letter,  he  pours  poison  into  a  cup.  She  unwit- 
tingly offers  it  to  him  to  quench  his  thirst.  Afterwards,  at 
his  request,  she  tastes  it  herself.  She  had  sworn  to  Wurm 
that  she  would  never  reveal  the  fact  of  the  compulsion  under 
which  she  had  written  the  letter,  but  feeling  herself  released 
from  her  oath  by  fast  approaching  death,  she  confesses  the 
thith  to  Rodoljo.  The  lovers  die  in  the  presence  of  their 
horror-stricken  parents. 

The  principal  musical  numbers  include  Luisa's  graceful 


436  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

and  brilliant  solo  in  the  first  act — "Lo  vidi,  e'l  prime 
palpito"  (I  saw  him  and  my  beating  heart).  Besides  there 
is  Old  Miller's  air,  "Sacra  la  scielta  e  d'un  consorte"  (Firm 
are  the  links  that  are  forged  at  the  altar),  a  broad  and 
beautiful  melody,  which,  were  the  opera  better  known, 
would  be  included  in  most  of  the  operatic  anthologies  for 
bass. 

There  also  should  be  mentioned  Luisa's  air  in  the  last 
act,  "La  to,  ba  e  un  letto  sparso  di  fiori "  (The  tomb  a  couch 
is,  covered  with  roses). 

"I  Vespri  Siciliani"  (The  Sicilian  Vespers)  had  its  first 
performance  at  the  Grand  Opera,  Paris,  under  the  French 
title,  "  Les  Vepres  Siciliennes,  "  June  13,  1855.  It  was  given 
at  La  Scala,  Milan,  1856;  London,  Drury  Lane,  1859;  New 
York,  Academy  of  Music,  November  7,  1859;  and  revived 
there  November,  1868.  The  work  also  has  been  presented 
under  the  title  of  "Giovanna  di  Guzman."  The  libretto 
is  by  Scribe  and  deals  with  the  massacre  of  the  French 
invaders  of  Sicily,  at  vespers,  on  Easter  Monday,  1282. 
The  principal  characters  are  Guy  de  Montford,  French 
Viceroy,  baritone;  Arrigo,  a  Sicilian  officer,  tenor;  Duchess 
HeUne,  a  prisoner,  soprano;  Giovanni  di  Procida,  a  native 
conspirator,  bass.  Arrigo,  who  afterwards  is  discovered  to 
be  the  brutal  Guy  de  Montford' s  son,  is  in  love  with  Helhne. 
The  plot  turns  upon  his  efforts  to  rescue  her. 

There  is  one  famous  nvmiber  in  the  "The  Sicilian  Ves- 
pers." This  is  the  "Bolero,"  sung  by  Helhne — "Merce, 
dilette  amiche"  (My  thanks,  beloved  companions). 

At  Petrograd,  November  10,  1862,  there  was  brought  out 
Verdi's  opera  in  four  acts,  "La  Forza  del  Destine"  (The 
Force  of  Destiny).  London  heard  it  in  June,  1867;  New 
York,  February  2,  1865,  and,  with  the  last  act  revised 
by  the  composer,  at  the  Academy  of  Music  in  1880,  with 


Giuseppe  Verdi  437 

Annie  Louise  Car}',  Campanini,  Galassi,  and  Del  Puente. 
The  principal  characters  are  Marquis  di  Calatrava,  bass; 
Donna  Leonora  and  Don  Carlo,  his  children,  soprano  and 
baritone;  Don  Alvaro,  tenor;  Abbot  of  the  Franciscan  Friars, 
bass.  There  are  muleteers,  peasants,  soldiers,  friars,  etc. 
The  scenes  arc  laid  in  Spain  and  Italy;  the  period  is  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  centur}'.  The  libretto  is  based  on 
the  play,  "Don  Alvaro  o  la  Fuerzer  del  Sino "  by  the  Duke  of 
Rivas. 

Don  A  Ivaro  is  about  to  elope  with  Donna  Leonora,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Marquis,  when  the  latter  comes  upon  them  and  is 
accidentally  killed  by  Don  Alvaro.  The  Marquis  curses  his 
daughter  with  his  dying  breath  and  invokes  the  vengeance 
of  his  son,  Don  Carlo,  upon  her  and  her  lover.  She  escapes 
in  male  attire  to  a  monastery,  confesses  to  the  Abbot,  and 
is  conducted  by  him  to  a  cave,  where  he  assures  her  of 
absolute  safety. 

Don  Alvaro  and  Don  Carlo  meet  before  the  cave.  They 
fight  a  duel  in  which  Don  Alvaro  mortally  wounds  Don 
Carlo.  Donna  Leonora,  coming  out  of  the  cave  and  finding 
her  brother  dying,  goes  to  him.  With  a  last  effort  he  stabs 
her  in  the  heart.  Don  A  Ivaro  throws  himself  over  a  nearby 
precipice. 

"Madre,  pietosa  Vergine"  (Oh,  holy  Virgin)  is  one  of 
the  principal  numbers  of  the  opera.  It  is  sung  by  Donna 
Leonora,  kneeling  in  the  moonlight  near  the  convent,  while 
from  within  is  heard  the  chant  of  the  priests. 

The  "Madre  pietosa"  also  is  utilized  as  a  theme  in  the 
overture. 

"Don  Carlos,"  produced  at  the  Grand  Op^ra,  Paris, 
March  11,  1867,  during  the  Universal  Exposition,  was  the 
last  opera  composed  by  Verdi  before  he  took  the  musical 
world  by  storm  with  "  Aida.  "  The  work  is  in  four  acts,  the 
libretto,  by  M6ry  and  du  Locle,  having  been  reduced  from 
Schiller's  tragedy  of  the  same  title  as  the  opera. 


438  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

I  The  characters  are  Philip  II.,  of  Spain,  bass;  Don  Carlos, 
his  son,  tenor;  Rodrigo,  Marquis  de  Posa,  baritone;  Grand 
Inquisitor,  bass;  Elizabeth  de  Valois,  Queen  of  Philip  II., 
and  stepmother  of  Don  Carlos,  soprano;  Princess  Eboli, 
soprano.  In  the  original  production  the  fine  role  of  Rodrigo 
was  taken  by  Faure. 

Don  Carlos  and  Elizabeth  de  Valois  have  been  in  love  with 
each  other,  but  for  reasons  of  state  Elizabeth  has  been  obliged 
to  marry  Philip  II.,  Don  Carlos' s  father.  The  son  is  coun- 
selled by  Rodrigo  to  absent  himself  from  Spain[by  obtaining 
from  his  father  a  commission  to  go  to  the  Netherlands,  there 
to  mitigate  the  cruelties  practised  by  the  Spaniards  upon 
the  Flemings.  Don  Carlos  seeks  an  audience  with  Eliza- 
beth, in  order  to  gain  her  intercession  with  Philip.  The 
result,  however,  of  the  meeting,  is  that  their  passion  for 
each  other  returns  with  even  greater  intensity  than  before. 
Princess  Eboli,  who  is  in  love  with  Don  Carlos,  becomes 
cognizant  of  the  Queen's  affection  for  her  stepson,  and  in- 
forms the  King.  Don  Carlos  is  thrown  into  prison.  Rodrigo, 
who  visits  him  there,  is  shot  by  order  of  Philip,  who  sus- 
pects him  of  aiding  Spain's  enemies  in  the  Low  Countries. 
Don  Carlos,  having  been  freed,  makes  a  tryst  with  the  Queen. 
Discovered  by  the  King,  he  is  handed  over  by  him  to  the 
Inquisition  to  be  put  to  death. 

"II  Forza  del  Destino"  and  "Don  Carlos"  lie  between 
Verdi's  middle  period,  ranging  from  "Luisa  Miller"  to 
"Un  Ballo  in  Maschera"  and  including  "Rigoletto, "  "II 
Trovatore,  "  and  "La  Traviata,  "  and  his  final  period,  which 
began  with  "Aida. "  It  can  be  said  that  in  "II  Forza" 
and  "Don  Carlos"  Verdi  had  absorbed  considerable  of 
Meyerbeer  and  Gounod,  while  in  "Aida,"  in  addition  to 
these,  he  had  assimilated  as  much  of  Wagner  as  is  good  for 
an  Itahan.  The  enrichment  of  the  orchestration  in  the 
two  immediate  predecessors  of  "Aida"  is  apparent,  but  not 


Giuseppe  Verdi  439 

so  much  so  as  in  that  masterpiece  of  operatic  composition. 
He  produced  in  "Aida"  a  far  more  finished  score  than  in 
"II  Forza"  or  "Don  Carlos,"  sought  and  obtained  many 
exquisite  instrumental  effects,  but  always  remained  true 
to  the  Italian  principle  of  the  supremacy  of  melody  in  the 
voice. 

AIDA 

Grand  opera  in  four  acts  by  Giuseppe  Verdi,  Plot  by  Marietta 
Bey.  Written  in  French  prose  by  Camille  du  Locle.  Translated  into 
Italian  verse  by  Antonio  Ghislanzoni. 

Produced  in  Cairo,  Egypt,  December  24,  1871 ;  La  Scala,  Milan,  under 
the  composer's  direction,  February  8,  1872;  Theatre  Italien,  Paris, 
April  22,  1876;  Covent  Garden,  Lxjndon,  June  22,  1876;  Academy  of 
Music,  New  York,  November  26,  1873;  Grand  Op^ra,  Paris,  March  22, 
1880;  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  with  Caruso,  1904. 

Characters 

AltoA,  an  Ethiopian  slave Soprano 

Amneris,  daughter  of  the  King  of  Egypt Contralto 

Amonasro,  King  of  Ethiopia,  father  of  Aida Baritone 

Rhadames,  captain  of  the  Guard Tenor 

Ramphis,  High  Priest Bass     " 

King  of  Egypt Bass     ,; 

Messenger Tenor 

Priests,  soldiers,  Ethiopian  slaves,  prisoners,  Egyptians,  etc. 
Tinte — Epoch  of  the  Pharoahs.  Place — Memphis  and  Thebes. 

"Aida"  was  commissioned  by  Ismail  Pacha,  Khedive  of 
Egypt,  for  the  Italian  Theatre  in  Cairo,  which  opened  in 
November,  1869.  The  opera  was  produced  there  December 
24,  1871 ;  not  at  the  opening  of  the  house,  as  sometimes  is 
erroneously  stated.     Its  success  was  sensational. 

Equally  enthusiastic  was  its  reception  when  brought  out 
at  La  Scala,  Milan,  February  7,  1872,  under  the  direction  of 
Verdi  himself,  who  was  recalled  thirty-two  times  and  pre- 
sented with  an  ivory  baton  and  diamond  star  with  the  name 
of  Aida  in  rubies  and  his  own  in  other  precious  stones. 


44©  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  "Aida".  reached  New  York 
before  it  did  any  of  the  great  European  opera  houses  save 
La  Scala.  It  was  produced  at  the  Academy  of  Music  under 
the  direction  of  Max  Strakosch,  November  26,  1873.  I  am 
glad  to  have  heard  that  performance  and  several  other 
performances  of  it  that  season.  For  the  artists  who  ap- 
peared in  it  gave  a  representation  that  for  brilliancy  has  not 
been  surpassed  if,  indeed,  it  has  been  equalled.  In  support 
of  this  statement  it  is  only  necessary  to  say  that  Italo 
Campanini  was  Rhadames,  Victor  Maurel  Amonasro,  and 
Annie  Louise  Gary  Amneris.  No  greater  artists  have  ap- 
peared in  these  rdles  in  this  country.  Mile.  Torriani,  the 
A'ida,  while  not  so  distinguished,  was  entirely  adequate. 
Nanneti  as  Ramphis,  the  high  priest,  Scolara  as  the  King, 
and  Boy  as  the  Messenger,  completed  the  cast. 

I  recall  some  of  the  early  comment  on  the  opera.  It  was 
said  to  be  Wagnerian.  In  point  of  fact "  Aida  "  is  Wagnerian 
only  as  compared  with  Verdi's  earlier  operas.  Compared 
with  Wagner  himself,  it  is  Verdian — purely  Italian.  It  was 
said  that  the  fine  melody  for  the  trumpets  on  the  stage  in  the 
pageant  scene  was  plagiarized  from  a  theme  in  the  Coro- 
nation March  of  Meyerbeer's  "  Prophdte. "  Slightly  remin- 
iscent the  passage  is,  and,  of  course,  stylistically  the  entire 
scene  is  on  Meyerbeerian  lines;  but  these  resemblances  no 
longer  are  of  importance. 

Paris  failed  to  hear  "Aida"  until  April,  1876,  and  then  at 
the  Theatre  Italien,  instead  of  at  the  Grand  Opera,  where  it 
was  not  heard  until  March,  1880,  when  Maurel  was  the 
Amonasro  and  Edouard  de  Reszke,  later  a  favourite  basso 
at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  the  King.  In  1855 
Verdi's  opera,  "Les  V^pres  Siciliennes"  (The  Sicilian  Ves- 
pers) had  been  produced  at  the  Grand  Opera  and  occur- 
rences at  the  rehearsals  had  greatly  angered  the  composer. 
The  orchestra  clearly  showed  a  disinclination  to  follow  the 
composer's   minute   directions   regarding   the   manner   in 


Giuseppe  Verdi  441 

which  he  wished  his  work  interpreted.  When,  after  a  con- 
versation with  the  chef  d'orchestre,  the  only  result  was 
plainly  an  attempt  to  annoy  him,  he  put  on  his  hat,  left  the 
theatre,  and  did  not  return.  In  1867  his  "Don  Carlos" 
met  only  with  a  succbs  d'estime  at  the  Op^ra.  He  had 
not  forgotten  these  circimistances,  when  the  Op^ra  wanted 
to  give  "Aida. "  He  withheld  permission  until  1880. 
But  when  at  last  this  was  given,  he  assisted  at  the  production, 
and  the  public  authorities  vied  in  atoning  for  the  slights 
put  upon  him  so  many  years  before.  The  President  of 
France  gave  a  banquet  in  his  honour  and  he  was  created 
a  Grand  Officer  of  the  National  Order  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour. 

When  the  Khedive  asked  Verdi  to  compose  a  new  opera 
especially  for  the  new  opera  house  at  Cairo,  and  inquired 
what  the  composer's  terms  would  be,  Verdi  demanded 
$20,000.  This  was  agreed  upon  and  he  was  then  given  the 
subject  he  was  to  treat,  "  Aida, "  which  had  been  suggested 
to  the  Khedive  by  Mariette  Bey,  the  great  French  Egypt- 
ologist. The  composer  received  the  rough  draft  of  the 
story.  From  this  Camille  du  Locle,  a  former  director  of  the 
Op^ra  Comique,  who  happened  to  be  visiting  Verdi  at  Bus- 
seto,  wrote  a  libretto  in  French  prose,  "scene  by  scene, 
sentence  by  sentence, "  as  he  has  said,  adding  that  the  com- 
poser showed  the  liveliest  interest  in  the  work  and  himself 
suggested  the  double  scene  in  the  finale  of  the  opera.  The 
French  prose  libretto  was  translated  into  Italian  verse  by 
Antom'o  Ghislanzoni,  who  wrote  more  than  sixty  opera 
librettos,  "Aida"  being  the  most  famous.  Mariette  Bey 
brought  his  archeological  knowledge  to  bear  upon  the  pro- 
duction. "He  revived  Egyptian  life  of  the  time  of  the 
Pharaohs ;  he  rebuilt  ancient  Thebes,  Memphis,  the  Temple 
of  Phtah;  he  designed  the  costimies  and  arranged  the 
scenery.  And  under  these  exceptional  circtmistances, 
Verdi's  new  opera  was  produced. " 


442  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Verdi's  score  was  ready  a  year  before  the  work  had  its 
premiere.  The  production  was  delayed  by  force  of  circum- 
stances. Scenery  and  costumes  were  made  by  French  ar- 
tists. Before  these  accessories  could  be  shipped  to  Cairo, 
the  Franco-Prussian  war  broke  out.  They  could  not  be 
gotten  out  of  Paris.  Their  delivery  was  delayed  accord- 
ingly. 

Does  the  score  of  "Aida"  owe  any  of  its  charm,  passion, 
and  dramatic  stress  to  the  opportunity  thus  afforded  Verdi 
of  going  over  it  and  carefully  revising  it,  after  he  had  con- 
sidered it  finished?  Quite  possibly.  For  we  know  that 
he  made  changes,  eliminating,  for  instance,  a  chorus  in  the 
style  Palestrina,  which  he  did  not  consider  suitable  to  the 
priesthood  of  Isis.  Even  this  one  change  resulted  in  con- 
densation, a  valuable  quality,  and  in  leaving  the  exotic 
music  of  the  temple  scene  entirely  free  to  exert  to  the  full 
its  fascination  of  local  colour  and  atmosphere. 

The  story  is  unfolded  in  four  acts  and  seven  scenes. 

Act  I.  Scene  i.  After  a  very  brief  prelude,  the  curtain 
rises  on  a  hall  in  the  King's  palace  in  Memphis.  Through 
a  high  gateway  at  the  back  are  seen  the  temples  and  palaces 
of  Memphis  and  the  pyramids. 

It  had  been  supposed  that,  after  the  invasion  of  Ethiopia 
by  the  Egyptians,  the  Ethiopians  would  be  a  long  time  in 
recovering  from  their  defeat.  But  Amonasro,  their  king, 
has  swiftly  rallied  the  remnants  of  his  defeated  army, 
gathered  new  levies  to  his  standard,  and  crossed  the  frontier 
— all  this  with  such  extraordinary  rapidity  that  the  first 
news  of  it  has  reached  the  Egyptian  court  in  Memphis 
through  a  messenger  hot-foot  from  Thebes  with  the  start- 
ling word  that  the  sacred  city  itself  is  threatened. 

While  the  priests  are  sacrificing  to  Isis  in  order  to  learn 
from  the  goddess  whom  she  advises  them  to  choose  as  leader 
of  the  Egyptian  forces,  Rhadames,  a  young  warrior,  indulges 
in  the  hope  that  he  may  be  the  choice.     To  this  hope  he 


{v  •' 


Lopv  ii^;ht  photo  by  Dupont 


Emma  Eames  as  Aida 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 


Saleza  as  Rhadames  in  "  Aida  " 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


443 


joins  the  further  one  that,  returning  victorious,  he  may  ask 
the  hand  in  marriage  of  A'ida,  an  Ethiopian  slave  of  the 
Egyptian  King's  daughter,  Amneris.  To  these  aspirations 
he  gives  expression  in  the  romance,  "  Celeste  Aida  "  (Radiant 
Aida). 


rt-  /#»/»      »*  -       J .  «!« 


It  ends  effectively  with  the  following  phrase: 


He  little  knows  that  Aida  is  of  royal  birth  or  that  Am' 
neris  herself,  the  Princess  Royal,  is  in  love  with  him  and, 
having  noted  the  glances  he  has  cast  upon  A'ida,  is  fiercely 
jealous  of  her — a  jealousy  that  forms  the  mainspring  of  the 
story  and  leads  to  its  tragic  denouement. 

A  premonition  of  the  emotional  forces  at  work  in  the  plot 
is  given  in  the  "Vieni  O  diletti"  (Come  dearest  friend), 
beginning  as  a  duet  between  Amneris  and  Aida  and  later 
becoming  a  trio  for  them  and  Rhadames.  In  this  the 
Princess  feigns  friendship  for  Aida,  but,  in  asides,  discloses 
her  jealous  hatred,  of  her. 

Meanwhile  the  Egyptian  hosts  have  gathered  before  the 
temple.  There  the  King  announces  that  the  priests  of  Isis 
have  learned  from  the  lips  of  that  goddess  the  name  of  the 
warrior  who  is  to  lead  the  army — Rhadames  I  It  is  the  Prin- 
cess herself  who,  at  this  great  moment  in  his  career,  places 
the  royal  standard  in  his  hands.  But  amid  the  acclaims 
that  follow,  as  Rhadames,  to  the  strains  of  march  and  chorus, 
is  conducted  by  the  priests  to  the  temple  of  Phtah  to  be 
invested  with  the  consecrated  armour,  Amneris  notes  the 
fiery  look  he  casts  upon  Aida.     Is  this  the  reason  Rhadames, 


444  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

young,  handsome,  brave,  has  failed  to  respond  to  her  own 
guarded  advances?  Is  she,  a  princess,  to  find  a  successful 
rival  in  her  own  slave? 

Meanwhile  A'ida  herself  is  torn  by  conflicting  emotions- 
She  loves  Rhadames.  When  the  multitude  shouts  "Return 
victorious! "  she  joins  in  the  acclamation.  Yet  it  is  against 
her  own  people  he  is  going  to  give  battle,  and  the  Ethiopians 
are  led  by  their  king,  Amonasro,  her  father.  For  she,  too, 
is  a  princess,  as  proud  a  princess  in  her  own  land  as 
Amneris,  and  it  is  because  she  is  a  captive  and  a  slave 
that  her  father  has  so  swiftly  rallied  his  army  and  invaded 
Egypt  in  a  desperate  effort  to  rescue  her,  facts  which 
for  obvious  reasons  she  carefully  has  concealed  from  her 
captors. 

It  is  easy  to  imagine  Aida's  agonized  feelings  since  Rha- 
dames has  been  chosen  head  of  the  Egyptian  army.  If  she 
prays  to  her  gods  for  the  triimiph  of  the  Ethiopian  arms, 
she  is  betraying  her  lover.  If  she  asks  the  gods  of  victory 
to  smile  upon  Rhadames,  she  is  a  traitress  to  her  father,  who 
has  taken  up  arms  to  free  her,  and  to  her  own  people.  Small 
wonder  if  she  exclaims,  as  she  contemplates  her  own 
wretched  state: 

"Never  on  earth  was  heart  torn  by  more  cruel  agonies. 
The  sacred  names  of  father,  lover,  I  can  neither  utter  nor 
remember.  For  the  one — for  the  other — I  would  weep,  I 
would  pray!" 

This  scene  for  A'ida,  beginning  "Ritorna  vincitor" 
(Return  victorious),  in  which  she  echoes  the  acclamation 
of  the  martial  chorus  immediately  preceding,  is  one  of 
the  very  fine  passages  of  the  score.  The  lines  to  which  it 
is  set  also  have  been  highly  praised.  They  furnished  the 
composer  with  opportunity,  of  which  he  made  full  use, 
to  express  conflicting  emotions  in  music  of  dramatic  force 
and,  in  its  concluding  passage,  "Niuni  pieta"  (Pity,  kind 
heaven),  of  great  beauty. 


Giuseppe  Verdi  445 

Scene  2.  Ramphis,  the  high  priest,  at  the  foot  of  the 
altar;  priests  and  priestesses;  and  afterwards  Rhadames  are 
shown  in  the  Temple  of  Vulcan  at  Memphis.  A  mysterious 
light  descends  from  above.  A  long  row  of  colimins,  one 
behind  the  other,  is  lost  in  the  darkness;  statues  of 
various  deities  are  visible;  in  the  middle  of  the  scene, 
above  a  platform  rises  the  altar,  siirmoimted  by- 
sacred  emblems.  From  golden  tripods  comes  the  smoke 
of  incense. 

A  chant  of  the  priestesses,  accompanied  by  harps,  is 
heard  from  the  interior.  Rhadames  enters  unarmed.  While 
he  approaches  the  altar,  the  priestesses  execute  a  sacred 
dance.  On  the  head  of  Rhadames  is  placed  a  silver 
veil.  He  is  invested  with  consecrated  armor,  while 
the  priests  and  priestesses  resume  the  religious  chant 
and  dance. 

The  entire  scene  is  saturated  with  local  colour.  Piquant, 
exotic,  it  is  as  Egyptian  to  the  ear  as  to  the  eye.  You  see 
the  temple,  you  hear  the  music  of  its  devotees,  and  that 
music  sounds  as  distinctively  Egyptian  as  if  Mariette  Bey 
had  unearthed  two  examples  of  ancient  Egyptian  temple 
music  and  placed  them  at  the  composer's  disposal.  It  is 
more  likely,  however,  that  the  themes  are  original  with 
Verdi  and  that  the  Oriental  tone  colour,  which  makes  the 
music  of  the  scene  so  fascinating,  is  due  to  his  employment 
of  certain  intervals  peculiar  to  the  music  of  Eastern  people. 
The  interval,  which,  falling  upon  Western  ears,  gives  an 
Oriental  clang  to  the  scale,  consists  of  three  semi-tones. 
In  the  very  Eastern  sotmding  themes  in  the  temple  scenes 
in  "Aida,"  these  intervals  are  g  to  f-flat,  and  d  to 
c-fiat. 


446  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  sacred  chant, 


twice  employs  the  interval  between  d  and  c-flat,  the  first 
time  descending,  the  second  time  ascending,  in  which  latter 
it  sounds  more  characteristic  to  us,  because  we  regard  the 
scale  as  having  an  upward  tendency,  whereas  in  Oriental 
systems  the  scale  seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  tending 
downward. 

In  the  sacred  dance, 


the  interval  is  from  g  to  f-flat.  The  intervals,  where 
employed  in  the  two  music  examples  just  cited,  are 
bracketed.  The  interval  of  three  semi-tones — ^the  charac- 
teristic of  the  Oriental  scale — could  not  be  more  clearly 
shown  than  it  is  under  the  second  bracket  of  the  sacred 
dance. 

Act  II.  Scene  i.  In  this  scene,  which  take  place  in  a 
hall  in  the  apartments  of  Amneris,  the  Princess  adopts 
strategy  to  discover  if  Aida  returns  the  passion  which  she 
suspects  in  Rhadames.  Messengers  have  arrived  from  the 
front  with  news  that  Rhadames  has  put  the  Ethiopians  to 
utter  rout  and  is  returning  with  many  trophies  and  captives. 
Naturally  Aida  is  distraught.  Is  her  lover  safe?  Was  her 
father  slain?  It  is  while  Aida's  mind  and  heart  are  agi- 
tated by  these  questions  that  Amneris  chooses  the  moment 
to  test  her  feelings  and  wrest  from  her  the  secret  she  longs 
yet  dreads  to  fathom.     The  Princess  is  reclining  on  a  couch 


Giuseppe   Verdi  447 

in  her  apartment  in  the  palace  at  Thebes,  whither  the  court 
has  repaired  to  welcome  the  triumphant  Egyptian  army. 
Slaves  are  adorning  her  for  the  festival  or  agitating  the  air 
with  large  feather  fans.  Moorish  slave  boys  dance  for  her 
delectation  and  her  attendants  sing: 

While  on  thy  tresses  rain 
Laurels  and  flowers  interwoven, 
Let  songs  of  glory  mingle 
With  strains  of  tender  love. 

In  the  midst  of  these  festive  preparations  Aida  enters, 
and  Amneris,  craftily  feigning  sympathy  for  her  lest  she  be 
grieving  over  the  defeat  of  her  people  and  the  possible  loss 
in  battle  of  someone  dear  to  her,  affects  to  console  her  by 
telling  her  that  Rhadames,  the  leader  of  the  Egyptians,  has 
been  slain. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  the  Princess  to  watch  the  girl  in- 
tently in  order  to  note  the  effect  upon  her  of  the  sudden  and 
cruelly  contrived  announcement.  Almost  as  suddenly,  hav- 
ing feasted  her  eyes  on  the  slave  girl's  grief,  the  Princess 
exclaims:  "I  have  deceived  you;  Rhadames  lives!" 

"He  lives!"  Tears  of  gratitude  instead  of  despair  now 
moisten  Aida's  eyes  as  she  raises  them  to  Heaven. 

"You  love  him;  you  cannot  deny  it!"  cries  Amneris, 
forgetting  in  her  furious  jealousy  her  dignity  as  a  Princess. 
"But  know,  you  have  a  rival.  Yes — in  me.  You,  my 
slave,  have  a  rival  in  your  mistress,  a  daughter  of  the 
Pharaohs!" 

Having  fathomed  her  slave's  secret,  she  vents  the  refined 
cruelty  of  her  jealous  nature  upon  the  unfortunate  girl  by 
commanding  her  to  be  present  at  the  approaching  triimi- 
phant  entry  of  Rhadames  and  the  Egyptian  army : 

"Come,  follow  me,  and  you  shall  learn  if  you  can  contend 
with  me — you,  prostrate  in  the  dust,  I  on  the  throne  beside 
the  king!" 


448  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

What  has  just  been  described  is  formulated  by  Verdi  in 
a  duet  for  Amneris  and  A'ida,  "Amore!  gaudio  tormento" 
(Oh,  love!  Oh,  joy  and  sorrow!),  which  expresses  the  crafti- 
ness and  subtlety  of  the  Egyptian  Princess,  the  conflicting 
emotions  of  Alda,  and  the  dramatic  stress  of  the  whole 
episode. 

This  phrase  especiall}''  seems  to  express  the  combined 
haughtiness  and  jealousy  in  the  attitude  of  Amneris  toward 
A'ida: 


Scene  2.  Brilliant  indeed  is  the  spectacle  to  which  A'ida 
is  compelled  to  proceed  with  the  Princess.  It  is  near  a 
group  of  palms  at  the  entrance  to  the  city  of  Thebes  that 
the  King  has  elected  to  give  Rhadames  his  triumph.  Here 
stands  the  temple  of  Ammon.  Beyond  it  a  triumphal  gate 
has  been  erected.  When  the  King  enters  to  the  cheers  of 
the  multitude  and  followed  by  his  gaudily  clad  court,  he 
takes  his  seat  on  the  throne  surmounted  by  a  purple  canopy. 
To  his  left  sits  Amneris,  singling  out  for  her  disdainful 
glances  the  most  unhappy  of  her  slaves. 

A  blast  of  trumpets,  and  the  victorious  army  begins  its 
defile  past  the  throne.  After  the  foot  soldiers  come  the 
chariots  of  war;  then  the  bearers  of  the  sacred  vases  and 
statues  of  the  gods,  and  a  troupe  of  dancing  girls  carrying  the 
loot  of  victory.  A  great  flourish  of  tnmipets,  an  outburst 
of  acclaim,  and  Rhadames,  proudly  standing  under  a  canopy 
borne  high  on  the  shoulders  of  twelve  of  his  officers,  is 
carried  through  the  triumphal  gate  and  into  the  presence 
of  his  King.  As  the  young  hero  descends  from  the  canopy, 
the  monarch,  too,  comes  down  from  the  throne  and  em- 
bracing him  exclaims: 

"Savior  of  your  country,  I  salute  you.  My  daughter 
with  her  own  hand  shall  place  the  crown  of  laurels  upon 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Louise  Homer  as  Amneris  in  "Aida" 


Copyright  photo  by  Mishkin 

Rosina  Galli  in  the  Ballet  of  "Aida" 


Giuseppe  Verdi  449 

your  brow. "  And  when  Amneris,  suiting  her  action  to  her 
father's  words,  crowns  Rhadames,  the  King  continues: 
"  Now  ask  of  me  whatever  you  most  desire.  I  swear  by  my 
crown  and  by  the  sacred  gods  that  nothing  shall  be  denied 
to  you  this  day!" 

But  although  no  wish  is  nearer  the  heart  of  Rhadames 
than  to  obtain  freedom  for  Aida,  he  does  not  consider  the 
moment  as  yet  opportune.  Therefore  he  requests  that  first 
the  prisoners  of  war  be  brought  before  the  King.  When 
they  enter,  one  of  them,  by  his  proud  mien  and  spirited 
carriage,  easily  stands  forth  from  the  rest.  Hardly  has 
Aida  set  eyes  upon  him  than. she  utters  the  startled  exclama- 
tion, "My  father!" 

It  is  indeed  none  other  than  Amonasro,  the  Ethiopian 
king,  who,  his  identity  unknown  to  the  Egyptians,  has  been 
made  captive  by  them.  Swiftly  gliding  over  to  where  A'ida 
stands,  he  whispers  to  her  not  to  betray  his  rank  to  his  cap- 
tors. Then,  turning  to  the  Egyptian  monarch,  he  craftily 
describes  how  he  has  seen  the  king  of  Ethiopia  dead  at  his 
feet  from  many  wounds,  and  concludes  by  entreating  clem- 
ency for  the  conquered.  Not  only  do  the  other  captives 
and  Aida  join  in  his  prayer,  but  the  people,  moved  by  his 
words  and  by  his  noble  aspect,  beg  their  king  to  spare  the 
prisoners.  The  priests,  however,  protest.  The  gods  have 
delivered  these  enemies  into  the  hands  of  Egypt;  let  them 
be  put  to  death  lest,  emboldened  by  a  pardon  so  easily 
obtained,  they  should  rush  to  arms  again. 

Meanwhile  Rhadames  has  had  eyes  only  for  A'ida,  while 
Amneris  notes  with  rising  jealousy  the  glances  he  turns 
upon  her  hated  slave.  At  last  Rhadames,  carried  away  by 
his  feelings,  himself  joins  in  the  appeal  for  clemency.  "  Oh, 
King,"  he  exclaims,  "by  the  sacred  gods  and  by  the  splen- 
dotu"  of  your  crown,  you  swore  to  grant  my  wish  this  day! 
Let  it  be  life  and  liberty  for  the  Ethiopian  prisoners." 
But  the  high  priest  urges  that  even  if  freedom  is  granted 
39 


450 


The  Complete  Opera  Book' 


to  the  others,  A'ida  and  her  father  be  detained  as  hostages 
and  this  is  agreed  upon.  Then  the  King,  as  a  crown- 
ing act  of  glory  for  Rhadames,  leads  Amneris  forth,  and 
addressing  the  young  warrior,  says : 

"Rhadames,  the  country  owes  everything  to  you. 
Your  reward  shall  be  the  hand  of  Amneris.  With  her  one 
day  you  shall  reign  over  Egypt." 

A  great  shout  goes  up  from  the  multitude.  Unexpectedly 
Amneris  sees  herself  triumphant  over  her  rival,  the  dream 
of  her  heart  fulfilled,  and  A'ida  bereft  of  hope,  since  for 
Rhadames  to  refuse  the  hand  of  his  king's  daughter  would 
mean  treason  and  death.  And  so  while  all  seemingly  are 
rejoicing,  two  hearts  are  sad  and  bewildered.  For  A'ida, 
the  man  she  adores  appears  lost  to  her  forever  and  all  that 
is  left  to  her,  the  tears  of  hopeless  love;  while  to  Rhadames 
the  heart  of  A'ida  is  worth  more  than  the  throne  of  Egypt, 
and  its  gift,  with  the  hand  of  Amneris,  is  like  the  unjust 
vengeance  of  the  gods  descending  upon  his  head. 

This  is  the  finale  of  the  second  act.  It  has  been  well  said 
that  not  only  is  it  the  greatest  effort  of  the  composer,  but 
also  one  of  the  grandest  conceptions  of  modern  musical  and 
specifically  operatic  art.  The  importance  of  the  staging, 
the  magnificence  of  the  spectacle,  the  diversity  of  character- 
ization, and  the  strength  of  action  of  the  drama  all  conspire 
to  keep  at  an  unusually  high  level  the  inspiration  of  tjie 
composer.  The  triumphal  chorus,  Gloria  all'  Egitto  (Glory 
to  Egypt),  is  sonorous  and  can  be  rendered  with  splendid 
effect. 

It  is  preceded  by  a  march. 


Giuseppe   Verdi 

Then  comes  the  chorus  of  triumph. 


451 


Voices  of  women  join  in  the  acclaim. 


The  trumpets  of  the  Egyptian  troops  execute  a  most 
brilliant  modulation  from  a-flat  to  b-natural. 

The  reference  here  is  to  the  long,  straight  trumpets  with 
three  valves  (only  one  of  which,  however,  is  used).  These 
trumpets,  in  groups  of  three,  precede  the  divisions  of  the 
Egyptian  troops.  The  trumpets  of  the  first  group  are 
tuned  in  a-flat. 


'  When  the  second  group  enters  and  intones  the  same  stir- 
ring march  theme  in  b-natural,  the  enharmonic  modulation 
to  a  tone  higher  gives  an  immediate  and  vastly  effective 
"lift"  to  the  music  and  the  scene. 


1^1  1 1  Mi|  ||[jj  I  "1  m'  di  I  "1  T^M 


The  entrance  of  Rhadatnes,  borne  on  high  under  a  canopy 
by  twelve  officers  is  a  dramatic  climax  to  the  spectacle. 
But  a  more  emotional  one  is  to  follow. 


452  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  recognition  of  King  Amonasro  by  his  daughter;  the 
supplication  of  the  captives;  the  plea  of  Rhadames  and  the 
people  in  their  favour;  the  vehement  protests  of  the  priests 
who,  in  the  name  of  the  gods  of  Egypt,  demand  their  death; 
the  diverse  passions  which  agitate  Rhadames,  A'ida,  and 
Amneris;  the  hope  of  vengeance  that  Amonasro  cherishes — 
all  these  conflicting  feelings  are  musically  expressed  with 
complete  success.  The  structure  is  reared  upon  Amonasro' s 
plea  to  the  King  for  mercy  for  the  Ethiopian  captives, 
"Ma  tu,  re,  tu  signore  possente"  (But  thou,  O  king,  thou 
puissant  lord). 


When  the  singer,  who  takes  the  r61e  of  Amonasro,  also 
is  a  good  actor,  he  will  know  how  to  convey,  between  the 
lines  of  this  supplication,  his  secret  thoughts  and  una  vowed 
hope  for  the  reconquest  of  his  freedom  and  his  country. 
After  the  Egyptian  King  has  bestowed  upon  Rhadames  the 
hand  of  Amneris,  the  chorus,  "Gloria  all'  Egitto,"  is  heard 
again,  and,  above  its  sonorous  measures,  Aida's  cry: 

What  hope  now  remains  to  me  ? 
To  him,  glory  and  the  throne; 
To  me,  oblivion — the  tears 
Of  hopeless  love. 

It  is  largely  due  to  Verdi's  management  of  the  score  to 
this  elaborate  scene  that  "Aida"  not  only  has  superseded 
all  spectacular  operas  that  came  before  it,  but  has  held  its 
own  against  and  survived  practically  all  those  that  have  come 
since .  The  others  were  merely  spectacular.  In  "  Aida  "  the 
surface  radiates  and  glows  because  beneath  it  seethe  the  fires 
of  conflicting  human  passion.  In  other  operas  spectacle  is 
merely  spectacle.  In  "  Aida"  it  clothes  in  brilliant  habili- 
ments the  forces  of  impending  and  on-rushing  tragedy. 


Giuseppe   Verdi 


453 


Act  III.  That  tragedy  further  advances  toward  its 
consummation  in  the  present  act. 

It  is  a  beautiful  moonlight  night  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile — 
moonlight  whose  silvery  rays  are  no  more  exquisite  than 
the  music  that  seems  steeped  in  them. 


Half  concealed  in  the  foliage  is  the  temple  of  Isis,  from 
which  issues  the  sound  of  women's  voices,  softly  chanting. 
A  boat  approaches  the  shore  and  out  of  it  steps  Amneris 
and  the  high  priest,  with  a  train  of  closely  veiled  women 
and  several  guards.  The  Princess  is  about  to  enter  upon  a 
vigil  in  the  temple  to  implore  the  favour  of  the  goddess 
before  her  nuptials  with  Rhadames. 

For  a  while  after  they  have  entered  the  temple,  the  shore 
seems  deserted.  But  from  the  shadow  of  a  grove  of  palms 
Aida  cautiously  emerges  into  the  moonlight.  In  song  she 
breathes  forth  memories  of  her  native  land.  {Oh,  patria 
mia! — 0  deli  azzuri!  (Oh,  native  land ! — Oh,  skies  of  tender 
blue!).     . 


0    titU      •!». 


The  phrase,  0  patria  mia!  mai  piu  ti  rivedro  (Oh,  native 
land!  I  ne'er  shall  see  thee  more) — a  little  further  on — 
recalls  the  famous  "Non  ti  scordar"  from  the  "Miserere" 
in  "Trovatore. "  Here  Rhadames  has  bid  Aida  meet  him. 
Is  it  for  a  last  farewell?  If  so,  the  Nile  shall  be  her  grave. 
She  hears  a  swift  footfall,  and  turning,  in  expectation  of  see- 
ing Rhadames,  beholds  her  father.  He  has  fathomed  her 
secret  and  divined  that  she  is  here  to  meet  Rhadames — the 
betrothed  of  Amneris!  Cunningly  Amonasro  works  upon 
her  feelings.     Would  she  triumph  over  her  rival?     The 


454  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Ethiopians  again  are  in  arms.  Again  Rhadames  is  to  lead 
the  Egyptians  against  them.  Let  her  draw  from  him  the 
path  which  he  intends  to  take  with  his  army  and  that  path 
shall  be  converted  into  a  fatal  ambuscade. 

At  first  the  thought  is' abhorrent  to  A'ida,  but  her  father 
by  craftily  inciting  her  love  of  country  and  no  less  her 
jealousy  and  despair,  at  last  is  able  to  wrest  consent  from 
her;  then  draws  back  into  the  shadow  as  he  hears  Rhadames 
approaching. 

This  duet  of  A'ida  and  Amonasro  is  and  will  remain  one  of 
the  beautiful  dramatic  efforts  of  the  Italian  repertory.  The 
situation  is  one  of  those  in  which  Verdi  delights ;  he  is  in  his 
element. 

It  is  difficult  to  bring  A'ida  to  make  the  designs  of  her 
father  agree  with  her  love  for  the  young  Egyptian  chief. 
But  the  subtlety  of  the  score,  its  warmth,  its  varied  and 
ably  managed  expression,  almost  make  plausible  the  sub- 
mission of  the  young  girl  to  the  adjurations  of  Amonasro, 
and  excusable  a  decision  of  which  she  does  not  foresee  the 
consequences.  To  restore  the  crown  to  her  father,  to  view 
again  her  own  country,  to  escape  an  ignominious  servitude, 
to  prevent  her  lover  becoming  the  husband  of  Amneris, 
her  rival, — such  are  the  thoughts  which  assail  her  during 
this  duet,  and  they  are  quite  capable  of  disturbing  for  a 
moment  her  better  reason.  Amonasro  sings  these  phrases,  so 
charming  in  the  Italian : 

Rivedrai  le  foreste  imbalsamate, 
Le  fresche  valli,  i  nostri  templi  d'or! 
Sposa  felice  a  lui  che  amasti  tanto, 
Tripudii  immensi  ivi  potrai  gioir!  .    .    . 

(Thou  shalt  see  again  the  balmy  forests, 
The  green  valleys,  and  our  golden   temples. 
Happy  bride  of  him  thou  lovest  so  much, 
Great  rejoicing  thenceforth  shall  be  thine.) 


Giuseppe   Verdi  455 

As  she  still  is  reluctant  to  lure  from  her  lover  the  secret 
of  the  route  by  which,  in  the  newly  planned  invasion 
of  her  country,  the  Egyptians  expect  to  enter  Ethiopia, 
Amonasro  changes  his  tactics  and  conjures  up  for  her 
in  music  a  vision  of  the  carnage  among  her  people, 
and  finally  invokes  her  mother's  ghost,  imtil,  in  pianis- 
simo, dramatically  contrasting  with  the  force  of  her 
father's  savage  imprecation,  she  whispers,  0  patria! 
quanta  mi  costi!  (Oh,  native  land!  how  much  thou  de- 
mandest  of  me!). 

Amonasro  leaves.  A'ida  awaits  her  lover.  When  she 
somewhat  coldly  meets  Rlwdames's  renewed  declaration  of 
love  with  the  bitter  protest  that  the  rites  of  another  love 
are  awaiting  him,  he  unfolds  his  plan  to  her.  He  will  lead 
the  Egyptians  to  victory  and  on  returning  with  these  fresh 
laurels,  he  will  prostrate  himself  before  the  King,  lay  bare 
his  heart  to  him,  and  ask  for  the  hand  of  A'ida  as  a  reward 
for  his  services  to  his  country.  But  A'ida  is  well  aware  of 
the  power  of  Amneris  and  that  her  vengeance  would  swiftly 
fall  upon  them  both.  She  can  see  but  one  course  to  safety 
— that  Rhadames  join  her  in  flight  to  her  native  land,  where, 
amid  forest  groves  and  the  scent  of  flowers,  and  all  forget- 
ful of  the  world,  they  will  dream  away  their  lives  in  love. 
This  is  the  beginning  of  the  dreamy  yet  impassioned  love 
duet — "Fuggiam  gli  adori  nospiti"  (Ah,  fly  with  me).  She 
implores  him  in  passionate  accents  to  escape  with  her. 
Enthralled  by  the  rapture  in  her  voice,  thrilled  by  the 
vision  of  happiness  she  conjures  up  before  him,  he  forgets 
for  the  moment  country,  duty,  all  else  save  love;  and 
exclaiming,  "Love  shall  be  our  guide!"  turns  to  fly  with 
her. 

This  duet,  charged  with  exotic  rapture,  opens  with  reci- 
tativo  phrases  for  A'ida.  I  have  selected  three  passages  for 
quotation:  "La  tra  foreste  vergini"  (There  'mid  the  virgin 
forest  groves);  "Di  fiori  profimiate"  (And  'mid  the  scent  of 


456 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


flowers);  and  "In  estasi  la  terra  scorderem"  (In  ecstasy  the 
world  forgotten). 


Jaltiti 


But  A'ida,  feigning  alarm,  asks: 

"By  what  road  shall  we  avoid  the  Egyptian  host ? " 

"The  path  by  which  our  troops  plan  to  fall  upon  the 
enemy  will  be  deserted  until  to-morrow. " 

"And  that  path?" 

"The  pass  of  Napata." 

A  voice  echoes  his  words,  "The  pass  of  Napata." 

"Who  hears  us?"  exclaims  Rhadames. 

"The  father  of  Aida  and  king  of  the  Ethiopians,"  and 
Amonasro  issues  forth  from  his  hiding  place.  He  has  un- 
covered the  plan  of  the  Egyptian  invasion,  but  the  delay 
has  been  fatal.  For  at  the  same  moment  there  is  a  cry  of 
"Traitor!"  from  the  temple. 

It  is  the  voice  of  Amneris,  who  with  the  high  priest  has 
overheard  all.  Amonasro,  baring  a  dagger,  would  throw 
himself  upon  his  daughter's  rival,  but  Rhadames  places 
himself  between  them  and  bids  the  Ethiopian  fly  with  A'ida. 
Amonasro,  drawing  his  daughter  away  with  him,  disappears 
in  the  darkness;  while  Rhadames,  with  the  words,  "Priest 
I  remain  with  you,"  delivers  himself  a  prisoner  into  his 
hands. 

Act  IV.     Scene  i.     In  a  hall  of  the  Royal  Palace  Amneris 


Giuseppe   Verdi  457 

awaits  the  passage,  under  guard,  of  Rhadames  to  the  dun- 
geon where  the  priests  are  to  sit  in  judgment  upon  him. 
There  is  a  duet  between  Rhadames  and  this  woman,  who 
now  bitterly  repents  the  doom  her  jealousy  is  about  to 
bring  upon  the  man  she  loves.  She  implores  him  to  excul- 
pate himself.  But  Rhadames  refuses.  Not  being  able  to 
possess  A'ida  he  will  die. 

He  is  conducted  to  the  dungeon,  from  where,  as  from  the 
bowels  of  the  earth,  she  hears  the  sombre  voices  of  the 
priests. 

Ramfis.  (Nel  sotterraneo.)     Radames — Radames:  tu  rivelasti 

Delia  patri  i  segretti  alio  straniero.    .    .    . 
Sacer.     Discolpati! 
Ramfis.  Egli  tace. 

Tutti.  Traditor! 

Ramphis.   (In  the  subterranean  hall.)     Rhadames,  Rhadames,  thou 
didst  reveal 

The  country's  secrets  to  the  foreigner.  .  .  . 
Priests.     Defend  thyself! 
Ramphis.  He  is  silent. 

All.  Traitor! 

The  dramatically  condemnatory  "Traditor!"  is  a  death 
knell  for  her  lover  in  the  ears  of  Amneris.  And  after  each 
accusation,  silence  by  Rhadames,  and  cry  by  the  priests  of 
"Traitor! "  Amneris  realizes  only  too  well  that  his  approach- 
ing doom  is  to  be  entombed  alive !  Her  revulsions  of  feeling 
from  hatred  to  love  and  despair  find  vent  in  highly  dramatic 
musical  phrases.  In  fact  Amneris  dominates  this  scene, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  passages  for  mezzo- 
soprano  in  all  opera. 

Scene  2.  This  is  the  famous  double  scene.  The  stage 
setting  is  divided  into  two  floors.  The  upper  floor  repre- 
sents the  interior  of  the  Temple  of  Vulcan,  resplendent  with 
light  and  gold ;  the  lower  floor  a  subterranean  hall  and  long 
rows  of  arcades  which  are  lost  in  the  darkness.*    A  colossal 


458  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

statue  of  Osiris,  with  the  hands  crossed,  sustains  the  pilasters 
of  the  vault. 

In  the  temple  Amneris  and  the  priestesses  kneel  in  prayer. 
And  Rhadames?  Immured  in  the  dungeon  and,  as  he 
thought,  to  perish  alone,  a  form  slowly  takes  shape  in  the 
darkness,  and  his  own  name,  uttered  by  the  tender  accents 
of  a  familiar  voice,  falls  upon  his  ear.  It  is  A'ida.  Antici- 
pating the  death  to  which  he  will  be  sentenced,  she  has 
secretl}^  made  her  way  into  the  dungeon  before  his  trial  and 
there  hidden  herself  to  find  reunion  with  him  in  death. 
And  so,  while  in  the  temple  above  them  the  unhappy  Am- 
neris kneels  and  implores  the  gods  to  vouchsafe  Heaven  to 
him  whose  death  she  has  compassed,  Rhadames  and  Aida, 
blissful  in  their  mutual  sacrifice,  await  the  end. 

From  "Celeste  Aida,"  Rhadames' s  apostrophe  to  his  be- 
loved, with  which  the  opera  opens,  to  "O,  terra,  addio;  addio, 
valle  di  pianti !"  (Oh,  earth,  farewell !  Farewell,  vale  of  tears !), 


which  is  the  swan  song  of  Rhadames  and  A'ida,  united  in 
death  in  the  stone-sealed  vault, — such  is  the  tragic  fate  of 
love,  as  set  forth  in  this  beautiful  and  eloquent  score  by 
Giuseppe  Verdi. 

OTELLO 


Opera  in  four  acts,  by  Verdi.  Words  by  Arrigo  Boito,  after  Shakes- 
peare. Produced,  La  Scala,  Milan,  February  5,  1887,  with  Tamagno 
{Otello),  and  Maurel  {lago).  London,  Lyceum  Theatre,  July  5,  1889. 
New  York,  Academy  of  Music,  under  management  of  Italo  Campanini, 
April  16,  1888,  with  Marconi,  Tetrazzini,  Galassi,  and  Scalchi.  (Later  in 
the  engagement  Marconi  was  succeeded  by  Campanini.) ;  Jkletropolitan 
Opera  House,  1894,  with  Tamagno,  Albani,  Maurel;  1902,  Alvarez, 
Eames,  and  Scotti;  later  with  Slezak,  Aida,  and  Scotti;  Manhattan 
Opera  House,  with  Zenatello,  Melba,  and  Sammarco. 


Giuseppe   Verdi  459 

Characters 

Othello,  a  Moor,  general  in  the  army  of  Venice Tenor 

Iago,  ancient  to  Othello Baritone 

Cassio,  lieutenant  to  Othello Tenor 

RoDERiGO,  a  Venetian Tenor 

LoDOVico,  Venetian  ambassador Bass 

MoNTANO,  Othello's  predecessor  in  the  government  of 

Cyprus Bass 

A  Herald Bass 

Desdemona,  wife  of  Othello Soprano 

Emilia,  wife. of  Iago Mezzo  -  Soprano 

Soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  Republic  of  Venice;  men,  women,  and  children 

of  Venice  and  of  Cyprus;  heralds;  soldiers  of  Greece,  Dalmatia, 

and  Albania;  innkeeper  and  servants. 
Time — End  of  fifteenth  century. 

Place — ^A  port  of  the  island  of  Cyprus. 

Three  years  after  the  success  of  "Aida, "  Verdi  produced 
at  Milan  his  "Manzoni  Requiem";  but  nearly  sixteen 
years  were  to  elapse  between  "  Aida"  and  his  next  work  for 
the  lyric  stage.  ' '  Aida, "  with  its  far  richer  instrumentation 
than  that  of  any  earlier  wo^k  by  Verdi,  yet  is  in  form  an 
opera.  "Otello"  more  nearly  approaches  a  music-drama, 
but  still  is  far  from  being  one.  It  is  only  when  Verdi  is 
compared  with  his  earlier  self  that  he  appears  Wagnerian. 
Compared  with  Wagner,  he  remains  characteristically 
Italian — true  to  himself,  in  fact,  as  genius  should  be. 

Nowhere,  perhaps,  is  this  matter  siunmed  up  as  happily 
as  in  Baker's  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Musicians:  "Un- 
doubtedly influenced  by  his  contemporaries  Meyerbeer, 
Gounod,  and  Wagner  in  his  treatment  of  the  orchestra, 
Verdi's  dramatic  style  nevertheless  shows  a  natural  and 
individual  development,  and  has  remained  essentially 
Itahan  as  an  orchestral  accompaniment  of  vocal  melody; 
but  his  later  instrumentation  is  far  more  careful  in  detail  and 
luxuriant  than  that  of  the  earlier  Italian  school,  and  his 
melody  more  passionate  and  poignant  in  expression. " 


46o  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"Otello"  is  a  well-balanced  score,  composed  to  a  libretto 
by  a  distinguished  poet  and  musician — the  composer  of 
"Mefistofele."  It  has  vocal  melodies,  which  are  rounded 
off  and  constitute  separate  "numbers"  (to  employ  an 
expression  commonly  applied  to  operatic  airs),  and  its 
recitatives  are  set  to  a  well  thought  out  instrumental 
accompaniment . 

It  is  difficult  to  explain  the  comparative  lack  of  success 
with  the  public  of  Verdi's  last  two  scores  for  the  lyric  stage, 
"Otello"  and  "Falstaff."  Musicians  fully-  appreciate 
them.  Indeed  "Falstaff,"  which  followed  "Otello,"  is 
considered  one  of  the  greatest  achievements  in  the  history  of 
opera.  Yet  it  is  rarely  given,  and  even  "Otello"  has 
already  reached  the  "revival"  stage,  while  "Aida, " 
"Rigoletto, "  "La  Traviata,"  and  "II  Trovatore"  are 
fixtures,  although  "Rigoletto"  was  composed  thirty-six 
years  before  "Otello"  and  forty-two  before  "Falstaff." 
Can  it  be  that  critics  (including  myself)  and  professional 
musicians  have  been  admiring  the  finished  workmanship 
of  Verdi's  last  two  scores,  while  the  public  has  discovered 
in  them  a  halting  inspiration,  a  too  frequent  substitution  of 
miraculous  skill  for  the  old-time  flair,  and  a  lack  pf  that 
careless  but  attractive  occasional  laissezfaire  alter  of  genius, 
which  no  technical  perfection  can  replace?  Time  alone 
can  answer. 

When  "Otello"  opens,  Desdemona  has  preceded  her 
husband  to  Cyprus  and  is  living  in  the  castle  overlooking 
the  port.     There  are  a  few  bars  of  introduction. 

Act  I.  In  the  background  a  quay  and  the  sea;  a  tavern 
with  an  arbour;  it  is  evening. 

Through  a  heavy  storm  Othello's  ship  is  seen  to  be  making 
port.  Among  the  crowd  of  watchers,  who  exclaim  upon 
the  danger  to  the  vessel,  are  lago  and  Roderigo.  Othello 
ascends  the  steps  to  the  quay,  is  acclaimed  by  the  crowd, 
and  proceeds  to  the  castle  followed  by  Cassio,  Montano,  and 


Photo  bv  White 


Alda  as  Desdemona  in  "Otello" 


Copyright  photo  by  Mishkin 

Amato  as  Bamaba  in  "La  Gioconda' 


Giuseppe   Verdi 


461 


soldiers.  The  people  start  a  wood  fire  and  gather  about  it 
dancing  and  singing. 

It  transpires  in  talk  between  lago  and  Roderigo  that  lago 
hates  Othello  because  he  has  advanced  Cassio  over  him,  and 
that  Roderigo  is  in  love  with  Desdemona. 

The  fire  dies  out,  the  storm  has  ceased.  Cassio  has  re- 
turned from  the  castle.  Now  comes  the  scene  in  which 
lago  purposely  makes  him  drunk,  in  order  to  cause  his 
undoing.  They,  with  others,  are  grouped  around  the  table 
outside  the  tavern.  lago  sings  his  drinking  song,  "Inaffia 
I'ugola !  trinca  tra  canna  "  (Then  let  me  quaff  the  noble  wine, 
from  the  can  I'll  drink  it). 


Under  the  influence  of  the  liquor  Cassio  resents  the 
taunts  of  Roderigo,  instigated  by  lago.  Montana  tries  to 
quiet  him.  Cassio  draws.  There  follows  the  fight  in 
which  Montana  is  wounded.  The  tumult,  swelled  by 
alanmis  and  the  ringing  of  bells,  brings  Othello  with  Des- 
demona to  the  scene.  Cassio  is  dismissed  from  the  Moor's 
service.     lago  has  scored  his  first  triumph. 

The  people  disperse.  Quiet  settles  upon  the  scene. 
Othello  and  Desdemona  are  alone.  The  act  closes  with  their 
love  duet,  which  Desdemona  begins  with  "Quando  narravi" 
(When  thou  dids't  speak). 


,     1,        J     ^     *  ,  J    J 

^_*j 

.  > 

^  ^^ 

r      .» 

y» 

^?'^h,b'u?  ^  ^  ^^^ii 

f  r  - 

■     r   r 

1  1 J   I 

tic 

*}'A'V'  t^  4         i|.i 

i  i^^i 

J  ^  ^  -  j — 

=^ 

r 

Act  II.     A  hall  on  the  ground  floor  of  the  castle.     lago, 
planning  to  make  Othello  jealous  of  Desdemona,  counsels 


462  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Cassio  to  induce  the  Moor's  wife  to  plead  for  his  reinstate- 
ment. Cassio  goes  into  a  large  garden  at  the  back.  lago 
sings  his  famous  "Credo  in  un  Dio  che  m'ha  creato"  (I 
believe  in  a  God,  who  has  created  me  in  his  image). 
This  is  justly  regarded  as  a  masterpiece  of  invective.  It 
does  not  appear  in  Shakespeare,  so  that  the  lines  are  as 
original  with  Boito  as  the  music  is  with  Verdi.  Trumpets, 
employed  in  what  may  be  termed  a  declamatory  manner, 
are  conspicuous  in  the  accompaniment. 

lago,  seeing  Othello  approach,  leans  against  a  column  and 
looks  fixedly  in  the  direction  of  Desdemona  and  Cassio, 
exclaiming,  as  Othello  enters,  "I  like  not  that!"  As  in  the 
corresponding  scene  in  the  play,  this  leads  up  to  the  ques- 
tioning of  him  by  Othello  and  to  lago's  crafty  answers, 
which  not  only  apply  the  match  to,  but  also  fan  the  flame 
of  Othello's  jealousy,  as  he  watches  his  wife  with  Cassio. 

Children,  women,  and  Cypriot  and  Albanian  sailors  now 
are  seen  with  Desdemona.  They  bring  her  flowers  and  other 
gifts.  Accompanying  themselves  on  the  cornemuse,  and 
small  harps,  they  sing  a  mandolinata,  "  Dove  guardi  spen- 
dono"  (Wheresoe'er  thy  glances  fall).  This  is  followed 
by  a  graceful  chorus  for  the  sailors,  who  bring  shells  and 
corals. 

The  scene  and  Desdemona' s  beauty  deeply  move  the 
Moor.  He  cannot  believe  her  other  than  innocent.  But, 
unwittingly,  she  plays  into  lago's  hand.  For  her  first 
words  on  joining  Othello  are  a  plea  for  Cassio.  All  the 
Moor's  jealousy  is  re-aroused.  When  she  would  apply  her 
handkerchief  to  his  heated  brow,  he  tears  it  from  her  hand, 
and  throws  it  to  the  ground.  Emilia  picks  it  up,  but  lago 
takes  it  from  her.  The  scene  is  brought  to  a  close  by  a 
quartet  for  Desdemona,  Othello,  lago,  and  Emilia. 

Othello  and  lago  are  left  together  again.  Othello  voices 
the  grief  that  shakes  his  whole  being,  in  what  Mr.  Upton 
happily  describes  as  "a  pathetic  but  stirring  melody."    In 


Giuseppe   Verdi 


463 


it  he  bids  farewell,  not  only  to  love  and  trust,  but  to  the 
glories  of  war  and  battle.  The  trumpet  is  effectively 
employed  in  the  accompaniment  to  this  outburst  of  grief, 
which  begins,  "Addio  sante  memorie"  (Farewell,  0  sacred 
memories). 

I"   1  I  I  iT^i  I  I  ~  I         I    I 


A       J*/ 


fit.  ttrr 


To  such  a  fury  is  the  Moor  aroused  that  he  seizes  lago, 
hurls  him  to  the  ground,  and  threatens  to  kill  him  should  his 
accusations  against  Desdemona  prove  false.  There  is  a 
dramatic  duet  in  which  lago  pledges  his  aid  to  Othello  in 
proving  beyond  doubt  the  falseness  of  Desdemona. 

Act  III.  The  great  hall  of  the  castle.  At  the  back  a 
terrace.  After  a  brief  scene  in  which  the  approach  of  a 
galley  with  the  Venetian  ambassadors  is  announced,  Des- 
demona enters.  Wholly  unaware  of  the  cause  of  Othello's 
strange  actions  toward  her,  she  again  begins  to  plead  for 
Cassio's  restoration  to  favour.  lago  has  pretended  to 
Othello  that  Desdemona" s  handkerchief  (of  which  he  surrep- 
titiously possessed  himself)  had  been  given  by  her  to 
Cassio,  and  this  has  still  further  fanned  the  flame  of  the 
Moor's  jealousy.  The  scene,  for  Othello,  is  one  of  mingled 
wrath  and  irony.  Upon  her  knees  Desdemona  vows  her 
constancy:  " Esterrefatta  fisso  lo  squardo  tuo  tremendo" 
(Upon  my  knees  before  thee,  beneath  thy  glance  I  tremble) . 
I  quote  the  phrase,  "lo  prego  il  cielo  per  te  con  questo 
pjanto"  (I  pray  my  sighs  rise  to  heaven  with  prayer). 


■■  f^n^^    I    I    r   r    I  i^^TTj    I,  J    } 


,   /a      ptr 


•*t.  x» 


464 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Othello  pushes  her  out  of  the  room.  He  soliloquizes : 
"Dio!  mi  poteir  scagliar  tutti  i  mali  della  miseria"  (Heav'n 
had  it  pleased  thee  to  try  me  with  affliction). 

lago,  entering,  bids  Othello  conceal  himself;  then  brings 
in  Cassio,  who  mentions  Desdemona  to  lago,  and  also  is  led 
by  lago  into  light  comments  on  other  matters,  all  of  which 
Othello,  but  half  hearing  them  from  his  place  of  con- 
cealment, construes  as  referring  to  his  wife.  lago  also 
plays  the  trick  with  the  handkerchief,  which,  having 
been  conveyed  by  him  to  Cassio,  he  now  induces  the 
latter  (within  sight  of  Othello)  to  draw  from  his  doublet. 
There  is  a  trio  for  Othello  (still  in  concealment),  lago, 
and  Cassio. 

The  last-named  having  gone,  and  the  Moor  having  asked 
for  poison  with  which  to  kill  Desdemona,  lago  counsels  that 
Othello  strangle  her  in  bed  that  night,  while  he  goes  forth 
and  slays  Cassio.  For  this  cotmsel  Othello  makes  lago  his 
lieutenant. 

The  Venetian  ambassadors  arrive.  There  follows  the 
scene  in  which  the  recall  of  Othello  to  Venice  and  the  ap- 
pointment of  Cassio  as  Governor  of  Cyprus  are  announced. 
This  is  the  scene  in  which,  also,  the  Moor  strikes  down 
Desdemona  in  the  presence  of  the  ambassadors,  and  she 
begs  for  mercy — "A  terra — si — nel  livido"  (Yea,  prostrate 
here,  I  He  in  the  dust);  and  "Quel  sol  sereno  e  vivido  che 
allieta  il  cielo  e  il  mare"  (The  sun  who  from  his  cloudless 
sky  illtmies  the  heavens  and  sea) . 


mei    .     .  >-^ 


After  this  there  is  a  dramatic  sextet. 


Giuseppe   Verdi 


465 


All  leave,  save  the  Moor  and  his  newly  created  lieutenant. 
Overcome  by  rage,  Othello  falls  in  a  swoon.  The  people, 
believing  that  the  Moor,  upon  his  return  to  Venice,  is  to 
receive  new  honours  from  the  republic,  shout  from  outside, 
"Hail,  Othello!    Hail  to  the  lion  of  Venice!" 

"There  Hes  the  lion!"  is  lago's  comment  of  malignant 
triumph  and  contempt,  as  the  curtain  falls. 

Act  IV.  The  scene  is  Desdemona' s  bedchamber.  There 
is  an  orchestral  introduction  of  much  beauty.  Then,  as  in 
the  play,  with  which  I  am  supposing  the  reader  to  be  at 
least  fairly  familiar,  comes  the  brief  dialogue  between 
Desdemona  and  Emilia.  Desdemona  sings  the  pathetic 
little  willow  song,  said  to  be  a  genuine  Italian  folk  tune 
handed  down  through  many  centuries. 


_    /tian.ff. 


U>T-^^.~.  O  Sal-    «/ 


Emilia  goes,  and  Desdemona  at  her  prie-Dieu,  before  the 
image  of  the  Virgin,  intones  an  exquisite  "Ave  Maria," 
beginning  and  ending  in  pathetic  monotone,  with  an  appeal- 
ing melody  between. 


Othello's  entrance  is  accompanied  by  a  powerful  passage 
on  the  double  basses. 
Then  follows  the  scene  of  the  strangling,  through  which 
30 


466  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

are  heard  mournfully  reminiscent  strains  of  the  love  duet 
that  ended  the  first  act.  Emilia  discloses  lago's  perfidy. 
Othello  kills  himself. 

FALSTAFF 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Verdi;  words  by  Arrigo  Boito,  after  Shake- 
speare's "Merry  Wives  of  Windsor"  and  "King  Henry  IV."  Pro- 
duced, La  Scala,  Milan,  March  12,  1893.  Paris,  Opera  Comique, 
April  18,  1894.  London,  May  19,  1894.  New  York,  MetropoHtan 
Opera  House,  February  4,  1895.  This  was  the  first  performance  of 
"Falstaff"  in  North  America.  It  had  been  heard  in  Buenos  Aires, 
July  19,  1893.  The  MetropoHtan  cast  included  Maurel  as  Falstaff, 
Eames  as  Mistress  Ford,  Zelie  de  Lussan  as  Nanetta  (Anne),  Scalchi  as 
Dame  Quickly,  Campanini  as  Ford,  Russitano  as  Fenton.  Scotti,  Des- 
tinn,  Alda,  and  Gay  also  have  appeared  at  the  Metropolitan  in  "Fal- 
staff. "     The  London  production  was  at  Covent  Garden. 

Characters 

Sir  John  Falstaff Baritone 

Fenton,  a  young  gentleman Tenor 

Ford,  a  wealthy  burgher Baritone 

Dr.  Cajus Tenor 

_,  >  followers  of  Falstaff \  „ 

Pistol        )  ( Bass 

Robin,  a  page  in  Ford's  household 

Mistress  Ford Soprano 

Anne,  her  daugher Soprano 

Mistress  Page Mezzo-Soprano 

Dame  Quickly Mezzo-Soprano 

Burghers  and  street-folk,  Ford's  servants,  maskers,  as  elves,  fairies, 

witches,  etc. 

Time — Reign  of  Henry  IV.  Scene — Windsor. 

Note.     In  the  Shakespeare  comedy  Anne  Ford  is  Anne  Page. 

Shakespeare's  comedy,  "The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor," 
did  not  have  its  first  lyric  adaptation  when  the  composer 
of  "Rigoletto"  and  "Aida,"  influenced  probably  by  his 
distinguished  librettist,  penned  the  score  of  his  last  work  for 
the  stage.     "Falstaff,"  by  Salieri,  was  produced  in  Vienna 


Giuseppe   Verdi  467 

in  1798;  another  "Falstaff,"  by  Balfe,  came  out  in  London 
in  1838.  Otto  Nicolai's  opera  "The  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor"  is  mentioned  on  p.  80  of  this  book.  The  char- 
acter of  Falstaff  also  appears  in  "Le  Songe  d'une  Nuit 
d'Et^"  (The  Midsimimer  Night's  Dream)  by  Ambroise 
Thomas,  Paris,  1850,  "where  the  type  is  treated  with  an 
adept's  hand,  especially  in  the  first  act,  which  is  a  master- 
piece of  pure  comedy  in  music."  "Le  Songe  d'une  Nuit 
d'Et6"  was,  in  fact,  Thomas's  first  significant  success.  A 
one-act  piece,  "Falstaff, "  by  Adolphe  Adam,  was  produced 
at  the  Theatre  Lyrique  in  1856. 

The  comedy  of  the  "Merry  Wives,"  however,  was  not 
the  only  Shakespeare  play  put  under  contribution  by 
Boito.  At  the  head  of  the  "Falstaff"  score  is  this  note: 
"The  present  comedy  is  taken  from  'The  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor'  and  from  several  passages  in  'Henry  IV.'  by 
Shakespeare." 

Falstaff,  it  should  be  noted,  is  a  historic  figure;  he  was  a 
brave  soldier;  served  in  France;  was  governor  of  Honfleur; 
took  an  important  part  in  the  battle  of  Agincourt,  and  was 
in  all  the  engagements  before  the  walls  of  Orleans,  where  the 
English  finally  were  obliged  to  retreat  before  Joan  of  Arc. 
Sir  John  Falstaff  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-two  years  in 
county  Norfolk,  his  native  shire,  after  nimierous  valiant 
exploits,  and  having  occupied  his  old  age  in  caring 
for  the  interests  of  the  two  universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  to  the  foundation  of  which  he  had  largely  con- 
tributed. To  us,  however,  he  is  known  almost  wholly  as 
an  enormously  stout  comic  character. 

The  first  scene  in  the  first  act  of  the  work  by  Boito  and 
Verdi  shows  Falstaff  in  a  room  of  the  Garter  Inn.  He  is 
accompanied  by  those  two  good-for-nothings  in  his  service, 
Bardolph  and  Pistol,  ragged  blackguards,  whom  he  treats 
with  adisdain  measured  by  their  own  low  standards.  Dr. 
Cajus  enters.     He  comes  to  complain  that   Falstaff  has 


468  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

beaten  his  servants;  also  that  Bardolph  and  Pistol  made  him 
drunk  and  then  robbed  him.  Falstaff  laughs  and  brow- 
beats him  out  of  countenance.     He  departs  in  anger. 

Falstaff  has  written  two  love  letters  and  despatched 
them  to  two  married  belles  of  Windsor — Mistress  Alice  Ford 
and  Mistress  Meg  Page,  asking  each  one  for  a  rendezvous. 

The  scene  changes  to  the  garden  of  Ford's  house,  and  we 
are  in  presence  of  the  "merry  wives" — Alice  Ford,  Meg 
Page,  and  Mistress  Quickly.  With  them  is  Anne  Ford, 
Mistress  Ford's  daughter.  Besides  the  garden  there  is 
seen  part  of  the  Ford  house  and  the  public  road.  In  com- 
pany with  Dame  Quickly,  Meg  has  come  to  pay  a  visit  to 
Alice  Ford,  to  show  her  a  letter  which  she  has  just  received 
from  Falstaff.  Alice  matches  her  with  one  she  also  has 
received  from  him.  The  four  merry  women  then  read  the 
two  letters,  which,  save  for  the  change  of  address,  are 
exactly  alike.  The  women  are  half  amused,  half  annoyed, 
at  the  pretensions  of  the  fat  knight.  They  plan  to  avenge 
themselves  upon  him.  Meanwhile  Ford  goes  walking  before 
his  house  in  company  with  Cajus,  3'oung  Fenton  (who  is  in 
love  with  A7ine),  Bardolph,  and  Pistol.  The  last  two 
worthies  have  betrayed  their  master.  From  them  Ford  has 
learned  that  Falstaff  is  after  his  wife.  He  too  meditates 
revenge,  and  goes  off  with  the  others,  except  Fenton,  who 
lingers,  kisses  Anne  through  the  rail  fence  of  the  garden,  and 
sings  a  love  duet  with  her.  The  men  return.  Fenton  rejoins 
them.  Anne  runs  back  to  her  mother,  and  the  four  women 
are  seen  up-stage,  concocting  their  conspiracy  of  revenge. 

The  second  act  reverts  to  the  Garter  Inn,  where  Falstaff 
is  still  at  table.  Dame  Quickly  comes  with  a  message  from 
Alice  to  agree  to  the  rendezvous  he  has  asked  for.  It  is  at 
the  Ford  house  between  two  and  three  o'clock,  it  being 
Ford's  custom  to  absent  himself  at  that  time.  Falstaff  is 
pompously  delighted.     He  promises  to  be  prompt. 

Hardly  has  Dame  Quickly  left,  when  Ford  arrives.     He 


Giuseppe   Verdi  469 

introduces  himself  to  Falstaff  under  an  asstimed  name,  pre- 
sents the  knight  with  a  purse  of  silver  as  a  bait,  then  tells 
him  that  he  is  in  love  with  Mistress  Ford,  whose  chastity 
he  cannot  conquer,  and  begs  Falstaff  to  lay  siege  to  her  and 
so  make  the  way  easier  for  him.  Falstaff  gleefully  tells  him 
that  he  has  a  rendezvous  with  her  that  very  afternoon. 
This  is  just  what  Ford  wanted  to  know. 

The  next  scene  takes  place  in  Ford's  house,  where  the 
four  women  get  ready  to  give  Falstaff  the  reception  he  merits. 
One  learns  here,  quite  casually  from  talk  between  Mistress 
Ford  and  Anne,  that  Ford  wants  to  marry  off  the  girl  to  the 
aged  pedant  Cajus,  while  she,  of  course,  will  marry  none  but 
Fenton,  with  whom  she  is  in  love.  Her  mother  promises  to 
aid  her  plans. 

Falstaff' s  arrival  is  announced.  Dame  Quickly,  Meg,  and 
Anne  leave  Mistress  Ford  with  him,  but  conceal  themselves  in 
readiness  to  come  in  response  to  the  first  signal.  They  are 
needed  sooner  than  expected.  Ford  is  heard  approaching. 
Quick!  The  fat  lover  must  be  concealed.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  getting  him  behind  a  screen.  Ford  enters  with  his 
followers,  hoping  to  surprise  the  rake.  With  them  he  begins 
a  search  of  the  rooms.  While  they  are  off  exploring  another 
part  of  the  house  the  women  hurry  Falstaff  into  a  big  wash 
basket,  pile  the  soiled  clothes  over  him,  and  fasten  it  down. 
Scarcely  has  this  been  done  when  Ford  comes  back,  think- 
ing of  the  screen.  Just  then  he  hears  the  sound  of  kissing 
behind  this  piece  of  furniture.  No  longer  any  doubt! 
Falstaff  is  hidden  there  with  his  wife.  He  knocks  down  the 
screen — and  finds  behind  it  Anne  and  Fenton,  who  have  used 
to  their  own  p\irpose  the  diversion  of  attention  from  them  by 
the  hunt  for  Falstaff.  Ford,  more  furious  than  ever,  rushes 
out.  His  wife  and  her  friends  call  in  the  servants,  who  lift 
the  basket  and  empty  it  out  of  the  window  into  the  Thames, 
which  flows  below.  When  Ford  comes  back,  his  wife  leads 
him  to  the  window  and   shows  him  Falstaff  striking  out 


470  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

cltimsily  for  the  shore,  a  butt  of  ridicule  for  all  who  see  him. 

In  the  third  act  Dame  Quickly  is  once  more  seen  approach- 
ing Falstaff,  who  is  seated  on  a  bench  outside  the  Garter 
Inn.  In  behalf  of  Mistress  Ford,  she  offers  him  another 
rendezvous.  Falstaff  wants  to  hear  no  more,  but  Dame 
Quickly  makes  so  many  good  excuses  for  her  friend  that  he 
decides  to  meet  Mistress  Ford  at  the  time  and  place  asked 
for  by  her — ^midnight,  at  Heme's  oak  in  Windsor  forest, 
Falstaff  to  appear  in  the  disguise  of  the  black  huntsman, 
who,  according  to  legend,  hung  himself  from  the  oak,  with 
the  result  that  the  spot  is  haunted  by  witches  and  sprites. 

Falstaff,  in  the  forest  at  midnight,  is  surrounded  by  the 
merry  women,  the  whole  Ford  entourage,  and  about  a 
hundred  others,  all  disguised  and  masked.  They  unite  in 
mystifying,  taunting,  and  belabouring  him,  until  at  last  he 
realizes  whom  he  has  to  deal  with.  And  as  it  is  necessary 
for  everything  to  end  in  a  wedding,  it  is  then  that  Mistress 
Ford  persuades  her  husband  to  abandon  his  plan  to  take  the 
pedantic  Dr.  Cajus  for  son-in-law  and  give  his  daughter 
Anne  to  Fenton. 

Even  taking  into  account  "Otello, "  the  general  form  of 
the  music  in  "  Falstaff"  is  an  innovation  for  Verdi.  All  the 
scenes  are  connected  without  break  in  continuity,  as  in  the 
Wagnerian  music-drama,  but  applied  to  an  entirely  differ- 
ent style  of  music  from  Wagner's.  "It  required  all  the 
genius  and  dramatic  experience  of  a  Verdi,  who  had  drama 
in  his  blood,  to  succeed  in  a  lyrical  adventure  like  'Fal- 
staff, '  the  whole  score  of  which  displays  amazing  youthful- 
ness,  dash,  and  spirit,  coupled  with  extraordinary  grace." 
On  the  other  hand,  as  regards  inspiration  pure  and  simple, 
it  has  been  said  that  there  is  not  found  in  "Falstaff" 
the  freshness  of  imagination  or  the  abundance  of  ideas  of 
the  earlier  Verdi,  and  that  one  looks  in  vain  for  one  of  those 
motifs  di  prima  intenzione,  like  the  romance  of  Germont  in 
"La  Traviata, "  the  song  of  the  Duke  in  "Rigoletto,"  or  the 


Giuseppe   Verdi  471 

"Miserere"  in  "II  Trovatore,"  and  so  many  others  that 
might  be  named.  The  same  writer,  however,  credits  the 
score  with  remarkable  purity  of  form  and  with  a  sveltesse 
and  lightness  that  are  astonishing  in  the  always  lively 
attraction  of  the  musical  discourse,  to  zay  nothing  of  a 
"charming  orchestration,  well  put  together,  likeable  and  full 
of  coquetry,  in  which  are  found  all  the  brilliancy  and  facility 
of  the  Rossini  method. " 

Notwithstanding  the  above  writer's  .appreciative  words 
regarding  the  instnmientation  of  "Falstaff, "  he  has  fallen 
foul  of  the  work,  because  he  listened  to  it  purely  in  the  spirit 
of  an  opera-goer,  and  judged  it  as  an  opera  instead  of  as  a 
music-drama.  If  I  may  be  pardoned  the  solecism,  a  music- 
drama  "listens"  different  from  an  opera.  A  person  accus- 
tomed only  to  opera  has  his  ears  cocked  for  song  soaring 
above  an  accompaniment  that  counts  for  nothing  save  as  a 
support  for  the  voice.  The  music-lover,  who  knows  what 
a  music-drama  consists  of,  is  aware  that  it  presents  a  well- 
balanced  score,  in  which  the  orchestra  frequently  changes 
place  with  the  voice  in  interpreting  the  action.  It  is  because 
in  "Falstaff"  Verdi  makes  the  orchestra  act  and  sing — 
which  to  an  opera-goer,  his  ears  alert  for  vocal  melody, 
means  nothing — that  the  average  audience,  expecting  some- 
thing like  unto  what  Verdi  has  given  them  before,  is  dis- 
appointed. Extremists,  one  way  or  another,  are  one-sided. 
Whoever  is  able  to  appreciate  both  opera  and  music-drama, 
a  catholicity  of  taste  I  consider  myself  fortunate  in  pos- 
sessing, can  admire  "Rigoletto,"  "II  Trovatore,"  and  "La 
Traviata"  as  much  as  the  most  confirmed  devotee  of  opera; 
but  can  also  go  further,  and  follow  Verdi  into  regions  where 
the  intake  is  that  of  the  pure  spirit  of  comedy  at  times 
exhaled  by  the  voice,  at  times  by  the  orchestra. 

While  not  divided  into  distinct  "niunbers, "  there  are 
passages  in  "Falstaff"  in  which  Verdi  has  concentrated  his 
attention  on  certain  characteristic  episodes.     In  the  first 


472 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


scene  of  the  first  act  occurs  Falstaff's  lyric  in  praise  of  Mis- 
tress Ford,  "  O  amor !  Sguardo  di  stella ! "  (O  Love,  with  star- 
Hke  eyes).  I  quote  the  beautiful  passage  at  "Alice  e  il 
nome"     (And  Alice  is  her  name). 


¥w  rtf  1f- 


(Copyright,  1893,  by  G.  Ricordi  &  Co.) 

The  same  scene  has  the  honour  monologue  from  "King 
Henry  IV.,"  which  is  purely  declamatory,  but  with  a  re- 
markably vivid  and  characteristic  accompaniment,  in 
which  especially  the  bassoons  and  clarinets  comment  merrily 
on  the  sarcastic  sentences  addressed  to  Bardolph  and  Pistol. 

In  the  second  scene  of  Act  I,  besides  the  episodes  in  which 
Mistress  Ford  reads  Falstaff's  letter,  the  unaccompanied 
quartet  for  the  women  ("Though  shaped  like  a  barrel,  he 
fain  would  come  courting"),  the  quartet  for  the  men,  and 
the  close  of  the  act  in  which  both  quartets  take  part,  there 
is  the  piquant  duet  for  Anne  and  Fenton,  in  which  the  lovers 
kiss  each  other  between  the  palings  of  the  fence.  From  this 
duet  I  quote  the  amatory  exchange  of  phrases,  "Labbra  di 
foco"  (Lips  all  afire)  and  "Labbra  di  fiore"  (Lips  of  a 
flower)  between  Anne  and  Fenton. 


(Copyright,  1893,  by  G.  Ricordi  &  Co.) 

As  the  curtain  falls  Mistress  Ford  roguishly  quotes  a  line 
from  Falstaff's  verses,  the  four  women  together  add  another 


Giuseppe  Verdi 


473 


quotation,  "Come  una  stella  nell'  immensita"  (Like  some 
sweet  star  that  sparkles  all  the  night) ,  and  go  out  laughing. 
In  fact  the  music  for  the  women  takes  many  an  piquant  turn. 


(Copyright,  1893,  by  G.  Ricordi  &  Co.) 

In  Act  II,  the  whole  scene  between  Falstaff  and  Dame 
Quickly  is  full  of  witty  commentary  by  the  orchestra.  The 
scene  between  Falstaff  and  Ford  also  derives  its  significance 
from  the  instrumentation.  Ford's  monologue,  when  he  is 
persuaded  by  Falstaff' s  boastful  talk  that  his  wife  is  fickle, 
is  highly  dramatic.  The  little  scene  of  Ford's  and  Falstaff' s 
departure — Ford  to  expose  his  betrayal  by  his  wife,  Fal- 
staff for  his  rendezvous  with  her — "is  underscored  by  a 
graceful  and  very  elegant  orchestral  dialogue." 

The  second  scene  of  this  act  has  Dame  Quickly' s  madcap 
narrative  of  her  interview  with  Falstaff;  and  Falstaff' s  ditty 
sung  to  Mistress  Ford,  "Quand'ero  paggio  del  Duca  di 
Norfolk"  (When  I  was  page  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk). 
From  the  popular  point  of  view,  this  is  the  outstanding 
musical  nimiber  of  the  work.  It  is  amusing,  pathetic, 
graceful,  and  sad;  irresistible,  in  fact,  in  its  mingled  senti- 
ments of  comedy  and  regret.  Very  brief,  it  rarely  fails  of 
encores  from  one  to  four  in  number.     I  quote  the  following : 


(Copyriaht,  1893.  by  G..Ricordi  &  Co.) 


474 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


The  search  for  Falstaff  by  Ford  and  his  followers  is  most 
humorously  treated  in  the  score. 

In  Act  III.,  in  the  opening  scene,  in  which  Falstaff  solilo- 
quizes over  his  misadventures,  the  humour,  so  far  as  the 
music  is  concerned,  is  conveyed  by  the  orchestra. 

From  Fenton's  song  of  love,  which  opens  the  scene  at 
Heme's  oak  in  Windsor  forest,  I  quote  this  expressive  pas- 
sage: 


(Copyright,  1893,  by  G.  Ricordi  &  Co.) 

Another  delightful  solo  in  this  scene  is  Anne's  "Erriam 
sotto  la  lima  "  (We'll  dance  in  the  moonlight). 


(Copyright,  1893.  by  G.  Ricordi  &  Co.) 

There  are  mysterious  choruses — sibilant  and  articulately 
vocalized — and  a  final  fugue. 

MEFISTOFELE 

(mephistopheles) 


Opera  in  four  acts;  words  and  music  by  Arrigo  Boito,  the  book  based 
on  Goethe's  Faust.  Produced,  without  success.  La  Scala,  Milan, 
March  5,  1868;  revised  and  revived,  with  success,  Bologna,  October 
4,  1875.     London,  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  July  i,  1880.      New  York, 


Arrigo  Boito  475 

Academy  of  Music,  November  24, 1880,  with  Campanini,  Valleria,  Gary, 
and  Novara;  and  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  December  5,  1883,  Cam- 
panini, Nilsson,  Trebelli,  and  Mirabella,  Revivals:  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  1889  (Lehmann);  1896  (Calvd);  1901  (Margaret  Mclntyre, 
Homer,  and  Plangon);  1904  (Caruso  and  Eames);  1907  (Chaliapine) ; 
later  with  Caruso,  Hempel,  Destinn,  and  Amato.  Manhattan  Opera 
House,  1906,  with  Renaud.  Chicago  Opera  Company,  with  Ruffo. 
The  singer  of  Mar  gar  tt  usually  takes  the  part  of  Eletia  (Helen),  and  the 
Martha  also  is  the  Pantalis. 

Characters 

Mefistofele Bass 

Faust Tenor 

Margherita Soprano 

Martha Contralto 

Wagner Tenor 

Elena Soprano 

Pantalis Contralto 

Nereno Tenor 

Mystic    choir,    celestial    phalanxes,    cherubs,    penitents, 
wayfarers,  men-at-arms,  htmtsmen,  students,  citizens, 
populace,    townsmen,   witches,   wizards,    Greek 
chorus,  sirens,  nayads,  dancers,  warriors. 
Place — Heaven;  Frankfurt,  Germany;  Vale  of  Tempe,  Ancient  Greece. 
Time — Middle  Ages. 

"Mefistofele"  is  in  a  prologue,  four  acts,  and  epilogue. 
In  Gounod's  "Faust,"  the  librettists  were  circumspect,  and 
limited  the  book  of  the  opera  to  the  first  part  of  Goethe's 
Faust,  the  story  of  Faust  and  Marguerite — succinct, 
dramatic,  and  absorbing.  Only  for  the  ballet  did  they 
reach  into  the  second  part  of  Goethe's  play  and  appropri- 
ate the  scene  on  the  Brocken,  which,  however,  is  frequently 
omitted. 

Boito,  himself  a  poet,  based  his  libretto  on  both  parts  of 
Goethe's  work,  and  endeavoured  to  give  it  the  substratimi 
of  philosophy  upon  which  the  German  master  reared  his 
dramatic  structure.  This,  however,  resulted  in  making 
"Mefistofele"   two   operas  in   one.     Wherever  the  work 


476  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

touches  on  the  familiar  stor^'-  of  Faust  and  Marguerite,  it 
is  absorbingly  interesting,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  similarity 
between  some  of  its  scenes  and  those  of  Gounod's  "Faust." 
When  it  strays  into  Part  II  of  Goethe's  drama,  the  main 
thread  of  the  action  suddenly  seems  broken.  The  skein 
ravels.  That  is  why  one  of  the  most  profound  works  for  the 
lyric  stage,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  scores  that  has  come 
out  of  Italy,  is  heard  so  rarely. 

Theodore  T.  Barker  prefaces  his  translation  of  the  li- 
bretto, published  by  Oliver  Ditson  Company,  with  a  recital 
of  the  story. 

The  Prologue  opens  in  the  nebulous  regions  of  space,  in 
which  float  the  invisible  legions  of  angels,  cherubs,  and 
seraphs.  These  lift  their  voices  in  a  hymn  of  praise  to  the 
Supreme  Ruler  of  the  universe.  Mefistofele  enters  on  the 
scene  at  the  close  of  the  anthem,  and,  standing  erect  amid 
the  clouds,  with  his  feet  upon  the  border  of  his  cloak, 
mockingly  addresses  the  Deity.  In  answer  to  the  question 
from  the  mystic  choir,  " Knowest  thou  Faust?, "  he  answers 
contemptuously,  and  offers  to  wager  that  he  will  be  able  to 
entice  Faust  to  evil,  and  thus  gain  a  victory  over  the  powers 
of  good.  The  wager  is  accepted,  and  the  spirits  resiune 
their  chorus  of  praise. 

Musically  the  Prologue  is  full  of  interest.  There  are 
five  distinct  periods  of  music,  varied  in  character,  so  that  it 
gives  necessary  movement  to  a  scene  in  which  there  is  but 
little  stage  action.  There  are  the  prelude  with  mystic 
choir;  the  sardonic  scherzo  foreshadowing  the  entry  of 
Mefistofele;  his  scornful  address,  in  which  finally  he  en- 
gages to  bring  about  the  destruction  of  Faust's  soul;  a 
vivacious  chorus  of  cherubs  (impersonated  by  twenty-four 
boys) ;  a  psalmody  of  penitents  and  spirits. 

Act  I.  The  drama  opens  on  Easter  Sunday,  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main.  Crowds  of  people  of  all  conditions 
move  in  and  out  of  the  city  gates.     Among  them  appears 


Arrigo  Boito  477 

a  grey  friar,  an  object  of  both  reverence  and  dread  to  those 
near  him.  The  aged  Dr.  Faust  and  his  pupil  Wagner  descend 
from  a  height  and  enter  upon  the  scene,  shadowed  by  the 
friar,  whose  actions  they  discuss.  Faust  retiuns  to  his 
laboratory,  still  at  his  heels  the  friar,  who,  unheeded,  en- 
ters with  him,  and  conceals  himself  in  an  alcove.  Faust 
gives  himself  to  meditation,  and  upon  opening  the  sacred 
voltmie,  is  startled  by  a  shriek  from  the  friar  as  he  rushes 
from  his  place  of  concealment.  Faust  makes  the  all-potent 
"sign  of  Solomon,"  which  compels  Mefistofele  to  throw  off 
his  friar's  disguise  and  to  appear  in  his  own  person 
in  the  garb  of  a  cavalier,  with  a  black  cloak  upon  his  arm. 
In  reply  to  Faust's  questionings,  he  declares  himself  the 
spirit  that  denieth  all  things,  desiring  only  the  complete 
ruin  of  the  world,  and  a  return  to  chaos  and  night.  He 
offers  to  make  Faust  the  companion  of  his  wanderings,  upon 
certain  conditions,  to  which  the  latter  agrees,  saying:  "If 
thou  wilt  bring  me  one  hour  of  peace,  in  which  my  soul  may 
rest — if  thou  wilt  unveil  the  world  and  myself  before  me — 
if  I  may  find  cause  to  say  to  some  flying  moment,  'Stay, 
for  thou  art  blissful, '  then  let  me  die,  and  let  hell's  depths 
engulf  me."  The  contract  completed,  Mefistofele  spreads 
his  cloak,  and  both  disappear  through  the  air. 

The  first  scene  of  this  act  gains  its  interest  from  the 
reflection  in  the  music  of  the  bustle  and  animation  of  the 
Easter  festival.  The  score  plastically  follows  the  many 
changing  incidents  of  the  scene  upon  the  stage.  Con- 
spicuous in  the  episodes  in  Faust's  laboratory  are  Faust's 
beautiful  air,  "Dai  campi,  dai  prati"  (From  the  fields  and 
from  the  meadows);  and  Mefistofele' s  proclamation  of  his 
identity,  "Son  lo  spirito  che  nega"  (I  am  the  spirit  that 
denieth) . 

Act  II  opens  with  the  garden  scene.  Faust,  rejuve- 
nated, and  under  the  name  of  Henry;  Margaret,  Mefistofele, 
and  Martha  stroll  here  and  there  in  couples,  chatting  and 


478  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

love-making.  Thence  Mefistofele  takes  Faust  to  the  heights 
of  the  Brocken,  where  he  witnesses  the  orgies  of  the  Witches' 
Sabbath.  The  fiend  is  welcomed  and  saluted  as  their 
king.  Faust,  benumbed  and  stupefied,  gazes  into  the 
murky  sky,  and  experiences  there  a  vision  of  Margaret, 
pale,  sad,  and  fettered  with  chains. 

In  this  act  the  garden  scene  is  of  entrancing  grace.  It 
contains  Faust's  "Colma  il  tuo  cor  d'un  palpito"  (Flood 
thou  thy  heart  with  all  the  bliss),  and  the  quartet  of  fare- 
well, with  which  the  scene  ends,  Margaret,  with  the  gay  and 
reckless  laugh  of  ineffable  bliss,  exclaiming  to  Faust  that 
she  loves  him.  The  scene  in  the  Brocken,  besides  the 
whirl  of  the  witches'  orgy,  has  a  solo  for  Mefistofele,  when 
the  weird  sisters  present  to  him  a  glass  globe,  reflected  in 
which  he  sees  the  earth.  "Ecco  el  mondo"  (Behold  the 
earth) . 

Act  III.  The  scene  is  a  prison.  Margaret  lies  extended 
upon  a  heap  of  straw,  mentally  wandering,  and  singing  to 
herself.  Mefistofele  and  Faust  appear  outside  the  grating. 
They  converse  hurriedly,  and  Faust  begs  for  the  life  of 
Margaret.  Mefistofele  promises  to  do  what  he  can,  and 
bids  him  haste,  for  the  infernal  steeds  are  ready  for  flight. 
He  opens  the  cell,  and  Faust  enters  it.  Margaret  thinks  the 
jailors  have  come  to  release  her,  but  at  length  recognizes 
her  lover.  She  describes  what  followed  his  desertion  of 
her,  and  begs  him  to  lay  her  in  death  beside  her  loved  ones; 
— her  babe,  whom  she  drowned,  her  mother  whom  she  is 
accused  of  having  poisoned.  Faust  entreats  her  to  fly  with 
him,  and  she  finally  consents,  saying  that  in  some  far 
distant  isle  they  may  yet  be  happy.  But  the  voice  of 
Mefistofele  in  the  background  recalls  her  to  the  reality  of  the 
situation.  She  shrinks  away  from  Faust,  prays  to  Heaven 
for  mercy,  and  dies.  Voices  of  the  celestial  choir  are  sing- 
ing softly  "She's  saved!"  Faust  and  Mefistofele  escape,  as 
the  executioner  and  his  escort  appear  in  the  background. 


Arrigo  Boito  479 

The  act  opens  witli  Margaret's  lament,  "L'astra  notte  in 
fondo  al  mare"  (To  the  sea,  one  night  in  sadness),  in  which 
she  tells  of  the  drowning  of  her  babe.  There  is  an  exquisite 
duet,  for  Margaret  and  Faust,  "  Lontano,  sui  fluti  d'un  ampio 
oceano"  (Far  away,  o'er  the  waves  of  a  far-spreading 
ocean). 

Act  IV.  Mefistofele  takes  Faust  to  the  shores  of  the  Vale 
of  Tempe.  Faust  is  ravished  with  the  beauty  of  the  scene 
while  Mefistofele  finds  that  the  orgies  of  the  Brocken  were 
more  to  his  taste. 

'Tis  the  night  of  the  classic  Sabbath.  A  band  of  young 
maidens  appear,  singing  and  dancing.  Mefistofele,  annoyed 
and  confused,  retires.  Helen  enters  with  chorus,  and,  ab- 
sorbed by  a  terrible  vision,  rehearses  the  story  of  Troy's 
destruction.  Faust  enters,  richly  clad  in  the  costume  of  a 
knight  of  the  fifteenth  century,  followed  by  Mefistofele, 
Nereno,  Pantalis,  and  others,  with  httle  fauns  and  sirens. 
Kneeling  before  Helen,  he  addresses  her  as  his  ideal  of 
beauty  and  ptirity.  Thus  pledging  to  each  other  their 
love  and  devotion,  they  wander  through  the  bowers  and 
are  lost  to  sight. 

Helen's  ode,  "La  luna  immobile  inonda  I'etere"  (Motion- 
less floating,  the  moon  floods  the  dome  of  night) ;  her  dream 
of  the  destruction  of  Troy;  the  love  duet  for  Helen  and 
Faust,  "Ah!  Amore!  misterio  celeste"  ('Tis  love,  a  mys- 
tery celestial);  and  the  dexterous  weaving  of  a  musical 
background  by  orchestra  and  chorus,  are  the  chief  features 
in  the  score  to  this  act. 

In  the  Epilogue,  we  find  Faust  in  his  laboratory  once 
more — an  old  man,  with  death  fast  approaching,  mourning 
over  his  past  life,  with  the  holy  volume  open  before  him. 
Fearing  that  Faust  may  yet  escape  him,  Mefistofele  spreads 
his  cloak,  and  urges  Faust  to  fly  with  him  through  the  air. 
Appealing  to  Heaven,  Faust  is  strengthened  by  the  sound 
of  angelic  songs,  and  resists,  i  Foiled  in  his  efforts,  Mefis- 


480  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

tofele  conjures  up  a  vision  of  beautiful  sirens.  Faust  hesi- 
tates a  moment,  flies  to  the  sacred  volume,  and  cries, 
"Here  at  last  I  find  salvation";  then  falling  on  his  knees 
in  prayer,  effectually  overcomes  the  temptations  of  the  evil 
one.  He  then  dies  amid  a  shower  of  rosy  petals,  and  to  the 
triumphant  song  of  a  celestial  choir.  Mefistofele  has  lost  his 
wager,  and  holy  influences  have  prevailed. 

We  have  here  Faust's  lament,  "  Giunto  sol  passo  extreme  " 
(Nearing  the  utmost  limit) ;  his  prayer,  and  the  choiring  of 
salvation. 

Arrigo  Boito  was,  it  will  be  recalled,  the  author  of  the 
books  to  Ponchielli's  opera  "La  Gioconda,"  and  Verdi's 
"Otello"  and  "Falstaff."  He  was  born  in  Padua,  Febru- 
ary 24,  1842.  From  1853  to  1862  he  was  a  pupil  of  the 
Milan  Conservatory.  During  a  long  sojourn  in  Germany 
and  Poland  he  became  an  ardent  admirer  of  Wagner's 
music.  Since  "Mefistofele"  Boito  has  written  and  com- 
posed another  opera,  "Nerone"  (Nero),  but  has  withheld 
it  from  production. 


Amilcare  PoDchielli 
(1834-1886) 

AMILCARE  PONCHIELLI,  the  composer  of  "La 
Gioconda, "  was  bom  at  Paderno  Fasolaro,  Cremona, 
August  31,  1834.  He  studied  music,  1843-54,  at  the  Milan 
Conservatory.  In  1856  he  brought  out  at  Cremona  an 
opera,  "I  Promessi  Sposi"  (The  Betrothed),  which,  in  a 
revised  version,  Milan,  1872,  was  his  first  striking  success. 
The  same  care  Ponchielli  bestowed  upon  his  studies,  which 
lasted  nearly  ten  years,  he  gave  to  his  works.  Like  "I 
Promessi  Sposi,"  his  opera,  "I  Lituani"  (The Lithuanians), 
brought  out  in  1874,  was  revived  ten  years  later,  as  "Al- 
guna" ;  and,  while  "  La  Gioconda  "  (1876)  did  not  wait  so  long 
for  success,  it  too  was  revised  and  brought  out  in  a  new 
version  before  it  received  popular  acclaim.  Among  his 
other  operas  are,  1880,  "II  Figliuol  Prodigo"  (The  Prodigal 
Son),  and,  1885,  "Marion  Delorme."  "La  Gioconda," 
however,  is  the  only  one  of  his  operas  that  has  made  its 
way  abroad. 

Ponchielli  died  at  Milan,  January  16,  1886.  He  was 
among  the  very  first  Italian  composers  to  yield  to  modem 
influences  and  enrich  his  score  with  instrumental  effects 
intended  to  enhance  its  beauty  and  give  the  support  of 
an  eloquent  and  expressive  accompaniment  to  the  voice 
without,  however,  challenging  its  supremacy.  His  influence 
upon  his  Italian  contemporaries  was  considerable.  He, 
rather  than  Verdi,  is  regarded  by  students  of  music  as  the 

31  481 


482  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

founder  of  the  modern  school  of  Italian  opera.  What 
really  happened  is  that  there  was  going  on  in  Italy,  in- 
fluenced by  a  growing  appreciation  of  Wagner's  works 
among  musicians,  a  movement  for  a  more  advanced  style 
of  lyric  drama.  Ponchielli  and  Boito  were  leaders  in  this 
movement.  Verdi,  a  far  greater  genius  than  either  of  these, 
was  caught  up  in  it,  and,  because  of  his  genius,  accomplished 
more  in  it  than  the  actual  leaders.  Ponchielli's  influence 
still  is  potent.  For  he  was  the  teacher  of  the  most  famous 
living  Italian  composer  of  opera,  Giacomo  Puccini. 

LA  GIOCONDA 

THE    BALLAD    SINGER 

Opera  in  four  acts  by  Ponchielli,  libretto  by  Arrigo  Boito,  after  Victor 
Hugo's  play,  "Angelo,  Tyrant  of  Padua."  Boito  signed  the  book  with 
his  anagram,  "Tobia  Gorrio."  Produced  in  its  original  version,  La 
Scala,  Milan,  April  8,  1876;  and  with  a  new  version  of  the  libretto  in 
Genoa,  December,  1876.  London,  Covent  Garden,  May  31,  1883. 
New  York,  December  20,  1883  (for  details,  see  below);  revived.  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  November  28,  1904,  with  Nordica,  Homer,  Edyth 
Walker,  Caruso,  Giraldoni,  and  Plangon;  later  with  Destinn,  Ober, 
and  Amato. 

Characters 

La  Gioconda,  a  ballad  singer Soprano 

La  Cieca,  her  blind  mother Contralto 

Alvise,  one  of  the  heads  of  the  State  Inquisition Bass 

Laura,  his  wife Mezzo-Soprano 

Enzo  Grimaldo,  a  Genoese  noble Tenor 

Barnaba,  a  spy  of  the  Inquisition Baritone 

ZuANE,  a  boatman Bass 

Isfepo,  a  public  letter  writer Tenor 

A  Pilot Bass 

Monks,  senators,  sailors,  shipwrights,  ladies,  gentlemen, 
populace,   maskers,   guards,   etc. 
Time — 17th  Century  Place — Venice. 


Amilcare  PonchielH  483 

J 

Twenty-one  years  elapsed  between  the  production  of 
"La  Gioconda"  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  and  its 
revival.  Since  its  reawakening  it  has  taken  a  good  hold  on 
the  repertoire,  which  makes  it  difficult  to  explain  why  it 
should  have  been  allowed  to  sleep  so  long.  It  may  be  that 
possibilities  of  casting  it  did  not  suggest  themselves.  Not 
always  does  "Cielo  e  mar"  flow  as  suavely  from  lips  as 
it  does  from  those  of  Caruso.  Then,  too,  managers  are 
superstitious,  and  may  have  hesitated  to  make  re-trial  of 
anything  that  had  been  attempted  at  that  first  season  of 
opera  at  the  Metropolitan,  one  of  the  most  disastrous  on 
record.  Even  Praxede  Marcelline  Kochanska  (in  other 
words  Marcella  Sembrich),  who  was  a  member  of  Henry 
E.  Abbey's  troupe,  was  not  re-engaged  for  this  country,  and 
did  not  reappear  at  the  Metropolitan  until  fourteen  years 
later. 

"La  Gioconda"  was  produced  at  that  house  December 
20,  1883,  with  Christine  Nilsson  in  the  title  r61e;  Scalchi 
as  La  Cieca;  Fursch-Madi  as  Laura;  Stagno  as  Enzo;  Del 
Puente  as  Barnaba;  and  Novare  as  Alvise.  Cavalazzi, 
one  of  the  leading  dancers  of  her  day,  appeared  in  the 
"Danza  delle  Or^"  (Dance  of  the  Hours).  It  was  a  good 
performance,  but  Del  Puente  hardly  was  sinister  enough 
for  Barnaba,  or  Stagno  distinguished  enough  in  voice  and 
personality  for  Enzo. 

There  was  in  the  course  of  the  performance  an  unusual 
occurrence  and  one  that  is  interesting  to  hark  back  to. 
Nilsson  had  a  voice  of  great  beauty — pure,  limpid,  flexible — 
but  not  one  conditioned  to  a  severe  dramatic  strain.  Fursch- 
Madi,  on  the  other  hand,  had  a  large,  powerful  voice  and 
a  singularly  dramatic  temperament.  When  La  Gioconda 
and  Laura  appeared  in  the  great  duet  in  the  second  act, 
"  L'amo  come  il  fulgor  del  creato  "  (I  love  him  as  the  light  of 
creation),  Fiu*sch-Madi,  without  great  effort,  "took  away" 
this  number  from  Mme.  Nilsson,  and  completely  eclipsed 


484  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

her.  When  the  two  singers  came  out  in  answer  to  the  re- 
calls, Mme.  Nilsson,  as  etiquette  demanded,  was  slightly  in 
advance  of  the  mezzo-soprano,  for  whom,  however,  most  of 
the  applause  was  intended.  Mme.  Fursch-Madi  was  a 
fine  singer,  but  lacked  the  pleasing  personality  and  appeal- 
ing temperament  that  we  spoiled  Americans  demand  of  our 
singers.  She  died,  in  extreme  poverty  and  after  a  long 
illness,  in  a  little  hut  on  one  of  the  Orange  mountains  in 
New  Jersey,  where  an  old  chorus  singer  had  given  her 
shelter.  She  had  appeared  in  many  tragedies  of  the  stage, 
but  none  more  tragic  than  her  own  last  hours. 

Each  act  of  "La  Gioconda"  has  its  separate  title:  Act 
I,  "The  Lion's  Mouth";  Act  II,  "The  Rosary";  Act  III, 
"The  House  of  Gold";  Act  IV,  "The  Orfano  Canal." 
The  title  of  the  opera  can  be  translated  as  "The  Ballad 
Singer, "  but  the  Italian  title  appears  invariably  to  be  used. 

Act  I.  "The  Lion's  Mouth."  Grand  courtyard  of  the 
Ducal  palace,  decorated  for  festivities.  At  back,  the  Giant's 
Stairway,  and  the  Portico  della  Carta,  with  doorway  leading 
to  the  interior  of  the  Church  of  St.  Mark.  On  the  left,  the 
writing-table  of  a  public  letter-writer.  On  one  side  of  the 
courtyard  one  of  the  historic  Lion's  Mouths,  with  the  follow- 
ing inscription  cut  in  black  letters  into  the  wall : 

FOR  SECRET  DENUNCIATIONS 

TO  THE  INQUISITION 

AGAINST  ANY  PERSON, 

WITH  IMPUNITY,  SECRECY,  AND 

BENEFIT  TO  THE  STATE. 

It  is  a  splendid  afternoon  in  spring.  The  stage  is  filled 
with  holiday-makers,  monks,  sailors,  shipwrights,  masquers, 
etc.,  and  amidst  the  busy  crowd  are  seen  some  Dalmatians 
and  Moors. 

Barnaba,  leaning  his  back  against  a  colimm,  is  watching 


Amilcare  PonchielH  485 

the  people.  He  has  a  small  guitar,  slung  around  his 
neck. 

The  populace  gaily  sings,  "Feste  e  pane"  (Sports  and 
feasting).  They  dash  away  to  watch  the  regatta,  when 
Barnaha,  coming  forward,  announces  that  it  is  about  to 
begin.  He  watches  them  disdainfully.  "Above  their 
graves  they  are  dancing!"  he  exclaims.  Gioconda  leads 
in  La  Cieca,  her  blind  mother.  There  is  a  duet  of  much 
tenderness  between  them:  "Figlia,  che  reggi  il  tremulo" 
(Daughter  in  thee  my  faltering  steps) . 

Barnaha  is  in  love  with  the  ballad  singer,  who  has  several 
times  repulsed  him.  For  she  is  in  love  with  Enzo,  a  noble- 
man, who  has  been  proscribed  by  the  Venetian  authorities, 
but  is  in  the  city  in  the  disguise  of  a  sea  captain.  His  ship 
lies  in  the  Fusina  Lagoon. 

Barnaha  again  presses  his  love  upon  the  giri.  She 
escapes  from  his  grasp  and  runs  away,  leaving  her  mother 
seated  by  the  church  door.  Barnaha  is  eager  to  get  La 
Cieca  into  his  power  in  order  to  compel  Gioconda  to  yield 
to  his  sinister  desires.  Opportunity  soon  offers.  For, 
now  the  regatta  is  over,  the  crowd  returns  bearing  in  tri- 
umph the  victor  in  the  contest.  With  them  enter  Znhne, 
the  defeated  contestant,  Gioconda,  and  Enzo.  Barnaha 
subtly  insinuates  to  Zucine  that  La  Cieca  is  a  witch,  who  has 
caused  his  defeat  by  sorcery.  The  report  quickly  spreads 
among  the  defeated  boatman's  friends.  The  populace 
becomes  excited.  La  Cieca  is  seized  and  dragged  from  the 
church  steps.  Enzo  calls  upon  his  sailors,  who  are  in  the 
crowd,  to  aid  him  in  saving  her. 

At  the  moment  of  greatest  commotion  the  palace  doors 
swing  open.  From  the  head  of  the  stairway  where  stand 
Alvise  and  his  wife,  Laura,  who  is  masked,  Alvise  sternly 
commands  an  end  to  the  rioting,  then  descends  with  Laura. 

Barnaha,  with  the  keenness  that  is  his  as  chief  spy  of  the 
Inquisition,  is  quick  to  observe  that,  through  her  mask. 


486  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Laura  is  gazing  intently  at  Enzo,  and  that  Enzo,  in  spite  of 
Laura's  mask,  appears  to  have  recognized  her  and  to  be 
deeply  affected  by  her  presence.  Gioconda  kneels  before 
Alvise  and  prays  for  mercy  for  her  mother.  When  Laura 
also  intercedes  for  La  Cieca,  Alvise  immediately  orders  her 
freed.  In  one  of  the  most  expressive  airs  of  the  opera, 
"Voce  di  donna,  o  d'  angelo"  (Voice  thine  of  woman,  or 
angel  fair).  La  Cieca  thanlcs  Laura  and  gives  to  her  a  rosary, 
at  the  same  time  extending  her  hands  over  her  in  blessing. 

She  also  asks  her  name.  Alvise' s  wife,  still  masked,  and 
looking  significantly  in  the  direction  of  Enzo,  answers, 
"Laura!" 

"'Tis  she!"  exclaims  Enzo. 

The  episode  has  been  observed  by  Barnaba,  who,  when  all 
the  others  save  Enzo  have  entered  the  church,  goes  up  to 
him  and,  despite  his  disguise  as  a  sea  captain,  addresses 
him  by  his  name  and  title,  "Enzo  Grimaldo,  Prince  of 
Santa  Fior." 

The  spy  knows  the  whole  story.  Enzo  and  Laura  were 
betrothed.  Although  they  were  separated  and  she  obliged 
to  wed  Alvise,  and  neither  had  seen  the  other  since  then, 
until  the  meeting  a  few  moments  before,  their  passion  still 
is  as  strong  as  ever.  Barnaba,  cynically  explaining  that, 
in  order  to  obtain  Gioconda  for  himself,  he  wishes  to  show 
her  how  false  Enzo  is,  promises  him  that  he  will  arrange  for 
Laura,  on  that  night,  to  be  aboard  Enzo's  vessel,  ready  to 
escape  with  him  to  sea. 

Enzo  departs.  Barnaba  summons  one  of  his  tools,  Isbpo, 
the  public  letter-writer,  whose  stand  is  near  the  Lion's 
Mouth.  At  that  moment  Gioconda  and  La  Cieca  emerge 
from  the  church,  and  Gioconda,  seeing  Barnaba,  swiftly 
draws  her  mother  behind  a  column,  where  they  are  hidden 
from  view.  The  girl  hears  the  spy  dictate  to  Isepo  a  letter, 
for  whom  intended  she  does  not  know,  informing  someone 
that  his  wife  plans  to  elope  that  evening  with  Enzo.     Having 


Amilcare  PonchlelH  487 

thus  learned  that  Enzo  no  longer  loves  her,  she  vanishes  with 
her  mother  into  the  church.  Barnaba  drops  the  letter  into 
the  Lion's  Mouth.  Iskpo  goes.  The  spy,  as  keen  in  in- 
tellect as  he  is  cruel  and  unrelenting  in  action,  addresses 
in  soliloquy  the  Doge's  palace.  "O  monumento!  Regia 
e  bolgia  dogale!"  (0  mighty  monument,  palace  and  den 
of  the  Doges) . 

The  masquers  and  populace  return.  They  are  singing. 
They  dance  "La  Furlana."  In  the  church  a  monk  and 
then  the  chorus  chant.  Gioconda  and  her  mother  come  out. 
Gioconda  laments  that  Enzo  should  have  forsaken  her. 
La  Cieca  seeks  to  comfort  her.  In  the  church  the  chanting 
continues. 

Act  II.  "The  Rosary."  Night.  A  brigantine,  showing 
its  starboard  side.  In  front,  the  deserted  bank  of  an 
uninhabited  island  in  the  Fusina  Lagoon.  In  the  farthest 
distance,  the  sky  and  the  lagoon.  A  few  stars  visible. 
On  the  right,  a  cloud,  above  which  the  moon  is  rising.  In 
front,  a  small  altar  of  the  Virgin,  lighted  by  a  red  lamp. 
The  name  of  the  brigantine — "Hecate" — painted  on  the 
prow.     Lanterns  on  the  deck. 

At  the  rising  of  the  ctutain  sailors  are  discovered;  some 
seated  on  the  deck,  others  standing  in  groups,  each  with  a 
speaking  trumpet.  Several  cabin  boys  are  seen,  some 
clinging  to  the  shrouds,  some  seated.  Remaining  thus 
grouped,  they  sing  a  Marinaresca,  in  part  a  sailors' 
"chanty,"  in  part  a  regular  melody. 

In  a  boat  Barnaba  appears  with  Ishpo.  They  are  dis- 
fiiiised  as  fishermen.  Barnaba  sings  a  fisherman's  ballad. 
Ah!  Pescator,  affonda  I'esca"  (Fisher-boy,  thy  net  now 
lower). 


488  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

He  has  set  his  net  for  Enzo  and  Laura,  as  well  as  for 
Gioconda,  as  his  words,  "Some  sweet  siren,  while  you're 
drifting,  in  your  net  will  coyly  hide,"  imply.  The  song 
falls  weirdly  upon  the  night.  The  scene  is  full  of  "at- 
mosphere." 

Enzo  comes  up  on  deck,  gives  a  few  orders;  the  crew  go 
below.  He  then  sings  the  famous  "Cielo!  e  mar!"  (O  sky, 
and  sea) — an  impassioned  voicing  of  his  love  for  her  whom 
he  awaits.  The  scene,  the  moon  having  emerged  from  be- 
hind a  bank  of  clouds,  is  of  great  beauty. 


A  boat  approaches.  In  it  Barnaba  brings  Laura  to  Enzo. 
There  is  a  rapturous  greeting.  They  are  to  sail  away  as 
soon  as  the  setting  of  the  moon  will  enable  the  ship  to  depart 
undetected.  There  is  distant  singing.  Enzo  goes  below. 
Laura  kneels  before  the  shrine  and  prays,  "Stella  del  mari- 
ner! Vergine  santa!"  (Star  of  the  mariner!  Virgin  most 
holy). 

Gioconda  steals  on  board  and  confronts  her  rival.  The 
duet  between  the  two  women,  who  love  Enzo,  and  in  which 
each  defies  the  other,  "L'amo  come  il  fulgor  del  creato"  (I 
adore  him  as  the  light  of  creation),  is  the  most  dramatic 
ntimber  in  the  score. 


Gioconda  is  about  to  stab  Lawm,  but  stops  suddenly  and, 
seizing  her  with  one  hand,  points  with  the  other  out  over 
the  lagoon,  where  a  boat  bearing  Alvise  and  his  armed 
followers  is  seen  approaching.  Laura  implores  the  Virgin 
for  aid.  In  doing  so  she  lifts  up  the  rosary  given  to  her  by 
La  Cieca.     Through  it  Gioconda  recognizes  in  Laura  the 


Copyright  photo  bj-  Dupont 

Caruso  as  Enzo  in  "Im.  Gioconda" 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Louise  Homer  as  Laura  in  "La  Gioconda" 


Amilcare  Ponchielli  489 

masked  lady  who  saved  her  mother  from  the  vengeance  of 
the  mob.  Swiftly  the  girl  summons  the  boat  of  two  friendly 
boatmen  who  have  brought  her  thither,  and  bids  Laura 
make  good  her  escape.  When  Barnaba  enters,  his  prey 
has  evaded  him.  Gioconda  has  saved  her.  Barnaba 
hiuTies  back  to  Alvise's  galley,  and,  pointing  to  the 
fugitive  boat  in  the  distance,  bids  the  galley  start  in  pur- 
suit. 

Enzo  comes  on  deck.  Instead  of  Laura  he  finds  Gioconda. 
There  is  a  dramatic  scene  between  them.  Venetian  galleys 
are  seen  approaching.  Rather  than  that  his  vessel  shall 
be  captiu"ed  by  them,  Enzo  sets  fire  to  it. 

Act  III.  "The  House  of  Gold."  A  room  in  Alvise's 
house.  Alvise  sings  of  the  vengeance  he  will  wreak  upon 
Laura  for  her  betrayal  of  his  honour.  "Si!  morir  ella  de*" 
(Yes,  to  die  is  her  doom). 

He  summons  Laura.  Nocturnal  serenaders  are  heard 
singing  without,  as  they  wend  their  way  in  gondolas  along 
the  canal.  Alvise  draws  the  curtains  from  before  a  door- 
way and  points  to  a  funeral  bier  erected  in  the  chamber 
beyond.  To  Laura  he  hands  a  vial  of  swift  poison.  She 
must  drain  it  before  the  last  note  of  the  serenade  they  now 
hear  has  died  away.  He  will  leave  her.  The  chorus  ended, 
he  will  return  to  find  her  dead. 

When  he  has  gone,  Gioconda,  who,  anticipating  the  fate 
that  might  befall  the  woman  who  has  saved  her  mother, 
has  been  in  hiding  in  the  palace,  hastens  to  Laura,  and 
hands  her  a  flask  containing  a  narcotic  that  will  create  the 
semblance  of  death.  Laura  drinks  it,  and  disappears 
through  the  curtains  into  the  funeral  chamber.  Gioconda 
pours  the  poison  from  the  vial  into  her  own  flask,  and 
leaves  the  empty  vial  on  the  table. 

The  serenade  ceases.  Alvise  re-entering,  sees  the  empty 
vial  on  the  table.  He  enters  the  funeral  apartment  for  a 
brief  moment.     Laura  is  lying  as  one  dead  upon  the  bier. 


490  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

He  believes  that  he  has  been  obeyed  and  that  Laura  has 
drained  the  vial  of  poison. 

The  scene  changes  to  a  great  hall  in  Alvise's  house,  where 
he  is  receiving  his  guests.  Here  occurs  the  "Dance  of  the 
Hours,"  a  ballet  suite  which,  in  costiune  changes,  light  ef- 
fects and  choreography  represents  the  hours  of  dawn,  day, 
evening,  and  night.  It  is  also  intended  to  symbolize,  in 
its  mimic  action,  the  eternal  struggle  between  the  powers 
of  darkness  and  light. 

Barnaba  enters,  dragging  in  with  him  La  Cieca,  whom  he 
has  found  concealed  in  the  house.  Enzo  also  has  managed 
to  gain  admittance.  La  Cieca,  questioned  as  to  her  purpose 
in  the  House  of  Gold,  answers,  "For  her,  just  dead,  I 
prayed."  A  hush  falls  upon  the  fete.  The  passing  bell 
for  the  dead  is  heard  slowly  tolling.  "For  whom?"  asks 
Enzo  of  Barnaba.  "For  Laura,"  is  the  reply.  The  guests 
shudder.  "D'un  vampiro  fatal  I'ala  fredda  passo"  (As  if 
over  otir  brows  a  vampire's  wing  had  passed),  chants  the 
chorus.  "Gia  ti  vedo  immota  e  smorta"  (I  behold  thee 
motionless  and  pallid),  sings  Enzo.  Barnaba,  Gioconda,La 
Cieca,  and  Alvise  add  their  voices  to  an  ensemble  of  great 
power.  Alvise  draws  back  the  curtains  of  the  funeral 
chamber,  which  also  gives  upon  the  festival  hall.  He 
points  to  Laura  extended  upon  the  bier.  Enzo,  brandish- 
ing a  poniard,  rushes  upon  Alvise,  but  is  seized  by  guards. 

Act  IV.  "The  Orfano  Canal."  The  vestibule  of  a 
ruined  palace  on  the  island  of  Giudeca.  In  the  right-hand 
corner  an  opened  screen,  behind  which  is  a  bed.  Large 
porch  at  back,  through  which  are  seen  the  lagoon,  apd,  in 
the  distance,  the  square  of  Saint  Mark,  brilliantly  illumi- 
nated. A  picture  of  the  Virgin  and  a  crucifix  hang  against 
the  wall.  Table  and  couch;  on  the  table  a  lamp  and  a 
lighted  lantern;  the  flask  of  poison  and  a  dagger.  On  a 
couch  are  various  articles  of  mock  jewelry  belonging  to 
Gioconda. 


Amilcare  Ponchielli  491 

On  the  right  of  the  scene  a  long,  dimly  lighted  street. 
From  the  end  two  men  advance,  carrying  in  their  arms 
Laura,  who  is  enveloped  in  a  black  cloak.  The  two  cantori 
(street  singers)  knock  at  the  door.  It  is  opened  by  Gio- 
conda,  who  motions  them  to  place  their  burden  upon  the 
couch  behind  the  screen.  As  they  go,  she  pleads  with  them 
to  search  for  her  mother,  whom  she  has  not  been  able  to 
find  since  the  scene  in  the  House  of  Gold. 

She  is  alone.  Her  love  for  Enzo,  greater  than  her  jealousy 
of  Laura,  has  prompted  her  to  promise  Barnaba  that  she 
will  give  herself  to  him,  if  he  will  aid  Enzo  to  escape  from 
prison  and  guide  him  to  the  Orfano  Canal.  Now,  however, 
despair  seizes  her.  In  a  dramatic  soliloquy — a  "terrible 
song,"  it  has  been  called — she  invokes  suicide.  "Suicidio! 
...  in  questi  fieri  momenti  to  sol  mi  resti"  (Aye,  suicide, 
the  sole  resource  now  left  me).  For  a  moment  she  even 
thinks  of  carrying  out  Alvise's  vengeance  by  stabbing  Laura 
and  throwing  her  body  into  the 'water — "for  deep  is  yon 
lagoon." 

Through  the  night  a  gondolier's  voice  calls  in  the  distance 
over  the  water:  "Ho!  gondolier!  hast  thou  any  fresh  tid- 
ings?" Another  voice,  also  distant:  "In  the  Orfano 
Canal  there  are  corpses." 

In  despair  Gioconda  throws  herself  down  weeping  near 
the  table.  Enzo  enters.  In  a  tense  scene  Gioconda  excites 
his  rage  by  telling  him  that  she  has  had  Laura's  body  re- 
moved from  the  biuial  vault  and  that  he  will  not  find  it 
there.  He  seizes  her.  His  poniard  already  is  poised  for 
the  thrust.  Hers — so  she  hopes — is  to  be  the  ecstacy 
of  dying  by  his  hand! 

At  that  moment,  however,  the  voice  of  Laura,  who  is 
coming  out  of  the  narcotic,  calls,  "Enzo!"  He  rushes  to 
her,  and  embraces  her.  In  the  distance  is  heard  a  chorus 
singing  a  serenade.  It  is  the  same  song,  before  the  end  of 
which  Alvise  had  bidden  Laura  drain  the  poison.     Both 


492  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Laura  and  Enzo  now  pour  out  words  of  gratitude  to  Gio- 
conda.  The  girl  has  provided  everything  for  flight.  A 
boat,  propelled  by  two  of  her  friends,  is  ready  to  convey 
them  to  a  barque,  which  awaits  them.  What  a  blessing, 
after  all,  the  rosary,  bestowed  upon  the  queenly  Laura 
by  an  old  blind  woman  has  proved  to  be.  .  "Che  vedo  la! 
II  rosario!"  (What  see  I  there!  'Tis  the  rosary!)  Thus 
sings  Gioconda,  while  Enzo  and  Laura  voice  their  thanks: 
"Sulle  tue  mani  I'anima  tutta  stempriamo  in  pianto" 
(Upon  thy  hands  thy  generous  tears  of  sympathy  are 
falling).     The  scene  works  up  to  a  powerfvd  climax. 

Once  more  Gioconda  is  alone.  The  thought  of  her  com- 
pact with  Barnaba  comes  over  her.  She  starts  to  flee  the 
spot,  when  the  spy  himself  appears  in  the  doorway.  Pre- 
tending that  she  wishes  to  adorn  herself  for  him,  she  begins 
putting  on  the  mock  jewelry,  and,  utilizing  the  opportunity 
that  brings  her  near  the  table,  seizes  the  dagger  that  is 
lying  on  it. 

"  Gioconda  is  thine ! "  she  cries,  facing  Barnaba,  then  stabs 
herself  to  the  heart. 

Bending  over  the  prostrate  form,  the  spy  fiiriously  shouts 
into  her  ear,  "Last  night  thy  mother  did  offend  me.  I 
have  strangled  her!"  But  no  one  hears  him.  La  Gioconda 
is  dead.     With  a  cry  of  rage,  he  rushes  down  the  street. 


French  Opera 

GLUCK,  Wagner,  and  Verdi  each  closed  an  epoch.  In 
Gluck  there  cukninated  the  pre-Mozartean  school. 
In  Mozart  two  streams  of  opera  found  their  source.  "  Don 
Giovanni"  and  "Le  Nozze  di  Figaro"  were  inspirations  to 
Rossini,  to  whom,  in  due  course  of  development,  varied  by 
individual  characteristics,  there  succeeded  Bellini,  Donizetti, 
and  Verdi. 

The  second  stream  of  opera  which  found  its  source  in 
Mozart  was  German.  The  score  of  "Die  Zauberflote" 
showed  how  successfully  the  rich  vein  of  popular  melody,  or 
folk  music,  could  be  worked  for  the  lyric  stage.  The  hint 
was  taken  by  Weber,  from  whom,  in  the  course  of  gradual 
development,  there  derived  Richard  Wagner. 

Meanwhile,  however,  there  was  another  development 
which  came  direct  from  Gluck.  His  "  Iphig^nie  en  Aulide," 
"Orph^e  et  Eurydice, "  "Alceste,"  and  "Armide"  were 
produced  at  the  Academic  Roy  ale  de  Musique,  founded  by 
LuUy  in  1672,  and  now  the  Grand  Op^ra,  Paris.  They 
contributed  materially  to  the  development  of  French 
grand  opera,  which  derives  from  Gluck,  as  well  as  from 
Lully  (pp.  1,4,  and  6),  and  Rameau  (p.  i).  French  opera 
also  was  sensibly  influenced,  and  its  development  in  the 
serious  manner  furthered,  by  one  of  the  most  learned  of 
composers,  Luigi  Cherubini,  for  six  years  professor  of 
composition  and  for  twenty  years  thereafter  (1821-1841) 
director  of  the  Paris  Conservatoire  and  at  one  time  widely 
known  as  the  composer  of  the  operas  "Les  Deux  Joum^es" 

493 


494  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

(Paris,  1800;  London,  as  "The  Water-carrier,"  1801);  and 

"Faniska, "  Vienna,  1806. 

To  the  brief  statement  regarding  French  grand  opera 
on  p.  2,  I  may  add,  also  briefly,  that  manner  as  well  as 
matter  is  a  characteristic  of  all  French  art.  The  French- 
man is  not  satisfied  with  what  he  says,  unless  he  says  it 
in  the  best  possible  manner  or  style.  Thus,  while  Italian 
composers  long  were  contented  with  an  itistrtimental  ac- 
companiment that  simply  did  not  interfere  with  the  voice, 
the  French  always  have  sought  to  enrich  and  beautify 
what  is  sung,  by  the  instrumental  accompaniment  with 
which  they  have  supported  and  environed  it.  In  its  serious- 
ness of  piu'pose,  and  in  the  care  with  which  it  strives  to 
preserve  the  proper  balance  between  the  vocal  and  orches- 
tral portions  of  the  score,  French  opera  shows  most  clearly 
its  indebtedness  to  Gluck,  and,  after  him,  to  Cherubini. 
It  is  a  beautiful  form  of  operatic  art. 

In  the  restricted  sense  of  the  repertoire  in  this  country, 
French  grand  opera  means  Meyerbeer,  Gounod,  Bizet,  and 
Massenet.  In  fact  it  is  a  question  if,  popularly  speaking, 
we  draw  the  line  at  all  between  French  and  Italian  grand 
opera,  since,  both  being  Latin,  they  are  sister  arts,  and 
quite  distinct  from  the  German  school. 

Having  traced  opera  in  Germany  from  Gluck  to  Wagner, 
and  in  Italy  from  Rossini  to  Verdi,  I  now  turn  to- opera  in 
France  from  Meyerbeer  and  a  few  predecessors  to  Bizet. 


Mehul  to  Meyerbeer 

CERTAIN  early  French  operas  still  are  in  the  Con- 
tinental repertoire,  although  they  may  be  said  to 
have  completely  disappeared  here.  They  are  of  sufficient 
significance  to  be  referred  to  in  this  book. 

The  pianoforte  pupils  abroad  are  few  who,  in  the  course  of 
their  first  years  of  instruction,  fail  to  receive  a  potpoiirri  of 
the  three-act  opera ' '  Joseph ' '  (Joseph  in  Egypt) ,  by  Etienne 
Nicholas  M^hul  (1763-18 17).  The  score  is  chaste  and  re- 
strained. The  principal  air  for  Joseph  (tenor),  "A  peine 
au  sortir  de  I'enfance"  (Whilst  yet  in  tender  childhood), 
and  the  prayer  for  male  voice,  "Dieu  d'lsrael"  (Oh,  God 
of  Israel),  are  the  best-known  portions  of  the  score.  In 
constructing  the  libretto  Alexander  Duval  followed  the 
Biblical  story.  When  the  work  opens,  not  only  has  the 
sale  of  Joseph  by  his  brethren  taken  place,  but  the  young 
Jew  has  risen  to  high  office.  Roles,  besides  Joseph,  are 
Jacob  (bass),  Simeon  (baritone),  Benjamin  (soprano), 
Utopal,  Joseph's  confidant  (bass).  "Joseph  en  Egypte" 
was  produced  at  the  Th^tre  Feydeau',  Paris,  February 
17, 1808. 

"Le  Calife  de  Bagdad,"  "Jean  de  Paris,"  and  "La  Dame 
Blanche"  (The  White  Lady),  by  Francois  Adrien  Boildieu 
(i 775-1 834),  are  still  known  by  their  graceful  overtures. 
In  "La  Dame  Blanche"  the  composer  has  used  the  song 
of  "Robin  Adair,"  the  scene  of  the  opera  being  laid  in 
Scotland,  and  drawn  by  Scribe  from  Scott's  novels,  "The 
Monastery"  and  "Guy  Mannering."     George  Brotvn  was 

495 


496  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

a  favorite  rdle  with  Wachtel.  He  sang  it  in  this  country. 
The  graceful  invocation  to  the  white  lady  was  especially 
well  sviited  to  his  voice.  "La  Dame  Blanche"  was  pro- 
duced at  the  Opera  Comique,  Paris,  December  lo,  1825. 

Boildieu's  music  is  light  and  graceful,  in  perfect  French 
taste,  and  full  of  charm.  It  has  the  spirit  of  comedy  and 
no  doubt  helped  develop  the  comic  vein  in  the  lighter 
scores  of  Daniel  Frangois  Esprit  Auber  (i 782-1871).  But 
in  his  greatest  work,  "  Masaniello, "  the  French  title  of 
which  is  "La  Muette  de  Portici"  (The  Dumb  Girl  of 
Portici),  Auber  is,  musically,  a  descendant  of  Mehul. 
The  libretto  is  by  Scribe  and  Delavigne.  The  work  was 
produced  in  Paris,  February  29,  1828.  It  is  one  of  the 
foundation  stones  of  French  grand  opera.  Eschewing 
vocal  ornament  merely  as  such,  and  introducing  it  only 
when  called  for  by  the  portrayal  of  character,  the  emotion 
to  be  expressed,  or  the  situation  devised  by  the  librettist, 
it  is  largely  due  to  its  development  from  this  work  of  Auber's 
that  French  opera  has  occupied  for  so  long  a  time  the 
middle  ground  between  Italian  opera  with  its  frank  supre- 
macy of  voice  on  the  one  hand,  and  German  opera  with  its 
solicitude  for  instrumental  effects  on  the  other. 

The  story  of  "Masaniello"  is  laid  in  1647,  in  and  near 
Naples.  It  deals  with  an  uprising  of  the  populace  led  by 
Masaniello.  He  is  inspired  thereto  both  by  the  wrongs 
the  people  have  suffered  and  b}'-  his  sister  Fenella's  betrayal 
by  Alfonso,  Spanish  viceroy  of  Naples.  The  revolution 
fails,  its  leader  loses  his  mind  and  is  killed,  and,  during  an 
eruption  of  Vesuvius,  Fenella  casts  herself  into  the  sea. 
Fenella  is  dumb.  Her  role  is  taken  by  a  pantomimist, 
usually  the  prima  ballerina. 

Greatly  admired  by  musicians  though  the  score  be, 
"  Masaniello's "  hold  upon  the  repertory  long  has  been 
precarious.  I  doubt  if  it  has  been  given  in  this  country 
upon  any  scale  of  significance  since  the  earliest  days  of 


Mehul  to  Meyerbeer  497 

opera  in  German  at  the  Metropolitan,  when  Dr.  Leopold 
Damrosch  revived  it  with  Anton  Schott  in  the  title  r61e. 
Even  then  it  was  difficult  to  imagine  that,  when  "Masani- 
ello"  was  played  in  Brussels,  in  1830,  the  scene  of  the 
uprising  so  excited  the  people  that  they  drove  the  Dutch 
out  of  Belgium,  which  had  been  joined  to  Holland  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna.  The  best-known  musical  number  in 
the  opera  is  the  "Air  du  Sommeil"  (Slumber-song)  sung 
by  Masaniello  to  Fenella  in  the  fourth  act. 

Auber  composed  many  successful  operas  in  the  vein  of 
comedy.  His  "Fra  Diavolo"  long  was  popular.  Its 
libretto  by  Scribe  is  amusing,  the  score  sparkling.  Fra 
Diavolo' s  death  can  be  made  a  sensational  piece  of  acting, 
if  the  tenor  knows  how  to  take  a  fall  down  the  wooden 
runway  among  the  canvas  rocks,  over  which  the  dashing 
bandit — the  villain  of  the  piece — is  attempting  to  escape, 
when  shot. 

"Fra  Diavolo"  was  given  here  with  considerable  fre- 
quency at  one  time.  But  in  a  country  where  op^ra  comique 
(in  the  French  sense  of  the  term)  has  ceased  to  exist,  it  has 
no  place.  We  swing  from  one  extreme  to  the  other — from 
grand  opera,  with  brilliant  accessories,  to  musical  comedy, 
with  all  its  slap-dash.  The  sunlit  middle  road  of  op^ra 
comique  we  have  ceased  to  tread. 

Two  other  works,  once  of  considerable  popularity,  also 
have  disappeared  from  our  stage.  The  overture  to 
"Zampa,"  by  Louis  J.  F.  Hdrold  (1791-1833)  still  is  played; 
the  opera  no  more.  It  was  produced  in  Paris  May  3,  1831. 
The  libretto,  by  Melesville,  is  based  on  the  old  tale  of 
"The  Statue  Bride." 

The  high  tenor  r61e  of  Chapelou  in  "Le  Postilion  de 
Longumeau,"  by  Adolphe  Charles  Adam  (1802-1856), 
with  its  postilion  song,  "Ho!  ho! — Ho!  ho! — Postilion  of 
Longtuneau!"  was  made  famous  by  Theodore  Wachtel, 
who  himself  was  a  postilion  before  his  voice  was  discovered 
33 


498  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

by  patrons  of  his  father's  stable,  with  whom  he  chanced  to 
join  in  singing  quartet.  It  was  he  who  introduced  the 
rhythmic  cracking  of  the  whip  in  the  postilion's  song. 
Wachtel  sang  the  role  in  this  country  in  the  season  of  1871- 
72,  at  the  Stadt  Theatre,  and  in  1875-76  at  the  Academy  of 
Music.  Then,  having  accumulated  a  fortune,  chiefly  out 
of  the  "  Postilion, "  in  which  he  sang  more  than  1200  times, 
he  practically  retired,  accepting  no  fixed  engagements. 

During  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  season  of  1884-85, 
Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch  revived,  in  German,  "La  Juive, " 
a  five-act  opera  by  Jacques  Frangois  Fromental  Elie  Halevy 
(i 799-1862),  the  libretto  by  Scribe.  Materna  was  the 
Jewess,  Rachel  (in  German  Recha).  I  cannot  recall  any 
production  of  the  work  here  since  then,  and  a  considerable 
period  had  elapsed  since  its  previous  performance  here. 
It  had  its  premiere  in  Paris,  February  23,  1835.  Meyer- 
beer's "Robert  le  Diable"  had  been  produced  in  1831. 
Nevertheless  "La  Juive"  scored  a  triumph.  But  with  the 
production  of  Meyerbeer's  "Les  Huguenots,"  that  com- 
poser became  the  operatic  idol  of  the  public,  and  Halevy's 
star  paled,  although  musicians  continued  for  many  years  to 
consider  "La  Juive"  one  of  the  finest  opera  scores  com- 
posed in  France ;  and  there  are  many  who  would  be  glad  to 
see  an  occasional  revival  of  this  work,  as  well  as  of  Auber's 
"Masaniello."  The  libretto  of  "La  Juive,"  originally 
written  for  Rossini,  was  rejected  by  that  composer  for 
"William  Tell"  (see  p.  312). 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer 
(1791-1864) 

ALTHOUGH  he  was  bom  in  Berlin  (September  5, 
1 791),  studied  pianoforte  and  theory  in  Germany, 
and  attained  in  that  cotmtry  a  reputation  as  a  brilliant 
pianist,  besides  producing  several  operas  there,  Meyerbeer 
is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  what  generally  is  understood 
as  modem  French  grand  opera.  It  has  been  said  of  him 
that  "he  joined  to  the  flowing  melody  of  the  Italians  the 
solid  harmony  of  the  Germans,  the  poignant  declamation 
and  varied,  piquant  rhythm  of  the  French";  which  is  a 
good  description  of  the  opera  that  flourishes  on  the  stage  of 
the  Academic  or  Grand  Op^ra,  Paris.  The  models  for 
elaborate  spectacular  scenes  and  finales  ftirnished  by  Meyer- 
beer's operas  have  been  followed  ever  since  by  French 
composers;  nor  have  they  been  ignored  by  Italians.  He 
understood  how  to  write  effectively  for  the  voice,  and  he 
was  the  first  composer  of  opera  who  made  a  point  of  striving 
for  tone  colour  in  the  instrumental  accompaniment.  Some- 
times the  effect  may  be  too  calculated,  too  cunningly 
contrived,  too  obviously  sought  for.  But  what  he  accom- 
plished had  decided  influence  on  the  enrichment  of  the 
instrumental  score  in  operatic  composition. 

Much  criticism  has  been  directed  at  Meyerbeer,  and 
much  of  his  music  has  disappeared  from  the  stage.  But 
such  also  has  been  the  fate  of  much  of  the  music  of  other 
composers  earlier  than,  contemporary  with,  and  later  than 

499 


500  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

he.  Meyerbeer  had  the  pick  of  the  great  artists  of  his  day. 
His  works  were  written  for  and  produced  with  brilliant 
casts,  and  had  better  not  be  sung  at  all  than  indifferently. 
His  greatest  work,  "Les  Huguenots,"  is  still  capable  of 
leaving  a  deep  impression,  when  adequately  performed. 

Meyerbeer,  like  many  other  composers  for  the  lyric  stage, 
has  suffered  much  from  writers  who  have  failed  to  approach 
opera  as  opera,  but  have  written  about  it  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  symphony,  with  which  it  has  nothing  in  com- 
mon, or  have  looked  down  upon  it  from  the  lofty  heights 
of  the  music-drama,  from  which,  save  for  the  fact  that  both 
are  intended  to  be  sung  and  acted  with  scenery  on  a  stage, 
it  differs  greatly.  Opera  is  a  highly  artificial  theatrical 
product,  and  those  who  have  employed  convincingly 
its  sophisticated  processes  are  not  lightly  to  be  thrust 
aside. 

Meyerbeer  came  of  a  Jewish  family.  His  real  name  was 
Jacob  Liebmann  Beer.  He  prefixed  "Meyer"  to  his  patro- 
nymic at  the  request  of  a  wealthy  relative  who  made 
him  his  heir.  He  was  a  pupil  in  pianoforte  of  Clementi; 
also  studied  under  Abbe  Vogler,  being  a  fellow  pupil  of  C. 
M.  von  Weber.  His  first  operas  were  German.  In  1815 
he  went  to  Italy  and  composed  a  series  of  operas  in  the 
style  of  Rossini.  Going  to  Paris  in  1826,  he  became  "im- 
mersed in  the  study  of  French  opera,  from  LuUy  onward." 
The  first  result  was  "Robert  le  Diable"  (Robert  the  De\al), 
Grand  Op6ra,  Paris,  1831.  This  was  followed  by  "Les 
Huguenots,"  1836;  "Le  Prophete,"  1849;  "L'Etoile  du 
Nord, "  Op^ra  Comique,  1854;  "Dinorah,  ou  le  Pardon  de 
Ploermel"  (Dinorah,  or  the  Pardon  of  Ploermel),  Opera 
Comique,  1859.  Much  of  the  music  of  "L'Etoile  du 
Nord"  came  from  an  earlier  score,  "Das  Feldlager  in 
Schlesien"  (The  Camp  in  Silesia),  Berlin,  1843.  Meyer- 
beer died  May  2,  1864,  in  Paris,  where  his  "L'Africaine" 
was  produced  at  the  Grand  Opera  in  1865. 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  501 

ROBERT  LE  DIABLE 

ROBERT  THE  DEVIL 

Opera  in  five  acts,  by  Meyerbeer;  words  by  Scribe  and  Delavigne. 
Produced,  Grand  Op<Sra,  Paris,  November  22,  1831.  Drury  Lane, 
London,  Februaiy,  20,  1832,  in  English,  as  "The  Demon,  or  the  Mystic 
Branch";  Covent  Garden,  February  21,  1832,  in  English,  as  "The 
Fiend  Father,  or  Robert  of  Normandy";  King's  Theatre,  June  ii,  1832, 
in  French;  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  May  4,  1847,  in  Italian.  Park 
Theatre,  New  York,  April  7,  1834,  in  English,  with  Mrs.  Wood  as 
Isabel  and  Wood  as  Robert,  the  opera  being  followed  by  a  pas  seul  by 
Miss  Wheatley,  and  a  farce,  "My  Uncle  John";  Astor  Place  Opera 
House,  November  3,  1851,  with  Bettini  (Robert),  Marini  (Bertram), 
Bosio  (Isabella),  Steffanone  (Alice);  Academy  of  Music,  November  30, 
1857,  with  Formes  as  Bertram. 

Characters 

Alice,  foster  sister  of  Robert Soprano 

Isabella,  Princess  of  Sicily Soprano 

The  Abbess 

Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy - Tenor 

Bertram,  the  Unknown Bass 

Raimbaut,  a  minstrel Tenor 

Time — 13th  Century.  Place — Sicily. 

The  production  of  "Robert  le  Diable "  in  Paris  was  such  a 
sensational  success  that  it  made  the  fortune  of  the  Grand 
Op^ra.  Nourrit  was  Robert,  Levasseur,  Bertram  (the  proto- 
type of  Mephistofeles)',  the  women  of  the  cast  were  Mile. 
Dorus  as  Alice,  Mme.  Cinti-Damoreau  as  Isabella,  and 
Taglioni,  the  famous  danseuse,  as  the  Abbess.  Jenny 
Lind  made  her  ddbut  in  London  as  Alice,  in  the  Italian 
production  of  the  work.  In  New  York  Carl  Formes  was 
heard  as  Bertram  at  the  Astor  Place  Theatre,  November 

30,  1857- 

Whatever  criticism  may  now  be  directed  against  "Robert 
le  Diable, "  it  was  a  remarkable  creation  for  its  day.  Meyer- 
beer's score  not  only  saved  the  libretto,  in  which  the  gro- 


502  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

tesque  is  carried  to  the  point  of  absurdity,  but  actually 
made  a  brilliant  success  of  the  production  as  a  whole. 

The  story  is  legendary.  Robert  is  the  son  of  the  arch- 
fiend by  a  human  woman.  Robert's  father,  known  as 
Bertram,  but  really  the  devil,  ever  follows  him  about,  and 
seeks  to  lure  him  to  destruction.  The  strain  of  purity  in 
the  drama  is  supplied  by  Robert's  foster-sister,  Alice,  who, 
if  Bertram  is  the  prototype  of  Mephistofeles  in  "Faust," 
may  be  regarded  as  the  original  of  Micliaela  in  "Carmen." 

Robert,  because  of  his  evil  deeds  (inspired  by  Bertram), 
has  been  banished  from  Normandy,  and  has  come  to  Sicily. 
He  has  fallen  in  love  with  Isabella,  she  with  him.  He  is  to 
attend  a  tournament  at  which  she  is  to  award  the  prizes. 
Tempted  by  Bertram,  he  gambles  and  loses  all  his  posses- 
sions, including  even  his  armour.  These  facts  are  disclosed 
in  the  first  act.  This  contains  a  song  by  Raimbaut,  the 
minstrel,  in  which  he  tells  of  Robert's  misdeeds,  but  is 
saved  from  the  latter's  fury  by  Alice,  who  is  betrothed  to 
Raimbaut,  and  who,  in  an  expressive  air,  pleads  vainly 
with  Robert  to  mend  his  ways  and  especially  to  avoid 
Bertram,  from  whom  she  instinctively  shrinks.  In  the 
second  act  Robert  and  Isabella  meet  in  the  palace.  She 
bestows  upon  him  a  suit  of  armour  to  wear  in  the  tourna- 
ment. But,  misled  by  Bertram,  he  seeks  his  rival  elsewhere 
than  in  the  lists,  and,  by  his  failure  to  appear  there,  loses 
his  honour  as  a  knight.  In  the  next  act,  laid  in  the  cavern 
of  St.  Irene,  occurs  an  orgy  of  evil  spirits,  to  whose  nimiber 
Bertram  promises  to  add  Robert.  Next  comes  a  scene  that 
verges  upon  the  grotesque,  but  which  is  converted  by 
Meyerbeer's  genius  into  something  highly  fantastic.  This 
is  in  the  ruined  convent  of  St.  Rosalie.  Bertram  summons 
from  their  graves  the  nuns  who,  in  life,  were  unfaithful  to 
their  vows.  The  fiend  has  promised  Robert  that  if  he  will 
but  seize  a  mystic  cypress  branch  from  over  the  grave  of 
St.  Rosalie,  and  bear  it  away,  whatever  he  wishes  for  will 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  503 

become  his.  The  ghostly  nuns,  led  by  their  Ahhess,  dance 
about  him.  They  seek  to  inveigle  him  with  gambling, 
drink,  and  love,  until,  dazed  by  their  enticements,  he  seizes 
the  branch.  Besides  the  ballet  of  the  nuns,  there  are  two 
duets  for  Robert  and  Bertram — "Du  rendezvous"  (Our 
meeting  place),  and  "Le  bonheur  est  dans  I'inconstance " 
(Our  pleasure  lies  in  constant  change) . 

The  first  use  Robert  makes  of  the  branch  is  to  effect  en- 
trance into  Isabella's  chamber.  He  threatens  to  seize  her 
and  bear  her  away,  but  yields  to  her  entreaties,  breaks  the 
branch,  and  destroys  the  spell.  In  this  act — the  fourth — 
occurs  the  famous  air  for  Isabella,  "Robert,  toi  que  j'aime" 
(Robert,  whom  I  love). 

Once  more  Bertram  seeks  to  make  with  Robert  a  compact, 
the  price  for  which  shall  be  paid  with  his  soul.  But  Alice, 
by  repeating  to  him  the  last  warning  words  of  his  mother, 
delays  the  signing  of  the  compact  until  the  clock  strikes 
twelve.  The  spell  is  broken.  Bertram  disappears.  The 
cathedral  doors  swing  open  disclosing  Isabella,  who,  in  her 
bridal  robes,  awaits  Robert.  The  finale  contains  a  trio  for 
Alice,  Robert,  and  Bertram,  which  is  considered  one  of 
Meyerbeer's  finest  inspirations. 

LES  HUGUENOTS 

THE  HUGUENOTS 

Opera  in  five  acts;  music  by  Meyerbeer,  words  by  Scribe  and  Des- 
champs.  Produced,  Grand  Opdra,  Paris,  February  29,  1836.  New 
York,  Astor  Place  Opera  House,  June  24,  1850,  with  Salvi  {Raoul)f 
Coletti  {de  Never s),  Setti  {St.  Bris),  Marini  {Marcel),  Signorina  Bosio 
{Marguerite),  Steffanone  {Valentine),  Vietti  (Urbain):  Academy  of 
Music,  March  8,  1858,  with  La  Grange  and  Formes;  April  30,  1872, 
Parepa-Rosa,  Wachtel,  and  Santley  {St.  Bris):  Academy  of  Music, 
1873,  with  Nilsson,  Gary,  Del  Puente,  and  Campanini;  Metropolitan 
Opera  House,  beginning  1901,  with  Melba  or  Sembrich  as  AforgMerite 
de  Valois,  Nordica  {Valentine),  Jean  de  Reszke  {Raoul),  Edouard  de 
Reszke  {Marcel),  Plangon  {St.  Bris),  Maurel  {de  Nevers),  and  Mantelli 


504  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

(Urhain)  (performances  known  as  "the  nights  of  the  seven  stars"); 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  1914,  with  Caruso,  Destinn,  Hempel, 
Matzenauer,  Braun,  and  Scotti.  The  first  performance  in  America 
occurred  April  29,  1839,  in  New  Orleans. 

Characters 

Valentine,  daughter  of  St.  Bris Soprano 

Marguerite  de  Valois,  betrothed  to  Henry  IV.,  of 

Navarre Soprano 

Urbain,  page  to  Marguerite Mezzo-Soprano 

Count  de  St.  BrisI   Catholic  noblemen (Baritone 

Count  de  Nevers  J  \Baritone 

CossE Tenor 

Meru  ^  r  Baritone 

Thore  >■  Catholic  gentlemen <  Baritone 

Tavannes    )  (  Tenor 

DE  Retz Baritone 

Raoul  de  Naxgis,  a  Huguenot  nobleman Tenor 

Marcel,  a  Huguenot  soldier,  servant  to  Raoul..  . Bass 

Catholic  and  Huguenot  ladies,  and  gentlemen  of  the  court; 

soldiers,  pages,  citizens,  and  populace;  night  watch, 

monks,  and  students. 

Place — Touraine  and  Paris.  Time — August,  1572. 

It  has  been  said  that,  because  Meyerbeer  was  a  Jew,  he 
chose  for  two  of  his  operas,  "Les  Huguenots"  and  "Le 
Prophete, "  subjects  dealing  with  bloody  uprisings  due  to 
religious  differences  among  Christians.  "Les  Huguenots" 
is  written  around  the  massacre  of  the  Huguenots  by  the 
Catholics,  on  the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew's,  Paris,  August 
24,  1572;  "Le  Proph6te"  around  the  seizure  and  occupation 
of  Munster,  in  1555,  by  the  Anabaptists,  led  by  John  of 
Ley  den.  Even  the  ballet  of  the  spectral  nuns,  in  "Robert 
le  Diable, "  has  been  suggested  as  due  to  Meyerbeer's 
racial  origin  and  a  tendency  covertly  to  attack  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  Far-fetched,  I  think.  Most  hkely  his  fa- 
mous librettist  was  chiefly  responsible  for  choice  of  subjects 
and   Meyerbeer   accepted   them  because  of  the  effective 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  505 

manner-  in  which  they  were  worked  out.  Even  so.he  was  not 
wholly  satisfied  with  Scribe's  libretto  of  "Les  Huguenots." 
He  had  the  scene  of  the  benediction  of  the  swords  enlarged, 
and  it  was  upon  his  insistence  that  Deschamps  wrote  in 
the  love  duet  in  Act  IV.  As  it  stands,  the  story  has  been 
handled  with  keen  appreciation  of  its  dramatic  possibilities. 

Act  I.  Touraine.  Count  de  Nevers,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Catholic  party,  has  invited  friends  to  a  banquet  at  his 
chateau.  Among  these  is  Raoul  de  Nangis,  a  Huguenot. 
He  is  accompanied  by  an  old  retainer,  the  Huguenot  soldier, 
Marcel.  In  the  course  of  the  fete  it  is  proposed  that  every- 
one shall  toast  his  love  in  a  song.  Raoul  is  the  first  to  be 
called  upon.  The  name  of  the  beauty  whom  he  pledges 
in  his  toast  is  unknown  to  him.  He  had  come  to  her 
assistance  while  she  was  being  molested  by  a  party  of 
students.  She  thanked  him  most  graciously.  He  lives 
in  the  hope  of  meeting  her  again. 

Marcel  is  a  fanatic  Huguenot.  Having  followed  his 
master  to  the  banquet,  he  finds  him  surrounded  by  leaders 
of  the  party  belonging  to  the  opposite  faith.  He  fears  for 
the  consequences.  In  strange  contrast  to  the  glamoxir  and 
gaiety  of  the  festive  proceedings,  he  intones  Luther's 
hymn,  "A  Stronghold  Sure."  The  noblemen  of  the  Catho- 
lic party  instead  of  becoming  angry  are  amused.  Marcel 
repays  their  levity  by  singing  a  fierce  Huguenot  battle 
song.     That  also  amuses  them. 

At  this  point  the  Count  de  Nevers  is  informed  that  a  lady 
is  in  the  garden  and  wishes  to  speak  with  him.  He  leaves 
his  guests  who,  through  an  open  window,  watch  the  meeting. 
Raoul,  to  his  surprise  and  consternation,  recognizes  in  the 
lady  none  other  than  the  fair  creature  whom  he  saved  from 
the  molestations  of  the  students  and  with  whom  he  has 
fallen  in  love.  Naturally,  however,  from  the  circumstances 
of  her  meeting  with  de  Nevers  he  cannot  but  conclude  that 
a  liaison  exists  between  them. 


5o6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

De  Nevers  returns,  rejoins  his  guests.  Urbain,  the  page 
of  Queen  Marguerite  de  Valois,  enters.  He  is  in  search  of 
Raoul,  having  come  to  conduct  him  to  a  meeting  with  a 
gracious  and  noble  lady  whose  name,  however,  is  not  dis- 
closed. RaouVs  eyes  having  been  bandaged,  he  is  con- 
ducted to  a  carriage  and  departs  with  Urbain,  wondering 
what  his  next  adventure  will  be. 

Act  II.  In  the  Garden  of  Chenongeaux,  Queen  Mar- 
guerite de  Valois  receives  Valentine,  daughter  of  the  Count 
de  St.  Bris.  The  Queen  knows  of  her  rescue  from  the  stu- 
dents by  Raoul.  Desiring  to  put  an  end  to  the  differences 
between  Huguenots  and  Catholics,  which  have  already  led 
to  bloodshed,  she  has  conceived  the  idea  of  uniting  Valen- 
tine, daughter  of  one  of  the  great  Catholic  leaders,  to 
Raoul.  Valentine,  however,  was  already  pledged  to  de 
Nevers.  It  was  at  the  Queen's  suggestion  that  she  visited 
de  Nevers  and  had  him  summoned  from  the  banquet  in 
order  to  ask  him  to  release  her  from  her  engagement  to 
him — a  request  which,  however  reluctantly,  he  granted. 

Here,  in  the  Gardens  of  Chenongeaux,  Valentine  and  Raoul 
are,  according  to  the  Queen's  plan,  to  meet  again,  but  she 
intends  first  to  receive  him  alone.  He  is  brought  in,  the 
bandage  is  removed  from  his  eyes,  he  does  homage  to 
the  Queen,  and  when,  in  the  presence  of  the  leaders,  of 
the  Catholic  party.  Marguerite  de  Valois  explains  her  pur- 
pose and  her  plan  through  this  union  of  two  great  houses 
to  end  the  religious  differences  which  have  disturbed  her 
reign,  all  consent. 

Valentine  is  led  in.  Raoul  at  once  recognizes  her  as  the 
woman  of  his  adventure  but  also,  alas,  as  the  woman  whom 
de  Nevers  met  in  the  garden  during  the  banquet.  Believing 
her  to  be  unchaste,  he  refuses  her  hand.  General  con- 
sternation. St.  Bris,  his  followers,  all  draw  their  swords. 
Raoul's  flashes  from  its  sheath.  Only  the  Queen's  inter- 
vention prevents  bloodshed. 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  507 

Act  III.  The  scene  is  an  open  place  in  Paris  before  a 
chapel,  where  de  Never s,  who  has  renewed  his  engagement 
with  Valentine,  is  to  take  her  in  marriage.  The  nuptial 
cortege  enters  the  building.  The  populace  is  restless, 
excited.  Religious  differences  still  are  the  cause  of  enmity. 
The  presence  of  Royalist  and  Huguenot  soldiers  adds  to 
the  restlessness  of  the  people.  De  Nevers,  St.  Bris,  and 
another  Catholic  nobleman,  Maurevert,  come  out  from  the 
chapel,  where  Valentine  has  desired  to  linger  in  prayer. 
The  men  are  still  incensed  over  what  appears  to  them  the 
shameful  conduct  of  Raoul  toward  Valentine.  Marcel  at 
that  moment  delivers  to  St.  Bris  a  challenge  from  Raoul 
to  fight  a  duel.  When  the  old  Huguenot  soldier  has  re- 
tired, the  noblemen  conspire  together  to  lead  Raoul  into 
an  ambush.  During  the  duel,  followers  of  St.  Bris,  who 
have  been  placed  in  hiding,  are  suddenly  to  issue  forth 
and  murder  the  young  Huguenot  nobleman. 

From  a  position  in  the  vestibule  of  the  chapel,  Valentine 
has  overheard  the  plot.  She  still  loves  Raoul  and  him 
alone.  How  shall  she  warn  him  of  the  certain  death  in 
store  for  him?  She  sees  Marcel  and  counsels  him  that  his 
master  must  not  come  here  to  fight  the  duel  unless  he  is 
accompanied  by  a  strong  guard.  As  a  result,  when  Raoul 
and  his  antagonist  meet,  and  St.  Bris's  soldiers  are  about 
to  attack  the  Huguenot,  Marcel  summons  the  latter's 
followers  from  a  nearby  inn.  A  street  fight  between  the 
two  bodies  of  soldiers  is  imminent,  when  the  Queen  and  her 
suite  enter.  A  gaily  bedecked  barge  comes  up  the  river 
and  lays  to  at  the  bank.  It  bears  de  Nevers  and  his  friends. 
He  has  come  to  convey  his  bride  from  the  chapel  to  his 
home.  And  now  Raoul  learns,  from  the  Queen,  and  to  his 
great  grief,  that  he  has  refused  the  hand  of  the  woman 
who  loved  him  and  who  had  gone  to  de  Nevers  in  order 
to  ask  him  to  release  her  from  her  engagement  with  him. 

Act  IV.     Raoul  seeks   Valentine,  who  has  become  the 


5o8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

wife  of  de  Never s,  in  her  home.  He  wishes  to  be  assured 
of  the  truth  of  what  he  has  heard  from  the  Queen.  During 
their  meeting  footsteps  are  heard  approaching  and  Valen- 
tine barely  has  time  to  hide  Raoul  in  an  adjoining  room 
when  de  Nevers,  St.  Bris,  and  other  noblemen  of  the  Catholic 
party  enter,  and  form  a  plan  to  be  carried  out  that  very 
night — the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew — to  massacre  the 
Huguenots.  Only  de  Nevers  refuses  to  take  part  in  the 
conspiracy.  Rather  than  do  so,  he  yields  his  sword  to 
St.  Bris  and  is  led  away  a  prisoner.  The  priests  bless  the 
■swords,  St.  Bris  and  his  followers  swear  loyalty  to  the 
bloody  cause  in  which  they  are  enlisted,  and  depart  to  await 
the  order  to  put  it  into  effect,  the  tolling  of  the  great  bell 
from  St.  Germain. 

Raoid  comes  out  from  his  place  of  concealment.  His 
one  thought  is  to  hurry  away  and  notify  his  brethren  of 
their  peril.  Valentine  seeks  to  detain  him,  entreats  him 
not  to  go,  since  it  will  be  to  certain  death.  As  the  greatest 
and  final  argument  to  him  to  remain,  she  proclaims  that 
she  loves  him.  But  already  the  deep-voiced  bell  tolls 
the  signal.  Flames,  blood-red,  flare  through  the  windows. 
Nothing  can  restrain  Raoul  from  doing  his  duty.  Valentine 
stands  before  the  closed  door  to  block  his  egress.  Rushing 
to  a  casement,  he  throws  back  the  window  and  leaps  to  the 
street. 

Act  V.  Covered  with  blood,  Raoid  rushes  into  the  ball- 
room of  the  Hotel  de  Nesle,  where  the  Huguenot  leaders, 
ignorant  of  the  massacre  that  has  begun,  are  assembled, 
and  summons  them  to  battle.  Already  Coligny,  their 
great  commander,  has  fallen.  Their  followers  are  being 
massacred. 

The  scene  changes  to  a  Huguenot  churchyard,  where 
Raoul  and  Marcel  have  found  temporary  refuge.  Valentine 
hurries  in.  She  wishes  to  save  Raoid.  She  adjures  him 
to  adopt  her  faith.     De  Nevers  has  met  a  noble  death  and 


Copyright  photo  by  A.  Dupont 

Plangon  as  Saint  Bris  in  "The  Huguenots" 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Jean  de  Reszke  as  Raoul  in  "  The  Huguenots" 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  509 

she  is  free — free  to  marry  Raoul.  But  he  refuses  to  marry 
her  at  the  sacrifice  of  his  religion.  Now  she  decides  that 
she  will  die  with  him  and  that  they  will  both  die  as  Hugue- 
nots and  united.  Marcel  blesses  them.  The  enemy  has 
stormed  the  churchyard  and  begins  the  massacre  of  those 
who  have  sought  safety  there  and  in  the  edifice  itself. 
Again  the  scene  changes,  this  time  to  a  square  in  Paris. 
Raoul,  who  has  been  severely  wounded,  is  supported  by 
Marcel  and  Valentine.  St.  Bris  and  his  followers  approach. 
In  answer  to  St.  Bris's  summons,  "Who  goes  there?" 
Raoul,  calling  to  his  aid  all  the  strength  he  has  left,  cries  out, 
"Huguenots."  There  is  a  volley.  Raoul,  Valentine,  Mar- 
cel lie  dead  on  the  ground.  Too  late  St.  Bris  discovers 
that  he  has  been  the  mtirderer  of  his  own  daughter. 

Originally  in  five  acts,  the  version  of  "Les  Huguenots" 
usually  performed  contains  but  three.  The  first  two  acts 
are  drawn  into  one  by  converting  the  second  act  into  a 
scene  and  adding  it  to  the  first.  The  fifth  act  (or  in  the 
usual  version  the  fourch)  is  nearly  always  omitted.  This 
is  due  to  the  length  of  the  opera.  The  audience  takes  it 
for  granted  that,  when  Raoul  leaves  Valentine,  he  goes  to 
his  death.  I  have  seen  a  performance  of  "  Ijes  Huguenots  " 
with  the  last  act.  So  far  as  an  understanding  of  the  work 
is  concerned,  it  is  unnecessary.  It  also  involves  as  much 
noise  and  smell  of  gunpowder  as  Massenet's  opera,  "La 
Navarraise" — and  that  is  saying  a  good  deal. 

The  performances  of  "Les  Huguenots,"  during  the  most 
brilliant  revivals  of  that  work  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  New  York,  under  Maurice  Grau,  were  known  as 
"les  nuits  de  sept  6toiles"  (the  nights  of  the  seven  stars). 
The  cast  to  which  the  performances  owed  this  designation 
is  given  in  the  summary  above.  A  manager,  in  order  to 
put  "Les  Huguenots"  satisfactorily  upon  the  stage,  should 
be  able  to  give  it  with  seven  first-rate  principals,  trained 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  same  school  of  opera.     The 


510  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

• 
work  should  be  sung  preferably  in  French  and  by  singers 

who  know  something  of  the  traditions  of  the  Grand  Opera, 
Paris.  Mixed  casts  of  Latin  and  Teutonic  singers  mar  a 
performance  of  this  work.  If  "Les  Huguenots"  appears 
to  have  fallen  off  in  popularity  since  "the  nights  of  the 
seven  stars,"  I  am  inclined  to  attribute  this  to  inability  or 
failure  to  give  the  opera  with  a  cast  either  as  fine  or  as  ho- 
mogeneous as  that  which  flourished  at  the  Metropolitan 
during  the  era  of  "les  nuits  de  sept  etoiles, "  when  there 
not  only  were  seven  stars  on  the  stage,  but  also  seven 
dollars  in  the  box  office  for  every  orchestra  stall  that  was 
occupied — and  they  all  were. 

Auber's  " Masaniello,"  Rossini's  "William  Tell,"  Hal^vy's 
"La  Juive,"  and  Meyerbeer's  own  "Robert  le  Diable" 
practically  having  dropped  out  of  the  repertoire  in  this 
country,  "Les  Huguenots,"  composed  in  1836,  is  the 
earliest  opera  in  the  French  grand  manner  that  maintains 
itself  on  the  lyric  stage  of  America — the  first  example  of  a 
school  of  music  which,  through  the  "Faust"  of  Gounod, 
the  "Carmen"  of  Bizet,  and  the  works  of  Massenet,  has 
continued  to  claim  our  attention. 

After  a  brief  overture,  in  which  Luther's  hymn  is  promi- 
nent, the  first  act  opens  with  a  sonorous  chorus  for  the 
banqueters  in  the  salon  of  de  Nevers's  castle.  Raoiil,  called 
upon  to  propose  in  song  a  toast  to  a  lady,  pledges  the  un- 
known beauty,  whom  he  rescued  from  the  insolence  of  a 
band  of  students.  He  does  this  in  the  romance,  "Plus 
blanche  que  la  plus  blanche  hermine"  (Whiter  than  the 
whitest  ermine).  The  accompaniment  to  the  melodious 
measures,  with  which  the  romance  opens,  is  supplied  by  a 
viola  solo,  the  effective  employment  of  which  in  this  pas- 
sage shows  Meyerbeer's  knowledge  of  the  instrument  and  its 
possibilities.  This  romance  is  a  perfect  example  of  a  certain 
phase  of  Meyerbeer's  art — a  suave  and  elegant  melody  for 
voice,  accompanied  in  a  highly  original  manner,  part  of  the 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  511 

time,  in  this  instance,  by  a  single  instrument  in  the  orches- 
tra, which,  however,  in  spite  of  its  effectiveness,  leaves  an 
impression  of  simplicity  not  wholly  uncalculated. 

RaouVs  romance  is  followed  by  the  entrance  of  Marcel, 
and  the  scene  for  that  bluff,  sturdy  old  Huguenot  campaigner 
and  loyal  servant  of  Raoul,  a  splendidly  drawn  character, 
dramatically  and  musically.  Marcel  tries  to  drown  the 
festive  sounds  by  intoning  the  stern  phrases  of  Luther's 
hymn.  This  he  follows  with  the  Huguenot  battle  song, 
with  its  "Piff,  piff,  piff,"  which  has  been  rendered  famous 
by  the  great  bassos  who  have  sung  it,  including,  in  this 
country.  Formes  and  Edouard  de  Reszke. 

De  Nevers  then  is  called  away  to  his  interview  with  the 
lady,  whom  Raoul  recognizes  as  the  unknown  beauty 
rescued  by  him  from  the  students,  and  whom,  from  the 
circvunstances  of  her  visit  to  de  Nevers,  he  cannot  but  believe 
to  be  engaged  in  a  liaison  with  the  latter.  Almost  imme- 
diately upon  de  Nevers' s  rejoining  his  guests  there  enters 
Urbain,  the  page  of  Marguerite  de  Valois.  He  greets  the 
assembly  with  the  brilliant  recitative,  "Nobles  Seigneurs 
salut!"  This  is  followed  by  a  charming  cavatina,  "Une 
dame  noble  et  sage"  (A  wise  and  noble  lady).  Originally 
this  was  a  soprano  number,  Urbain  having  been  composed 
as  a  soprano  role,  which  it  remained  for  twelve  years. 
Then,  in  1844,  when  "Les  Huguenots"  was  produced  in 
London,  with  Alboni  as  Urbain,  Meyerbeer  transposed  it, 
and  a  contralto,  or  mezzo-soprano,  part  it  has  remained 
ever  since,  its  interpreters  in  this  country  having  included 
Annie  Louise  Gary,  Trebelli,  Scalchi,  and  Homer.  The 
theme  of  "Une  dame  noble  et  sage"  is  as  follows: 

The  letter  brought  by  Urbain  is  recognized  by  the  Catho- 
lic noblemen  as  being  in  the  handwriting  of  Marguerite 
de  Valois.  As  it  is  addressed  to  Raoul,  they  show  by  their 
obsequious  demeanour  toward  him  the  importance  they 
attach  to  the  invitation.     In  accordance  with  its  terms 


512  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Raoul  allows  himself  to  be  blindfolded  and  led  away  by 
Urbain. 

Following  the  original  score  and  regarding  what  is  now 
the  second  scene  of  Act  I  as  the  second  act,  this  opens 
with  Marguerite  de  Valois's  apostrophe  to  the  fair  land  of 
Touraine  (0  beau  pays  de  la  Totiraine),  which,  with  the  air 
immediately  following,  "A  ce  mot  tout  s'anune  et  renait  la 
nature"  (At  this  word  everything  revives  and  Nature 
renews  itself), 


constitutes  an  animated  and  brilliant  scene  for  coloratura 
soprano. 

There  is  a  brief  colloquy  between  Marguerite  and  Valen- 
tine, then  the  graceful  female  chorus,  sung  on  the  bank  of 
the  Seine  and  known  as  the  "bathers'  chorus,"  this  being 
followed  by  the  entrance  of  Urbain  and  his  engaging  song — 
the  rondeau  composed  for  Alboni — "Non! — non,  non,  non, 
non,  non!  Vous  n'avey  jamais,  je  gage"  (No! — no,  no, 
no,  no,  no!     You  have  never  heard,  I  wager). 

Raoul  enters,  the  bandage  is  removed  from  his  eyes,  and 
there  follows  a  duet,  "Beaute  divine,  enchanteresse " 
(Beauty  brightly  divine,  enchantress),  between  him  and 
Marguerite,  all  graciousness  on  her  side  and  courtly  ad- 
miration on  his.  The  nobles  and  their  followers  come  upon 
the  scene.  Marguerite  de  Valois's  plan  to  end  the  religious 
strife  that  has  distracted  the  realm  meets  with  their  appro- 
bation. The  finale  of  the  act  begins  with  the  swelling  chorus 
in  which  they  take  oath  to  abide  by  it.  There  is  the  brief 
episode  in  which  Valentine  is  led  in  by  St.  Bris,  presented  to 
Raoul,  and  indignantly  spurned  by  him.  The  act  closes 
with  a  ttirbulent  ensemble.  Strife  and  bloodshed,  then 
and  there,  are  averted  only  by  the  interposition  of  Mar- 
guerite. 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  513 

Act  III  opens  with  the  famous  chorus  of  the  Huguenot 
soldiers  in  which,  while  they  imitate  with  their  hands  the 
beating  of  drums,  they  sing  their  spirited  "Rataplan." 
By  contrast,  the  Catholic  maidens,  who  accompany  the 
bridal  cortege  of  Valentine  and  de  Never s  to  the  chapel, 
intone  a  litany,  while  Catholic  citizens,  students,  and  women 
protest  against  the  song  of  the  Huguenot  soldiers.  These 
several  choral  elements  are  skilfully  worked  out  in  the  score. 
Marcel,  coming  upon  the  scene,  manages  to  have  Si.  Bris 
siunmoned  from  the  chapel,  and  presents  RaouVs  challenge 
to  a  duel.  The  Catholics  form  their  plot  to  assassinate 
Raoul,  of  which  Valentine  finds  opportunity  to  notify 
Marcel,  in  what  is  one  of  the  striking  scenes  of  the  opera. 
The  duel  scene  is  preceded  by  a  stirring  septette,  a  really 
great  passage,  "En  mon  bon  droit  j'ai  confiance"  (On 
my  good  cause  relying).  The  music,  when  the  ambuscade 
is  uncovered  and  Marcel  summons  the  Huguenots  to  Raoul' s 
aid,  and  a  street  combat  is  threatened,  reaches  an  effective 
climax  in  a  double  chorus.  The  excitement  subsides  with 
the  arrival  of  Marguerite  de  Valois,  and  of  the  barge  contain- 
ing de  Nevers  and  his  retinue.  A  brilliant  chorus,  supported 
by  the  orchestra  and  by  a  military  band  on  the  stage,  with 
ballet  to  add  to  the  spectacle  forms  the  finale,  as  de  Nevers 
conducts  Valentine  to  the  barge,  and  is  followed  on  board 
by  St.  Bris  and  the  nuptial  cortege. 

The  fourth  act,  in  the  home  of  de  Nevers,  opens  with  a 
romance  for  Valentine,  "Parmi  les  pleurs  mon  rSve  se 
ranine"  (Amid  my  tears,  by  dreams  once  more  o'ertaken), 
which  is  followed  by  a  brief  scene  between  her  and  Raoul, 
whom  the  approach  of  the  conspirators  quickly  obliges  her 
to  hide  in  an  adjoining  apartment.  The  scene  of  the 
consecration  of  the  swords  is  one  of  the  greatest  in  opera; 
but  that  it  shall  have  its  full  effect  St.  Bris  must  be  an  artist 
like  PlanQon,  who,  besides  being  endowed  with  a  powerful 
and  beautifully  managed  voice,  was  superb  in  appearance 

33 


514 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


and  as  St.  Bris  had  the  bearing  of  the  dignified,  command- 
ing yet  fanatic  nobleman  of  old  France.  Musically  and 
dramatically  the  scene  rests  on  St.  Bris's  shoulders,  and 
broad  they  must  be,  since  his  is  the  most  conspicuous  part 
in  song  and  action,  from  the  intonation  of  his  solo,  "Pour 
cette  cause  sainte,  obeisses  san  crainte"  (With  sacred  zeal 
and  ardor  let  now  your  soul  be? burning), 


to  the  end  of  the  savage  stretta,  when,  the  conspirators, 
having  tiptoed  almost  to  the  door,  in  order  to  disperse  for 
their  mission,  suddenly  ttirn,  once  more  uplift  sword  hilts, 
poignards,  and  crucifixes,  and,  after  a  frenzied  adjuration  of 
loyalty  to  a  cause  that  demands  the  massacre  of  an  unsus- 
pecting foe,  steal  forth  into  the  shades  of  fateful  night. 

Powerful  as  this  scene  is,  Meyerbeer  has  made  the  love 
duet  which  follows  even  more  gripping.  For  now  he 
interprets  the  conflicting  emotions  of  love  and  loyalty  in 
two  hearts.  It  begins  with  Raoul's  exclamation, ' '  Le  danger 
presse  et  le  temps  vole,  laisse  moi  partie"  (Danger  presses 
and  time  flies.  Let  me  depart),  and  reaches  its  climax 
in  a  cantilena  of  supreme  beauty,  "Tu  I'as  dit,  oui  tu 
m'aimes"  (Thou  hast  said  it;  aye,  thou  lov'st  me). 


which  is  broken  in  upon  by  the  sinister  tolling  of  a  distant 
bell — the  signal  for  the  massacre  to  begin.  An  air  for 
Valentine,  an  impassioned  stretta  for  the  lovers,  Raoul's 
leap  from  the  window,  followed  by  a  discharge  of  musketry, 
from  which,  in  the  curtailed  version,  he  is  supposed  to 
meet  his  death,  and  this  act,  still  an  amazing  achievement 
in  opera,  is  at  an  end. 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  515 

In  the  fifth  act,  there  is  the  fine  scene  of  the  blessing 
by  Marcel  of  Raoul  and  Valentine,  during  which  strains  of 
Luther's  hymn  are  heard,  intoned  by  Huguenots,  who 
have  crowded  into  their  chxirch  for  a  last  refuge. 

"Les  Huguenots"  has  been  the  subject  of  violent  attacks, 
beginning  with  Robert  Schumann's  essay  indited  as  far 
back  as  1837,  and  starting  off  with  the  assertion,  "I  feel 
today  like  the  young  warrior  who  draws  his  sword  for  the 
first  time  in  a  holy  cause."  Schumann's  most  particular 
"holy  cause"  was,  in  this  instance,  to  praise  Mendelssohn's 
oratorio,  "St.  Paul,"  at  the  expense  of  Meyerbeer's  opera 
"Les  Huguenots,"  notwithstanding  the  utter  dissimilarity 
of  purpose  in  the  two  works.  On  the  other  hand  Hanslick 
remarks  that  a  person  who  cannot  appreciate  the  dramatic 
power  of  this  Meyerbeer  opera,  must  be  lacking  in  certain 
elements  of  the  critical  faculty.  Even  Wagner,  one  of 
Meyerbeer's  bitterest  detractors,  found  words  of  the  highest 
praise  for  the  passage  from  the  love  duet,  which  is  quoted 
immediately  above.  The  composer  of  "The  Ring  of  the 
Nibelung"  had  a  much  broader  outlook  upon  the  world 
than  Schumann,  in  whose  genius  there  was,  after  all,  a  good 
deal  of  the  bourgeois. 

Pro  or  con,  when  "Les  Huguenots"  is  sung  with  a  fully 
adequate  cast,  it  cannot  fail  of  making  a  deep  impression 
— as  witness  "les  nuits  de  sept  ^toiles." 

A  typical  night  of  the  seven  stars  at  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House,  New  York,  was  that  of  December  26,  1894. 
The  sept  itoiles  were  Nordica  (Valentine),  Scalchi  (Urbain), 
Melba  (Marguerite  de  Valois),  Jean  de  Reszke  (Raoul), 
Plangon  (St.  Bris),  Maurel  (de  Nevers),  and  Edouard  de 
Reszke  (Marcel).  Two  Academy  of  Music  casts  are  worth 
referring  to.  April  30,  1872,  Parepa  Rosa,  for  her  last  ap- 
pearance in  America,  sang  Valentine.  Wachtel  was  Raoul 
and  Santley  St.  Bris.  The  other  Academy  cast  was  a 
"Night  of  six  stars,"    and   is    noteworthy   as   including 


5i6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Maurel  twenty  years,  almost  to  the  night,  before  he  ap- 
peared in  the  Metropolitan  cast.  The  date  was  December 
24,  1874.  Nilsson  was  Valentine,  Gary  Urhain,  Maresi 
Marguerite  de  Valois,  Campanini  i^aow/,  DelPuente  St.Bris, 
Maurel  de  Nevers,  and  Nanetti  Marcel.  With  a  more  dis- 
tinguished Marguerite  de  Valois,  this  performance  would 
have  anticipated  the  "nuits  de  sept  ^toiles." 

LE  PROPHETE 

THE   PROPHET 

Opera  in  five  acts,  by  Meyerbeer;  words  by  Scribe.  Produced, 
Grand  Op^ra,  Paris,  April  6,  1849.  London,  Covent  Garden,  July  24, 
1849,  with  Mario,  Viardot-Garcia,  Miss  Hayes,  and  Tagliafico.  New 
Orleans,  April  2,  1850.  New  York,  Niblo's  Garden,  November  25, 
1853,  with  Salvi  {John  of  Leyden),  Steffanone  and  Mme.  Maretzek. 
Revived  in  German,  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  by  Dr.  Leopold  Dam- 
rosch,  December  17,  1884,  with  Anton  Schott  as  John  of  Leyden,  Marianne 
Brandt  as  Fides  and  Schroeder-Hanfstaengl  as  Bertha.  It  was  given 
ten  times  during  the  season,  in  which  it  was  equalled  only  by  "Tann- 
hauser"  and  "Lohengrin."  Also,  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  1898-99, 
with  Jean  de  Reszke,  Brema  (Fides),  Lehmann  (Bertha);  January  22, 
1900,  Alvarez,  Schumann-Heink,  Suzanne  Adams,  Plangon  and  Edouard 
de  Reszke;  by  Gatti-Casazza,  February  7,  1918,  with  Caruso,  Matze- 
nauer,  Muzio,  Didur,  and  Mardones. 

Characters 

John  of  Leyden '. Tenor 

Fides,  his  mother Mezzo-soprano 

Bertha,  his  bride Soprano 

Jonas  (  (  Tenor 

Matthisen  <  Anabaptists ■<  Bass 

Zacharias    (  (_  Bass 

Count  Oberthal Baritone 

Nobles,  citizens.  Anabaptists,  peasants,  soldiers,  prisoners,  children. 
Time — 1534-35.  Place — Dordrecht,  Holland,  and  Munster. 

Act  I.  At  the  foot  of  Count  OberlhaVs  castle,  near  Dor- 
drecht, Holland,  peasants  and  mill  hands  are  assembled. 
Bertha  and  Fides  draw  near.     The  latter  is  bringing  to 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  517 

Bertlia  a  betrothal  ring  from  her  son  John,  who  is  to  marry 
her  on  the  morrow.  But  permission  must  first  be  obtained 
from  Count  Obertltal  as  lord  of  the  domain.  The  women 
are  here  to  seek  it. 

There  arrive  three  sombre  looking  men,  who  strive  to 
rouse  the  people  to  revolt  against  tyranny.  They  are  the 
Anabaptists,  Jonas,  Matthisen,  and  Zacharias.  The  Count, 
however,  who  chances  to  come  out  of  the  castle  with  his 
followers,  recognizes  in  Jonas  a  steward  who  was  discharged 
from  his  employ.  He  orders  his  soldiers  to  beat  the  three 
men  with  the  flat  of  their  swords.  John's  mother  and 
Bertha  make  their  plea  to  Oberthal.  John  and  Bertha  have 
loved  ever  since  he  rescued  her  from  drowning  in  the 
Meuse.  Admiring  Bertha's  beauty,  Oberthal  refuses  to 
give  permission  for  her  to  marry  John,  but,  instead,  orders 
her  seized  and  borne  to  the  castle  for  his  own  diversion. 
The  people  are  greatly  agitated  and,  when  the  three  Ana- 
baptists reappear,  throw  themselves  at  their  feet,  and  on 
rising  make  threatening  gestures  toward  the  castle. 

Act  II.  In  John's  inn  at  Ley  den  are  the  three  Anabap- 
tists and  a  throng  of  merrymaking  peasants.  Full  of 
longing  for  Bertha,  John  is  thinking  of  the  morrow.  The 
Anabaptists  discover  that  he  bears  a  remarkable  resemb- 
lance to  the  picture  of  King  David  in  the  Cathedral  of 
Munster.  They  believe  this  resemblance  can  be  made  of 
service  to  their  plans.  John  tells  them  of  a  strange  dream 
he  has  had,  and  in  which  he  found  himself  standing  under 
the  dome  of  a  temple  with  people  prostrate  before  him. 
They  interpret  it  for  him  as  evidence  that  he  will  mount  a 
throne,  and  urge  him  to  follow  them.  But  for  him  there  is 
but  one  throne — that  of  the  kingdom  of  love  with  Bertha. 

At  that  moment,  however,  she  rushes  in  and  begs  him 
quickly  to  hide  her.  She  has  escaped  from  Oberthal,  who  is 
in  pursuit.  Oberthal  and  his  soldiers  enter.  The  Count 
threatens  that  if  John  does  not  deliver  over  Bertha  to  him, 


5i8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

his  mother,  whom  the  soldiers  have  captured  on  the  way 
to  the  inn,  shall  die.  She  is  brought  in  and  forced  to  her 
knees.  A  soldier  with  a  battle-axe  stands  over  her.  After 
a  brief  struggle  John's  love  for  his  mother  conquers.  He 
hands  over  Bertha  to  Oberthal.  She  is  led  away.  Fides 
is  released. 

The  three  Anabaptists  return.  Now  John  is  ready  to 
join  them,  if  only  to  wreak  vengeance  on  Oberthal.  They 
insist  that  he  come  at  once,  without  even  saying  farewell  to 
his  mother,  who  must  be  kept  in  ignorance  of  their  plans. 
John  consents  and  hurries  off  with  them. 

Act  III.  In  the  winter  camp  of  the  Anabaptists  in  a 
forest  of  Westphalia,  before  Munster.  On  a  frozen  lake 
people  are  skating.  The  people  have  risen  against  their 
oppressors.  John  has  been  proclaimed  a  prophet  of  God. 
At  the  head  of  the  Anabaptists  he  is  besieging  Munster. 

The  act  develops  in  three  scenes.  The  first  reveals 
the  psychological  medley  of  fanaticism  and  sensuality  of  the 
Anabaptists  and  their  followers.  In  the  second  John  enters. 
Oberthal  is  delivered  into  his  hands.  From  him  John 
learns  that  BertJia  again  has  escaped  from  the  castle  and  is 
in  Munster.  The  three  Anabaptist  leaders  wish  to  put 
the  Count  to  death.  But  John,  saying  that  Bertha  shall  be 
his  judge,  puts  off  the  execution,  much  to  the  disgust  of  the 
three  fanatics,  who  find  John  assuming  more  authority  than 
is  agreeable  to  them.  This  scene,  the  second  of  the  act, 
takes  place  in  Zachariah' s  tent.  The  third  scene  shows 
again  the  camp  of  the  Anabaptists.  The  leaders,  fearing 
John's  usurpation  of  power,  have  themselves  headed  an 
attack  by  their  followers  on  Munster  and  met  with  defeat. 
The  rabble  they  have  led  is  furious  and  ready  to  turn  even 
against  John.  He,  however,  by  sheer  force  of  personality 
coupled  with  his  assumption  of  superhuman  inspiration, 
rallies  the  crowd  to  his  standard,  and  leads  it  to  victory. 

Act  IV.     A  public  place  in  Munster.     The  city  is  in 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  519 

possession  of  the  Anabaptists.  John,  once  a  plain  inn- 
keeper of  Leyden,  has  been  swept  along  on  the  high  tide  of 
success  and  decides  to  have  himself  proclaimed  Emperor. 
Meanwhile  Fides,  has  been  reduced  to  beggary.  The  Ana- 
baptists, in  order  to  make  her  believe  that  John  is  dead — 
so  as  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  chance  of  her  suspecting 
that  the  new  Prophet  and  her  son  are  one  and  the  same — 
left  in  the  inn  a  bundle  of  John's  clothes  stained  with  blood, 
together  with  a  script  stating  that  he  had  been  murdered 
by  the  Prophet  and  his  followers. 

The  poor  woman  has  come  to  Munster  to  beg.  There  she 
meets  Bertha,  who,  when  Fides  tells  her  that  John  has  been 
murdered,  vows  vengeance  upon  the  Prophet. 

Fides  follows  the  crowd  into  the  cathedral,  to  which  the 
scene  changes.  When,  during  the  coronation  scene,  John 
speaks,  and  announces  that  he  is  the  elect  of  God,  the  poor 
beggar  woman  starts  at  the  sound  of  his  voice.  She  cries 
out,  "My  son!"  John's  cause  is  thus  threatened  and  his 
life  at  stake.  He  has  claimed  divine  origin.  If  the  woman 
is  his  mother,  the  people,  whom  he  rules  with  an  iron  hand, 
will  denounce  and  kill  him.  With  quick  wit  he  meets  the 
emergency,  and  even  makes  use  of  it  to  enhance  his  authority 
by  improvising  an  affirmation  scene.  He  bids  his  followers 
draw  their  swords  and  thrust  them  into  his  breast,  if  the 
beggar  woman  again  affirms  that  he  is  her  son.  Seeing  the 
swords  held  ready  to  pierce  him.  Fides,  in  order  to  save  him, 
now  declares  that  he  is  not  her  son — that  her  eyes,  dimmed 
by  age,  have  deceived  her. 

Act  V.  The  three  Anabaptists,  Jonas,  Matthisen,  and 
Zacharias,  had  intended  to  use  John  only  as  an  instrument 
to  attain  power  for  themselves.  The  German  Emperor, 
who  is  moving  on  Munster  with  a  large  force,  has  promised 
them  pardon  if  they  will  betray  the  Prophet  and  usurper 
into  his  hands.  To  this  they  have  agreed,  and  are  ready 
on  his  coronation  day  to  betray  him. 


520  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

At  John's  secret  command  Fides  has  been  brought  to  the 
palace.  Here  her  son  meets  her.  He,  whom  she  has  seen 
in  the  hour  of  his  triumph  and  who  still  is  all  powerful, 
implores  her  pardon,  but  in  vain,  until  she,  in  the  belief 
that  he  has  been  impelled  to  his  usurpation  of  power  and 
bloody  deeds  only  by  thirst  for  vengeance  for  Bertha's 
wrongs,  forgives  him,  on  condition  that  he  return  to  Leyden. 
This  he  promises  in  full  repentance. 

They  are  joined  by  Bertha.  She  has  sworn  to  kill  the 
Prophet  whom  she  blames  for  the  supposed  murder  of  her 
lover.  To  accomplish  her  purpose,  she  has  set  a  slow  fire  to 
the  palace.  It  will  blaze  up  near  the  powder  magazine, 
when  the  Prophet  and  his  henchmen  are  at  banquet  in  the 
great  hall  of  the  palace,  and  blow  up  the  edifice. 

She  recognizes  her  lover.  Her  joy,  however,  is  short-lived, 
for  at  the  moment  a  captain  comes  to  John  with  the  an- 
nouncement that  he  has  been  betrayed  and  that  the  Em- 
peror's forces  are  at  the  palace  gates.  Thus  Bertha  learns 
that  her  lover  and  the  blood-stained  Prophet  are  one. 
Horrified,  she  plunges  a  dagger  into  her  heart. 

John  determines  to  die,  a  victim  to  the  catastrophe  which 
Bertha  has  planned,  and  which  is  impending.  He  joins 
the  banqueters  at  their  orgy.  At  the  moment  when  all  his 
open  and  secret  enemies  are  at  the  table  and  pledge  him  in  a 
riotous  bacchanale,  smoke  rises  from  the  floor.  Tongues 
of  fire  shoot  up.  Fides,  in  the  general  uproar  and  confu- 
sion, calmly  joins  her  son,  to  die  with  him,  as  the  powder 
magazine  blows  up,  and,  with  a  fearful  crash  the  edifice 
collapses  in  smoke  and  flame. 

John  of  Leyden' s  name  was  Jan  Beuckelszoon.  He  was 
born  in  1509.  In  business  he  was  successively  a  tailor,  a 
small  merchant,  and  an  inn-keeper.  After  he  had  had 
himself  crowned  in  Miinster,  that  city  became  a  scene  of 
orgy  and  cruelty.  It  was  captured  by  the  imperial  forces 
June  24,    1535.     The  following  January  the   "prophet" 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  521 

was  put  to  death  by  torture.  The  same  fate  was  meted 
out  to  Knipperdolhng,  his  henchman,  who  had  conveniently 
rid  him  of  one  of  his  wives  by  cutting  off  her  head. 

The  music  of  the  first  act  of  "Le  Proph^te"  contains  a 
cheerful  chorus  for  peasants,  a  cavatina  for  Bertha,  "Mon 
coeur  s'^lance"  (My  heart  throbs  wildly),  in  which  she 
voices  her  joy  over  her  expected  union  with  John;  the 
Latin  chant  of  the  three  Anabaptists,  gloomy  yet  stirring; 
the  music  of  the  brief  revolt  of  the  peasantry  against  Ober- 
thai;  the  plea  of  Fides  and  Bertha  to  Oberthal  for  his  sanction 
of  Bertha's  marriage  to  John,  "Un  jour,  dans  les  flots  de  la 
Meuse"  (One  day  in  the  waves  of  the  Meuse);  Obertlial's 
refusal,  and  his  abduction  of  Bertha;  the  reappearance 
of  the  three  Anabaptists  and  the  renewal  of  their  efforts 
to  impress  the  people  with  a  sense  of  the  tyranny  by  which 
they  are  oppressed. 

Opening  the  second  act,  in  John's  tavern,  in  the  suburbs 
of  Leyden,  are  the  chorus  and  dance  of  John's  friends,  who 
are  rejoicing  over  his  prospective  wedding.  When  the 
three  Anabaptists  have  recognized  his  resemblance  to  the 
picture  of  David  in  the  cathedral  at  Munster,  John,  observ- 
ing their  sombre  yet  impressive  bearing,  tells  them  of  his 
dream,  and  asks  them  to  interpret  it:  "Sous  les  vastes 
arceaux  d'un  temple  magnifique  "  (Under  the  great  dome  of  a 
splendid  temple).  They  promise  him  a  throne.  But  he 
knows  a  sweeter  empire  than  the  one  they  promise,  that 
which  will  be  created  by  his  coming  union  with  Bertha. 
Her  arrival  in  flight  from  Oberthal  and  John's  sacrifice  of 
her  in  order  to  save  his  mother  from  death,  lead  to  Fides' s 
solo,  "Ah,  mon  fils"  (Ah,  my  son),  one  of  the  great  airs  for 
mezzo-soprano . 


522  ,    The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Most  attractive  in  the  next  act  is  the  ballet  of  the  skaters 
on  the  frozen  lake  near  the  camp  of  the  Anabaptists.  The 
scene  is  brilliant  •  in  conception,  the  music  delightfully 
rhythmic  and  gracefiil.  There  is  a  stirring  battle  song  for 
Zacharias,  in  which  he  sings  of  the  enemy  "as  nimierous  as 
the  stars,"  yet  defeated.  Another  striking  number  is  the 
fantastic  trio  for  Jonas,  Zacharias,  and  Oberthal,  especially 
in  the  descriptive  passage  in  which  in  rhythm  with  the 
music,  Jonas  strikes  flint  and  steel,  ignites  a  lantern  and 
by  its  light  recognizes  Oberthal.  When  John  rallies  the 
Anabaptists,  who  have  been  driven  back  from  under  the 
walls  of  Miinster  and  promises  to  lead  them  to  victory, 
the  act  reaches  a  superb  clinlax  in  a  "Hymne  Triomphal" 
for  John  and  chorus,  "Roi  du  Ciel  et  des  Anges"  (Ruler  of 
Heaven  and  the  Angels).  At  the  most  stirring  moment 
of  this  finale,  as  John  is  being  acclaimed  by  his  followers, 
mists  that  have  been  hanging  over  the  lake  are  dispelled. 
The  sun  bursts  forth  in  glory. 


In  the  next  act  there  is  a  scene  for  Fides  in  the  streets 
of  Munster,  in  which,  reduced  to  penury,  she  begs  for  alms. 
There  also  is  the  scene  at  the  meeting  of  Fides  and  Bertlia. 
The  latter  believing,  like  Fides,  that  John  has  been  slain 
by  the  Anabaptists,  vows  vengeance  upon  the  Prophet. 

The  great  procession  in  the  cathedral  with  its  march  and 
chorus  has  been,  since  the  production  of  "Le  Prophete" 
in  1849,  a  model  of  construction  for  striking  spectacular 
scenes  in  opera.  The  march  is  famous.  Highly  dramatic 
is  the  scene  in  which  Fides  first  proclaims  and  then  denies 
that  John  is  her  son.  The  climax  of  the  fifth  act  is  the 
drinking  song,  "Versez,  que  tout  respire  I'ivresse  et  le 
delire"  (Quaff,  quaff,  in  joyous  measiu-e;  breathe,  breathe 
delirious  pleasure),  in  the  midst  of  which  the  building  is 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  523 

blown  up,  and  John  perishes  with  those  who  would  betray 
him. 

During  the  season  of  opera  which  Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch 
conducted  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  1884-85, 
when  this  work  of  Meyerbeer's  led  the  repertoire  in  number 
of  performances,  the  stage  management  produced  a  fine 
effect  in  the  scene  at  the  end  of  Act  III.,  when  the  Prophet 
rallies  his  followers.  Instead  of  soldiers  tamely  marching 
past,  as  John  chanted  his  battle  hjonn,  he  was  acclaimed 
by  a  rabble,  wrought  up  to  a  high  pitch  of  excitement,  and 
brandishing  cudgels,  scythes,  pitchforks,  and  other  imple- 
ments that  would  serve  as  weapons.  The  following  season, 
another  stage  manager,  wishing  to  outdo  his  predecessor, 
brought  with  him  an  electric  sun  from  Germany,  a  hor- 
rid thing  that  almost  blinded  the  audience  when  it  was 
turned  on. 

L'AFRICAINE 

THE  AFRICAN 

Opera  in  five  acts,  by  Meyerbeer;  words  by  Scribe.  Produced  Grand 
Opera,  Paris,  April  28,  1865.  London,  in  Italian,  Covent  Garden, 
July  22,  1865;  in  English,  Covent  Garden,  October  21,  1865.  New 
York,  Academy  of  Music,  December  i,  1865,  with  Mazzoleni  as  Vasco, 
and  Zucchi  as  Selika;  September  30,  1872,  with  Lucca  as  Selika;  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  January  15,  1892,  Nordica  (Selika),  Pettigiani 
(Inez),  Jean  de  Reszke  {Vasco),  Edouard  de  Reszke  {Don  Pedro), 
Lasalle  {Nelusko). 

Characters 

Selika,  a  slave Soprano 

Inez,  daughter  of  Don  Diego Soprano 

Anna,  her  attendant Contralto 

Vasco  da  Gama,  an  officer  in  the  Portuguese  Navy Tenor  * 

Nelusko,  a  slave Baritone 

Don  Pedro,  President  of  the  Royal  Council Bass 


524  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

S°^?^«°  I  Members  of  the  Coundl i  ^«^^ 

Don  Alvar  J  j  Tenor 

Grand  Inquisitor Bass 

Priests,    inquisitors,    councillors,    sailors,  Indians,   attendants,   ladies, 

soldiers. 

Time — Early  sixteenth  century      Place — Lisbon;  on  a  ship  at  sea;  and 

India. 


In  1838  Scribe  submitted  to  Meyerbeer  two  librettos: 
that  of  "Le  Prophete"  and  that  of  "L'Africaine."  For 
the  purposes  of  immediate  composition  he  gave  "Le  Pro- 
phete" the  preference,  but  worked  simultaneously  on  the 
scores  of  both.  As  a  result,  in  1849,  soon  after  the  produc- 
tion of  "Le  Prophete,"  a  score  of  "L'Africaine"  was 
finished. 

The  libretto,  however,  never  had  been  entirely  satis- 
factory to  the  composer.  Scribe  was  asked  to  retouch  it. 
In  1852  he  delivered  an  amended  version  to  Meyerbeer 
who,  so  far  as  his  score  had  gone,  adapted  it  to  the  revised 
book,  and  finished  the  entire  work  in  i860.  "Thus," 
says  the  Dictionaire  des  Operas,  "the  process  of  creating 
'  L'Africaine '  lasted  some  twenty  years  and  its  birth  appears 
to  have  cost  the  life  of  its  composer,  for  he  died,  in  the  midst 
of  preparations  for  its  production,  on  Monday,  May  2,  1864, 
the  day  after  a  copy  of  his  score  was  finished  in  his  own 
house  in  the  Rue  Montaigne  and  under  his  eyes." 

Act  I.  Lisbon.  The  Royal  Council  Chamber  of  Portu- 
gal. Nothing  has  been  heard  of  the  ship  of  Bartholomew 
Diaz,  the  explorer.  Among  his  officers  was  Vasco  da 
Gama,  the  affianced  of  Inez,  daughter  of  the  powerfvd 
nobleman,  Don  Diego.  Vasco  is  supposed  to  have  been  lost 
with  the  ship  and  her  father  now  wishes  l7iez  to  pledge 
her  hand  to  Don  Pedro,  head  of  the  Royal  Council  of 
Portugal. 

During  a  session  of  the  Council,  it  is  announced  that  the 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  525 

King  wishes  to  send  an  expedition  to  search  for  Diaz,  but 
one  of  the  councillors,  Don  Alvar,  informs  the  meeting  that 
an  officer  and  two  captives,  the  only  stirvivors  from  the 
wreck  of  Diaz's  vessel  have  arrived.  The  officer  is  brought 
in.  He  is  Vasco  da  Gama,  whom  all  have  believed  to  be 
dead.  Nothing  daunted  by  the  perils  he  has  been  through, 
he  has  formed  a  new  plan  to  discover  the  new  land  that,  he 
believes,  lies  beyond  Africa.  In  proof  of  his  conviction 
that  such  a  land  exists,  he  brings  in  the  captives,  Selika 
and  Nelusko,  natives,  apparently,  of  a  country  still  unknown 
to  Europe.  Vasco  then  retires  to  give  the  Council  opportun- 
ity to  discuss  his  enterprise. 

In  his  absence  Don  Pedro,  who  desires  to  win  Inez  for 
himself,  and  to  head  a  voyage  of  discovery,  surreptitiously 
gains  possession  of  an  important  chart  from  anriong  Vasco' s 
papers.  He  then  persuades  the  Grand  Inquisitor  and  the 
Council  that  the  young  navigator's  plans  are  futile. 
Through  his  persuasion  they  are  rejected.  Vasco,  who  has 
again  come  before  the  meeting,  when  informed  that  his 
proposal  has  been  set  aside,  insults  the  Council  by  charging 
it  with  ignorance  and  bias.  Don  Pedro,  utilizing  the 
opportunity  to  get  him  out  of  the  way,  has  him  seized 
and  thrown  into  prison. 

Act  II.  Vasco  has  fallen  asleep  in  his  cell.  Beside  him 
watches  Selika.  In  her  native  land  she  is  a  queen.  Now 
she  is  a  captive  and  a  slave,  her  rank,  of  course,  unknown 
to  her  captor,  since  she  and  Nelusko  carefiilly  have  kept  it 
from  the  knowledge  of  all.  Selika  is  deeply  in  love  with 
Vasco  and  is  broken-hearted  over  his  passion  for  Inez,  of 
which  she  has  become  aware.  But  the  love  of  this  sup- 
posedly savage  slave  is  greater  than  her  jealousy.  She 
protects  the  slumbering  Vasco  from  the  thrust  of  Nelusko's 
dagger.  For  her  companion  in  captivity  is  deeply  in  love 
with  her  and  desperately  jealous  of  the  Portuguese  navigator 
for  whom  she  has  conceived  so  ardent  a  desire.     Not  only 


526  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

does  she  save  Vasco's  life,  but  on  a  map  hanging  on  the 
prison  wall  she  points  out  to  him  a  route  known  only  to 
herself  and  Nelusko,  by  which  he  can  reach  the  land  of 
which  he  has  been  in  search. 

Inez,  Don  Pedro,  and  their  suite  enter  the  prison.  Vasco 
is  free.  Inez  has  purchased  his  freedom  through  her  own 
sacrifice  in  marrying  Don  Pedro.  Vasco,  through  the  informa- 
tion received  from  Selika,  now  hopes  to  undertake  another 
voyage  of  discovery  and  thus  seek  to  make  up  in  glory  what 
he  has  lost  in  love.  But  he  learns  that  Don  Pedro  has  been 
appointed  commander  of  an  expedition  and  has  chosen 
Nelusko  as  pilot.     Vasco  sees  his  hopes  shattered. 

Act  III.  The  scene  is  on  Don  Pedro's  ship  at  sea.  Don 
Alvar,  a  member  of  the  Royal  Council,  who  is  with  the 
expedition,  has  become  suspicious  of  Nelusko.  Two  ships 
of  the  squadron  have  already  been  lost.  Don  Alvar  fears 
for  the  safety  of  the  flagship.  At  that  moment  a  Portuguese 
vessel  is  seen  approaching.  It  is  in  command  of  Vasco 
da  Gama,  who  has  fitted  it  out  at  his  own  expense.  Al- 
though Don  Pedro  is  his  enemy,  he  comes  aboard  the 
admiral's  ship  to  warn  him  that  the  vessel  is  on  a  wrong 
course  and  likely  to  meet  with  disaster.  Don  Pedro, 
however,  accuses  him  of  desiring  only  to  see  Inez,  who  is  on 
the  vessel,  and  charges  that  his  attempted  warning  is  noth- 
ing more  than  a  ruse,  with  that  purpose  in  view.  At  his 
command,  Vasco  is  seized  and  bound.  A  few  moments 
later,  however,  a  violent  storm  breaks  over  the  ship.  It  is 
driven  upon  a  reef.  Savages,  for  whom  Nelusko  has  sig- 
nalled, clamber  up  the  sides  of  the  vessel  and  massacre  all 
save  a  few  whom  they  take  captive. 

Act  IV.  On  the  left,  the  entrance  to  a  Hindu  temple; 
on  the  right  a  palace.  Tropical  landscape.  Among  those 
saved  from  the  massacre  is  Vasco.  He  finds  himself  in  the 
land  which  he  has  sought  to  discover — a  tropical  paradise. 
He  is  threatened  with   death  by  the  natives,  but  Selika, 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  527 

in  order  to  save  him,  protests  to  her  subjects  that  he  is  her 
husband.  The  marriage  is  now  celebrated  according  to 
East  Indian  rites.  Vasco,  deeply  touched  by  Selika's 
fidelity,  is  almost  determined  to  abide  by  his  nuptial  vow 
and  remain  here  as  Selika's  spouse,  when  suddenly  he  hears 
the  voice  of  Inez.     His  passion  for  her  revives. 

Act  V.  The  gardens  of  Selika's  palace.  Again  Selika 
makes  a  sacrifice  of  love.  How  easily  she  could  compass 
the  death  of  Vasco  and  Inez!  But  she  forgives.  She 
persuades  Nelusko  to  provide  the  lovers  with  a  ship  and 
bids  him  meet  her,  after  the  ship  has  sailed,  on  a  high  pro- 
montory overlooking  the  sea. 

To  this  the  scene  changes.  On  the  promontory  stands  a 
large  manchineel  tree.  The  perfume  of  its  blossoms  is 
deadly  to  any  one  who  breathes  it  in  from  under  the  deep 
shadow  of  its  branches.  From  here  Selika  watches  the  ship 
set  sail.  It  bears  from  her  the  man  she  loves.  Breathing 
in  the  poison-laden  odour  from  the  tree  from  under  which 
she  has  watched  the  ship  depart,  she  dies.  Nelusko  seeks 
her,  finds  her  dead,  and  himself  seeks  death  beside  her 
under  the  fatal  branches  of  the  manchineel. 

Meyerbeer  considered  "L'Africaine"  his  masterpiece, 
and  believed  that  through  it  he  was  bequeathing  to  posterity 
an  immortal  montunent  to  his  fame.  But  although  he  had 
worked  over  the  music  for  many  years,  and  produced  a 
wonderfully  well-contrived  score,  his  labour  upon  it  was 
more  careful  and  self-exacting  than  inspired;  and  this 
despite  moments  of  intense  interest  in  the  opera.  Not 
"L'Africaine,"  but  "Les  Huguenots,"  is  considered  his 
greatest  work. 

"L'Africaine"  calls  for  one  of  the  most  elaborate  stage- 
settings  in  opera.  This  is  the  ship  scene,  which  gives  a 
lengthwise  section  of  a  vessel,  so  that  its  between-decks  and 
cabin  interiors  are  seen — like  the  compartments  of  a  huge 


528  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

but  neatly  partitioned  box  laid  on  its  oblong  side;  in  fact 
an  amazing  piece  of  marine  architecture. 

Scribe's  libretto  has  been  criticized,  and  not  unjustly, 
on  account  of  the  vacillating  character  which  he  gives  Vasco 
da  Gama.  In  the  first  act  this  operatic  hero  is  in  love  with 
Inez.  In  the  prison  scene,  in  the  second  act,  when  Selika 
points  out  on  the  map  the  true  coiu*se  to  India,  he  is  so 
impressed  with  her  as  a  teacher  of  geography,  that  he  clasps 
the  supposed  slave-girl  to  his  breast  and  addresses  her  in 
impassioned  song.  Selika,  being  enamoured  of  her  pupil, 
naturally  is  elated  over  his  progress.  Unfortunately  Inez 
enters  the  prison  at  this  critical  moment  to  announce  to 
Vasco  that  she  has  secured  his  freedom.  To  prove  to  Inez 
that  he  still  loves  her  Vasco  glibly  makes  her  a  present  of 
Selika  arid  Nelusko.  Selika,  so  to  speak,  no  longer  is  on  the 
map,  so  far  as  Vasco  is  concerned,  until,  in  the  fotuth  act, 
she  saves  his  life  by  pretending  he  is  her  husband.  Raptur- 
ously he  pledges  his  love  to  her.  Then  Inez's  voice  is 
heard  singing  a  ballad  to  the  Tagus  River — and  Selika 
again  finds  herself  deserted.  There  is  nothing  for  her  to 
do  but  to  die  under  the  manchineel  tree. 

"Is  the  shadow  of  this  tree  so  fatal?"  asks  a  French 
authority.  "  Monsieur  Scribe  says  yes,  the  naturalists 
say  no."  With  this  question  and  answer  "L'Africaine" 
may  be  left  to  its  future  fate  upon  the  stage,  save  that  it 
seems  proper  to  remark  that,  although  the  opera  is  called 
"  The  African, "  Selika  appears  to  have  been  an  East  Indian. 

Early  in  the  first  act  of  the  opera  occurs  Inezs  ballad, 
"Adieu,  mon  doux  rivage"  (Farewell,  beloved  shores). 
It  is  gracefully  accompanied  by  flute  and  oboe.  This  is  the 
ballad  to  the  river  Tagus,  which  Vasco  hears  her  sing  in  the 
fourth  act.  The  finale  of  the  first  act — the  scene  in  which 
Vasco  defies  the  Royal  Council — is  a  powerful  ensemble. 
The  slumber  song  for  Selika  in  the  second  act,  as  she 
watches  over  Vasco,  "Sur  mes  genous,  fils  du  soleil"  (On 


Giaconno  Meyerbeer  529 

my  knees,  offspring  of  the  sun)  is  charming,  and  entirely 
original,  with  many  exotic  and  fascinating  touches. 
Nelusko's  air  of  homage,  "Fille  des  rois,  k  toi  I'hommage" 
(Daughter  of  Kings,  my  homage  thine),  expresses  a  sombre 
loyalty  characteristic  of  the  savage  whose  passion  for  his 
queen  amounts  to  fanaticism.  The  finale  of  the  act  is 
an  unaccompanied  septette  for  Inez,  Selika,  Anna,  Vasco, 
d'Alvar,  Nelusko,  and  Don  Pedro. 

In  the  act  which  plays  aboardship,  are  the  graceful  chorus 
of  women,  "Le  rapide  et  leger  navire"  (The  swiftly  gliding 
ship),  the  prayer  of  the  sailors,  "  0  grand  Saint  Dominique," 
and  Nelusko's  song,  "  Adamastor,  roi  des  vagues  profondes" 
(Adamastor,  monarch  of  the  trackless  deep),  a  savage 
invocation  of  sea  and  storm,  chanted  to  the  rising  of  a 
hurricane,  by  the  most  dramatic  figure  among  the  char- 
acters in  the  opera.  For  like  Marcel  in  "Les  Huguenots" 
and  Fides  in  "Le  Proph^te, "  Nelusko  is  a  genuine  dramatic 
creation. 

The  Indian  march  and  the  ballet,  which  accompanies 
the  ceremony  of  the  crowning  of  Selika,  open  the  fourth 
act.  The  music  is  exotic,  piquant,  and  in  every  way  effec- 
tive. The  scene  is  a  masterpiece  of  its  kind.  There 
follow  the  lovely  measures  of  the  principal  tenor  solo  of  the  , 
opera,  Vasco' s  "  Paradis  sorti  du  sein  de  I'ondes"  (Paradise, 
lulled  by  the  lisping  sea).  Then  comes  the  love  duet  be- 
tween Vasco  and  Selika,  "O  transport,  6  douce  exstase" 
(Oh  transport,  oh  sweet  ecstacy).  One  authority  says  of  it 
that  "rarely  have  the  tender  passion,  the  ecstacy  of  love 
been  expressed  with  such  force."  Now  it  would  be  set 
down  simply  as  a  tiptop  love  duet  of  the  old-fashioned 
operatic  kind. 

The  scene  of  Selika' s  death  under  the  manchineel  tree  is 
preceded  by  a  famous  prelude  for  strings  in  unison  sup- 
ported by  clarinets  and  bassoons,  a  brief  instrumental  recital 
of  grief  that  makes  a  powerful  appeal.    The  opera  ends 
34 


530  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

dramatically  with  a  soliloquy  for  Selika — "D'ici  je  vois  la 
mer  immense"  (From  here  I  gaze  upon  the  boundless 
deep). 

L'ETOILE  DU  NORD  AND  DINORAH 

-  Two  other  operas  by  Meyerbeer  remain  for  mention. 
One  of  them  has  completely  disappeared  from  the  reper- 
toire of  the  lyric  stage.  The  other  suffers  an  occasional 
revival  for  the  benefit  of  some  prima  donna  extraordinarily 
gifted  in  lightness  and  flexibility  of  vocal  phrasing.  These 
operas  are  "L'Etoile  du  Nord"  (The  Star  of  the  North), 
and  "Dinorah,  ou  Le  Pardon  de  Ploermel"  (Dinorah,  or 
The  Pardon  of  Ploermel). 

Each  of  these  contains  a  famous  air.  "L'Etoile  du 
Nord  "  has  the  high  soprano  solo  with  obligato  for  two  flutes, 
which  was  one  of  Jenny  Lind's  greatest  show-pieces,  but 
has  not  sufficed  to  keep  the  opera  alive.  In  "Dinorah" 
there  is  the  "Shadow  Song,"  in  which  Dinorah  dances  and 
sings  to  her  own  shadow  in  the  moonlight — a  number 
which,  at  long  intervals  of  time,  galvanizes  the  rest  of  the 
score  into  some  semblance  of  life. 

The  score  of  "L'Etoile  du  Nord,"  produced  at  the  Opera 
Comique,  Paris,  February  i6,  1854,  was  assembled  from 
an  earlier  work,  "  Das  Feldlager  in  Schlesien  "  (The  Camp  in 
Silesia),  produced  for  the  opening  of  the  Berlin  Opera 
House,  February  17,  1847;  but  the  plots  differ.  The  story 
of  "L'Etoile  du  Nord"  relates  to  the  love  of  Peter  the  Great 
for  Catharine,  a  cantiniere.  Their  union  finally  takes 
place,  but  not  until  Catherine  has  disguised  herself  as  a 
soldier  and  served  in  the  Russian  camp.  After  surrepti- 
tiously watching  Peter  and  a  companion  drink  and  roister 
in  the  former's  tent  with  a  couple  of  girls,  she  loses  her 
reason.  When  it  is  happily  restored  by  Peter  playing 
familiar  airs  to  her  on  his  flute,  she  voices  her  joy  in  the 


Giaconrio  Meyerbeer  531 

show-piece,  "La,  la,  la,  air  ch6n"  (La,  la,  la,  beloved  song), 
to  which  reference  already  has  been  made.  In  the  first 
act  Catherine  has  a  "Ronde  boh^mienne"  (Gypsy  rondo), 
the  theme  of  which  Meyerbeer  took  from  his  opera  "Emma 
de  Rohsburg." 

"L'Etoile  du  Nord"  is  in  thjee  acts.  There  is  much 
military  music  in  the  second  act — a  cavalry  chorus,  "Beau 
cavalier  au  coeur  d'acier"  (Brave  cavalier  with  heart  of 
steel);  a  grenadier  song  with  chorus,  "Grenadiers,  fiers 
Moscovites"  (grenadiers,  proud  Muscovites),  in  which 
the  chorus  articulates  the  beat  of  the  drums  ("  tr-r-r-um  ") ; 
the  "Dessauer"  march,  a  cavalry  fanfare  "Ah!  voyez  nos 
Tartares  du  Don"  (Ah,  behold  our  Cossacks  of  the 
Don);  and  a  grenadiers'  march:  stirring  numbers,  all  of 
them. 

The  libretto  is  by  Scribe.  The  first  act  scene  is  laid  in 
Wyborg,  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland;  the  second  in  a  Russian 
camp;  the  third  in  Peter's  palace  in  Petrograd.  Time, 
about  1700. 

Barbier  and  Carrd  wrote  the  words  of  "  Dinorah, "  founding 
their  Hbretto  on  a  Breton  tale.  Under  the  title,  "Le 
Pardon  de  Ploermel"  (the  scene  of  the  opera  being  laid 
near  the  Breton  village  of  Ploermel)  the  work  was  produced 
at  the  Op^ra  Comique,  Paris,  April  4,  1859.  It  has  three 
principal  characters — a  peasant  girl,  Dinorah,  soprano; 
Hod,  a  goat-herd,  baritone;  Corentino,  a  bagpiper,  tenor. 
The  famous  baritone,  Faure,  was  the  Hoel  of  the  Paris 
production.  Cordier  (Dinorah),  Amodio  (Hoel),  Brignoli 
{Corentino)  were  heard  in  the  first  American  production. 
Academy  of  Music,  New  York,  November  24,  1864.  As 
Dinorah  there  also  have  been  heard  here  lima  di  Murska 
(Booth's  Theatre,  1867),  Marimon  (with  Campanini 
as  Corentino),  December  12,  1879;  Adelina  Patti  (1882); 
Tetrazzini   (Manhattan  Opera  House,    1907);  and   Galli- 


532  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Curci   (Lexington  Theatre,  January  28,   1918),  with  the 
Chicago  Opera  Company. 

Dinorah  is  betrothed  to  Hoel.  Her  cottage  has  been 
destroyed  in  a  storm.  Hoel,  in  order  to  rebuild  it,  goes  into 
a  region  haunted  by  evil  spirits,  in  search  of  hidden  treasure. 
Dinorah,  believing  herself  deserted,  loses  her  reason  and, 
with  her  goat,  whose  tinkling  bell  is  heard,  wanders  through 
the  mountains  in  search  of  Hoel. 

The  opera  is  in  three  acts.  It  is  preceded  by  an  overture 
during  which  there  is  sung  by  the  villagers  behind  the 
curtain  the  hymn  to  Our  Lady  of  the  Pardon.  The  scene 
of  the  first  act  is  a  rough  mountain  passage  near  Corentino's 
hut.  Dinorah  finds  her  goat  asleep  and  sings  to  it  a  graceful 
lullaby,  "Dors,  petite,  dors  tranquille"  (Little  one,  sleep; 
calmly  rest).  Corentino,  in  his  cottage,  sings  of  the  fear 
that  comes  over  him  in  this  lonely  region.  To  dispel  it, 
he  plays  on  his  cornemuse.  Dinorah  enters  the  hut,  and 
makes  him  dance  with  her,  while  she  sings. 

When  some  one  is  heard  approaching,  she  jumps  out  of  the 
window.  It  is  Hoel.  Both  he  and  Corentino  think  she  is  a 
sprite.  Hoel  sings  of  the  gold  he  expects  to  find,  and  offers 
Corentino  a.  share  in  the  treasure  if  he  will  aid  him  lift  it. 
According  to  the  legend,  however,  the  first  one  to  touch 
the  treasure  must  die,  and  HoeVs  seeming  generosity  is  a 
ruse  to  make  Corentino  the  victim  of  the  discovery.  The 
tinkle  of  the  goat's  bell  is  heard.  Hoel  advises  that  they 
follow  the  sound  as  it  may  lead  to  the  treasure.  The  act 
closes  with  a  trio,  "Ce  tintement  que  Ton  entend"  (The 
tinkling  tones  that  greet  the  ear).  Dinorah  stands  among 
the  high  rocks,  while  Hoel  and  Corentino,  the  latter  reluct- 
antly, make  ready  to  follow  the  tinkle  of  the  bell. 

A  wood  of  birches  by  moonlight  is  the  opening  scene  of 
the  second  act.  It  is  here  Dinorah  sings  of  "Le  vieux 
sorcier  de  la  montagne"  (The  ancient  wizard  of  the  moun- 
tain), following  it  with  the  "Shadow  Song,"  "Ombre  legere 


Giacomo  Meyerbeer  533 

qui  suis  mes  pas"  (Fleet  shadow  that  pursues  my  steps) — 
•'Ombra  leggiera"  in  the  more  familiar  Italian  version. 


This  is  a  passage  so  graceful  and,  when  sung  and  acted  by 
an  Adelina  Patti,  was  so  appealing,  that  I  am  frank  to 
confess  it  suggested  to  me  the  chapter  entitled  "Shadows 
of  the  Stage,"  in  my  novel  of  opera  behind  the  scenes, 
All-of-a-Sudden  Carmen. 

The  scene  changes  to  a  wild  landscape.  A  ravine  bridged 
by  an  uprooted  tree.  A  pond,  with  a  sluiceway  which,  when 
opened,  gives  on  the  ravine.  The  moon  has  set.  A  stonn 
is  rising. 

Hoel  and  Corentino  enter;  later  Dinorah.  Through  the 
night,  that  is  growing  wilder,  she  sings  the  legend  of  the 
treasure,  "  Sombre  destin^e,  ^me  condamn^e"  (O'ershadow- 
ing  fate,  soul  lost  for  aye) . 

Her  words  recall  the  tragic  story  of  the  treasure  to  Coren- 
tino, who  now  sees  through  Hoel's  ruse,  and  seeks  to  per- 
suade the  girl  to  go  after  the  treasure.  She  sings  gaily, 
in  strange  contrast  to  the  gathering  storm.  Lightning 
flashes  show  her  her  goat  crossing  the  ravine  by  the  fallen 
tree.  She  runs  after  her  pet.  As  she  is  crossing  the  tree,  a 
thunderbolt  crashes.  The  sluice  bursts,  the  tree  is  carried 
away  by  the  flood,  which  seizes  Dinorah  in  its  swirl.  Hoel 
plunges  into  the  wild  waters  to  save  her. 

Not  enough  of  the  actual  story  remains  to  make  a  third 
act.  But  as  there  has  to  be  one,  the  opening  of  the  act  is 
filled  in  with  a  song  for  a  Hunter  (bass),  another  for  a 
Reaper  {tenor),  and  a  duet  for  Goat-herds  {soprano  and  con- 
tralto). Hoel  enters  bearing  Dinorah,  who  is  in  a  swoon. 
Hoel  here  has  his  principal  air,  "  Ah !  mon  remords  te  venge  " 
(Ah,  my  remorse  avenges  you).    Dinorah  comes  to.     Her 


534  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

reason  is  restored  when  she  finds  herself  in  her  lover's  arms. 
The  villagers  chant  the  "Hymn  of  the  Pardon."  A  pro- 
cession forms  for  the  wedding,  which  is  to  make  happy 
Dinorah  and  Hoel,  every  one,  in  fact,  including  the  goat. 

Except  for  the  scene  of  the  "Shadow  Dance,"  the  libretto 
is  incredibly  inane — far  more  so  than  the  demented  heroine. 
But  Meyerbeer  evidently  wanted  to  write  a  pastoral  opera. 
He  did  so;  with  the  result  that  now,  instead  of  pastoral,  it 
sounds  pasteurized. 


Hector  Berlioz 
(1803- I 869) 

THIS  composer,  bom  C6te-Saint-Andr^,  near  Grenoble, 
December  11,  1803;  died  Paris,  March  9,  1869,  has 
had  comparatively  little  influence  upon  opera  considered 
simply  as  such.  But,  as  a  musician  whose  skill  in  instru- 
mentation, and  knowledge  of  the  individual  tone  quality 
of  every  instrument  in  the  orchestra  amounted  to  positive 
genius,  his  influence  on  music  in  general  was  great.  In  his 
symphonies — "Episode  de  la  Vie  d'un  Artiste"  (character- 
ized by  him  as  a  symphonic  pJiantasiique) ,  its  sequel,  "Lelio, 
ou  la  Retour  k  la  Vie, "  "  Harold  en  Italic, "  in  which  Harold 
is  impersonated  by  the  viola,  and  the  symphonie  dramatique, 
"Romeo  et  Juliette,"  he  proved  the  feasibility  of  producing, 
by  means  of  orchestral  music,  the  effect  of  narrative,  per- 
sonal characterization  and  the  visualization  of  dramatic 
action,  as  well  as  of  scenery  and  material  objects.  He  thus 
became  the  fotmder  of  "program  music." 

Of  Berlioz's  operas  not  one  is  known  on  the  stage  of 
English-speaking  countries .  For  "  La  Damnation  de  Faust , ' ' 
in  its  original  form,  is  not  an  opera  but  a  dramatic  cantata. 
First  performed  in  1846,  it  was  not  made  over  into  an  opera 
until  1893,  twenty-four  years  after  the  composer's  death. 

BENVENUTO  CELLINI 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Berlioz.  Words  by  du  Wailly  and  Barbier. 
Produced,  and  failed  completely,  Grand  Op^ra,  Paris,  September  3, 
1838,  and  London  a  fortnight  later.  Revived  London,  Covent  Garden, 
1853,  under  Berlioz's  own  direction;  by  Liszt,  at  Weimar,  1855;  by  von 
BUI9W,  Hanover,  1879. 

535 


536  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Characters 

Cardinal  Salviati Bass 

Balducci,  Papal  Treasurer Bass 

Teresa,  his  daughter Soprano 

Benvenuto  Cellini,  a  goldsmith Tenor 

AscANio,  his  apprentice Mezzo-soprano 

Francesco     )   ,     .         .    ^  „.  .,         ,   ,  (  Tenor 

■D  }■  Artisans  in  Cellini  s  workshop <  „ 

Bernardino  j  ^  ( Bass 

FiERAMOSCA,  sculptor  to  the  Pope Baritone 

PoMPEO,  a  bravo Baritone 

Time — 1532.  Place — Rome. 

Act  I.  The  carnival  of  1532.  We  are  in  the  house  of  the 
Papal  treasurer,  Baldticci,  who  has  scolded  his  daughter 
Teresa  for  having  looked  out  of  the  window.  The  old  man 
is  quite  vexed,  because  the  Pope  has  summoned  the  gold- 
smith Cellini  to  Rome. 

Balducci' s  daughter  Teresa,  however,  thinks  quite  other- 
wise and  is  happy.  For  she  has  found  a  note  from  Cellini 
in  a  bouquet  that  was  thrown  in  to  her  from  the  street  by  a 
mask — Cellini,  of  course.  A  few  moments  later  he  appears 
at  her  side  and  proposes  a  plan  of  elopement.  In  the 
morning,  during  the  carnival  mask,  he  will  wear  a  white 
monk's  hood.  His  apprentice  Ascanio  will  wear  a  brown 
one.  They  will  join  her  and  they  will  flee  together.  But  a 
listener  has  sneaked  in — Fieramosca,  the  Pope's  sculptor, 
and  no  less  Cellini's  rival  in  love  than  in  art.  He  overhears 
the  plot.  Unexpectedly,  too,  Teresa's  father,  Balducci, 
comes  back.  His  daughter  still  up?  In  her  anxiety  to 
find  an  excuse,  she  says  she  heard  a  man  sneak  in.  During 
the  search  Cellini  disappears,  and  Fieramosca  is  appre- 
hended. Before  he  can  explain  his  presence,  women  neigh- 
bours, who  have  hurried  in,  drag  him  off  to  the  public  bath 
house  and  treat  him  to  a  ducking. 

Act  II.  In  the  courtyard  of  a  tavern  Cellini  is  seated, 
with  his  assistants.  He  is  happy  in  his  love,  for  he  places 
it  even  higher  than  fame,  which  alone  heretofore  he  has 


Hector  Berlioz  537 

courted.  He  must  pledge  his  love  in  wine.  Unfortunately 
the  host  will  no  longer  give  him  credit.  Just  then  Ascanio 
brings  some  money  from  the  Papal  treasurer,  but  in  return 
Cellini  must  promise  to  complete  his  "  Perseus  "  by  morning. 
He  promises,  although  the  avaricious  Balducci  has  profited 
by  his  necessity  and  has  sent  too  little  money.  Ascanio 
is  informed  by  Cellini  of  the  disguises  they  are  to  wear 
at  the  carnival,  and  of  his  plan  that  Teresa  shall  flee  with 
him. 

Again  Fieramosca  has  been  spying,  and  overhears  the 
plot.  Accordingly  he  hires  the  bravo  Pompeo  to  assist 
him  in  carrying  off  Teresa. 

A  change  of  scene  shows  the  crowd  of  maskers  on  the 
Piazza  di  CoUona.  Balducci  comes  along  with  Teresa. 
Both  from  the  right  and  left  through  the  crowd  come  two 
monks  in  the  disguise  she  and  her  lover  agreed  upon. 
Which  is  the  right  couple?  Soon,  however,  the  two  couples 
fall  upon  each  other.  A  scream,  and  one  of  the  brown- 
hooded  monks  {Pompeo)  falls  mortally  wounded  to  the 
ground.  A  white-hooded  monk  {Cellini)  has  stabbed  him. 
The  crowd  hurls  itself  upon  Cellini.  But  at  that  moment 
the  boom  of  a  cannon  gives  notice  that  the  carnival  celebra- 
tion is  over.  It  is  Ash  Wednesday.  In  the  first  shock  of 
surprise  Cellini  escapes,  and  in  his  place  the  other  white- 
hooded  monk,  Fieramosca,  is  seized. 

Act  III.  Before  Cellini's  house,  in  the  background  of 
which,  through  a  curtain,  is  seen  the  bronze  foundry,  the 
anxious  Teresa  is  assured  by  Ascanio  that  her  lover  is  safe. 
Soon  he  comes  along  himself,  with  a  band  of  monks,  to 
whom  he  describes  his  escape.  Then  Balducci  and  Fiera- 
mosca rush  in.  Balducci  wants  to  force  his  daughter  to 
become  Fieramosca' s  bride.  The  scene  is  interrupted  by  the 
arrival  of  Cardinal  Salviati  to  see  the  completed  "Perseus." 
Poor  Cellini!  Accused  of  murder  and  the  attempted  kid- 
napping of  a  girl,  the  "Perseus"  unfinished,  the  money 


538  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

received  for  it  spent !  Heavy  punishment  awaits  him,  and 
another  shall  receive  the  commission  to  finish  the  "Perseus." 

The  artist  flies  into  a  passion.  Another  finish  his  master- 
piece! Never!  The  casting  shall  be  done  on  the  spot! 
Not  metal  enough?  He  seizes  his  completed  works  and 
throws  them  into  the  molten  mass.  The  casting  begins. 
The  master  shatters  the  mould.  The  "Perseus,"  a  noble 
work  of  art,  appears  before  the  eyes  of  the  astonished  on- 
lookers— a  potent  plea  for  the  inspired  master.  Once 
more  have  Art  and  her  faithful  servant  triimiphed  over  all 
rivals. 

The  statue  of  Perseus,  by  Benvenuto  Cellini,  one  of  the 
most  famous  creations  of  mediaeval  Italy,  is  one  of  the  art 
treasures  of  Florence. 

BEATRICE  AND  BENEDICT  ■ 

Opera  in  two  acts,  by  Berlioz.  Words  by  the  composer,  after  Shake- 
speare's comedy,  "Much  Ado  about  Nothing."  Produced  at  Baden 
Baden,  1862. 

•  Characters 

Don  Pedro,  a  general Bass 

Leonato,  governor  of  Messina Bass 

Hero,  his  daughter Soprano 

Beatrice,  his  niece Soprano 

Claudio,  an  officer Baritone 

Benedict,  an  officer Tenor 

Ursula,  Hero's  companion Contralto 

Somarona,  orchestral  conductor Bass 

The  story  is  an  adaptation  of  the  short  version  of  Shake- 
speare's play,  which  preserves  the  spirit  of  the  comedy,  but 
omits  the  saturnine  intrigue  of  Don  John  against  Claudio 
ind  Hero.  The  gist  of  the  comedy  is  the  gradual  reaction 
of  the  brilliant  but  captious  Beatrice  from  pique  and  parti- 
ally feigned  indifference  toward  the  witty  and  gallant 
Benedict,  to  love.  Both  have  tempers.  In  fact  they  reach 
an  agreement  to  marry  as  a  result  of  a  spirited  quarrel. 


Hector  Berlioz  539 

LES  TROYENS 

THE  TROJANS 

PART  I.     "  LA  PRISE  DE  TROIE  " 
The  Cawure  of  Troy 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Berlioz.  Words  by  the  composer,  based  upoc 
a  scenario  furnished  by  Liszt's  friend,  the  Princess  Caroline  Sayn- 
Wittgenstein.  Produced,  November  6,  1890,  in  Karlsruhe,  under  the 
direction  of  Felix  Mottl. 

Characters 

Priam Bass 

Hecuba Contralto 

Cassandra Mezzo-soprano 

PoLYXENA Soprano 

Hector's  ghost Bass 

Andromache, 3^^^^ 

astyonax       i 

^Eneas Tenor 

AscANius Soprano 

Pantheus Bass 

Chor(EBUS Baritone 

riwKr— 1183  B.C.  Place— The  Trojan  Plain. 

Act  I.  The  Greek  camp  before  Troy.  It  has  been 
deserted  by  the  Greeks.  The  people  of  Troy,  rejoicing  at 
what  they  believe  to  be  the  raising  of  the  siege,  are  bustling 
about  the  camp.  Many  of  them,  however,  are  standing 
amazed  about  a  gigantic  wooden  horse.  There  is  only  one 
person  who  does  not  rejoice,  Cassandra,  Priam's  daughter, 
whose  clairvoyant  spirit  foresees  misfortune.  But  no 
one  believes  her  dire  prophecies,  not  even  her  betrothed, 
Chorabus,  whom  she  implores  in  vain  to  flee. 

Act  II.  In  a  grove  near  the  walls  of  the  city  the  Trojan 
people,  with  their  princes  at  their  head,  are  celebrating 
the  return  of  peace.  Andromache,  however,  sees  no  happi- 
ness for  herself,  since  Hector  has  fallen.     Suddenly  /Eneas 


540  The  Complete  Opera  Book  " 

hurries  in  with  the  news  that  the  priest  Laocoon,  who  had 
persisted  in  seeing  in  the  wooden  horse  only  a  stratagem  of 
the  Greeks,  has  been  strangled  by  a  serpent.  Athena  must 
be  propitiated;  the  horse  must  be  taken  into  the  city,  to  the 
sacred  Palladiiun,  and  there  set  up  for  veneration.  Of  no 
avail  is  Cassandra's  wailing,  when  the  goddess  has  so  plainly 
indicated  her  displeasure. 

Act  III.  ^neas  is  sleeping  in  his  tent.  A  distant 
sound  of  strife  awakens  him.  Hector's  Ghost  appears  to 
him.  Troy  is  lost;  far  away,  to  Italy,  must  yEneas  go, 
there  to  found  a  new  kingdom.  The  Ghost  disappears. 
The  priest,  Pantheus,  rushes  in,  bleeding  from  wounds. 
He  announces  that  Greeks  have  come  out  of  the  belly  of 
the  horse  and  have  opened  the  gates  of  the  city  to  the 
Greek  army.  Troy  is  in  flames.  Mneas  goes  forth  to 
place  himself  at  the  head  of  his  men. 

The  scene  changes  to  the  vestal  sanctuary  in  Priam's 
palace.  To  the  women  gathered  in  prayer  Cassandra 
announces  that  Mneas  has  succeeded  in  saving  the  treasure 
and  covering  a  retreat  to  Mount  Ida.  But  her  Chorcehus 
has  fallen  and  she  desires  to  live  no  longer.  Shall  she 
become  the  slave  of  a  Greek?  She  paints  the  fate  of  the 
captive  woman  in  such  lurid  colours  that  they  decide  to  go 
to  death  with  her.  Just  as  the  Greeks  rush  in,  the  women 
stab  themselves,  and  grief  overcomes  even  the  hardened 
warriors. 

PART  II.  "  LES  TROYENS  A  CARTHAGE  " 

THE  TROJANS  IN  CARTHAGE 

Opera  in  five  acts.  Music  by  Berlioz.  Words  by  the  composer. 
Produced,  Paris,  November  4,  1863,  when  it  failed  completely.  Re- 
vived, 1890,  in  Karlsruhe,  under  the  direction  of  Felix  Mottl.  Mottl's 
performances  in  Karlsruhe,  in  1890,  of  "La  Prise  de  Troie"  and  "Les 
Troyens  a  Carthage"  constituted  the  first  complete  production  of  "Les 
Troy  ens." 


Hector  Berlioz  541 

Characters 

Dido Soprano 

Anna Contralto 

iENEAS Tenor 

Ascanius Soprano 

Pantheus Bass 

Narbal Bass 

JoPAS Tenor 

Hylas Tenor 

Time — 1183  B.C.  Place — Carthage. 

Act  I.  In  the  summer-house  of  her  palace  Dido  tells  her 
retainers  that  the  savage  Numidian  King,  Jarbas,  has  asked 
for  her  hand,  but  she  has  decided  to  live  only  for  the  memory 
of  her  dead  husband.  Today,  however,  shall  be  devoted 
to  festive  games.  The  lyric  poet  Jopas  enters  and  an- 
nounces the  approach  of  strangers,  who  have  escaped  from 
the  dangers  of  the  sea.  They  arrive  and  Ascanius,  son  of 
^neas,  begs  entertainment  for  a  few  days  for  himself  and 
his  companions.  This  Dido  gladly  grants  them.  Her 
Minister,  Narbal,  rushes  in.  The  Ntimidian  king  has 
invaded  the  country.  Who  will  march  against  him? 
^neaSy  who  had  concealed  himself  in  disguise  among  his 
sailors,  steps  forth  and  offers  to  defend  the  country  against 
the  enemy. 

Act  II.  A  splendid  festival  is  in  progress  in  Dido's 
garden  in  honour  of  the  victor,  /Eneas.  Dido  loves  ^neas, 
who  tells  her  of  Andromache,  and  how,  in  spite  of  her  grief 
over  Hector,  she  has  laid  aside  her  mourning  and  given  her 
hand  to  another.  Why  should  Dido  not  do  likewise? 
Night  closes  in,  and  under  its  cover  both  pledge  their  love 
and  faith. 

Has  ^neas  forgotten  his  task?  To  remind  him.  Mercury 
appears  and  strikes  resoundingly  on  the  weapons  that 
have  been  laid  aside,  while  invisible  voices  call  out  to 
/Eneas:    "Italia!" 


542  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

'  Act  III.  Public  festivities  follow  the  betrothal  of  Dido 
and  jEneas.  But  Dido's  faithful  Minister  knows  that, 
although  Mneas  is  a  kingly  lover,  it  is  the  will  of  the  gods 
that  the  Trojan  proceed  to  Italy;  and  that  to  defy  the  gods 
is  fatal. 

Meanwhile  the  destiny  of  the  lovers  is  fulfilled.  During 
a  hunt  they  seek  shelter  from  a  thunderstorm  in  a  cave. 
There  they  seal  their  love  compact.  (This  scene  is  in 
pantomime.) 

Act  IV.  The  Trojans  are  incensed  that  JEneas  places 
love  ahead  of  duty.  They  have  determined  to  seek  the 
land  of  their  destin}'-  without  him.  Finally  Mneas  awakes 
from  his  infatuation  and,  when  the  voices  of  his  illustrious 
dead  remind  him  of  his  duty,  he  resolves,  in  spite  of  Dido's 
supplications,  to  depart  at  once. 

Act  V.  Early  morning  brings  to  Dido  in  her  palace  the 
knowledge  that  she  has  lost  jEneas  forever.  She  decides 
not  to  survive  her  loss.  On  the  sea  beach  she  orders  a 
huge  pyre  erected.  All  the  love  tokens  of  the  faithless  one 
are  fed  to  the  flames.  She  herself  ascends  the  pyre.  Her 
vision  takes  in  the  great  future  of  Carthage  and  the  greater 
one  of  Rome.  Then  she  throws  herself  on  her  lover's 
sword. 

LA  DAMNATION  DE  FAUST 

THE  DAMNATION  OF  FAUST 

In  its  original  form  a  "dramatic  legend"  in  four  parts  for  the  concert 
stage.  Music  by  Hector  Berlioz.  Words,  after  Gerald  de  Nerval's 
version  of  Goethe's  play,  by  Berlioz,  Gerard,  and  Gandonniere.  Pro- 
duced in  its  original  form  as  a  concert  piece  at  the  Opera  Comique, 
Paris,  December  6,  1846;  London,  two  parts  of  the  work,  under  Berlioz's 
direction,  Drury  Lane,  February  7,  1848;  first  complete  performance  in 
England,  Free  Trade  Hall,  Manchester,  February  5,  1880.  New  York, 
February  12,  1880,  by  Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch.  Adapted  for  the 
operatic  stage  by  Raoul  Gunsberg,  and  produced  by  him  at  Monte  Carlo, 
February  18,  1893,  with  Jean  de  Reszke  as  Fausi;  revived  there  March, 


Hector  Berlioz  543 

1902,  with  Melba,  Jean  de  Reszke,  and  Maurice  Renaud.  Given  in 
Paris  with  Ca\v6,  Alvarez,  and  Renaud,  to  celebrate  the  centennial  of 
Berlioz's  birth,  December  11,  1903.  New  York,  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  December  7,  1906;  Manhattan  Opera  House,  November  6, 
1907,  with  Dalmores  as  Faust  and  Renaud  as  Mephistophelh. 

Characters 

Marguerite Soprano 

Faust • Tenor 

MfepHisTOPH^L^s Bass 

Brander Bass 

Students,  soldiers,  citizens,  men  and  women,  fairies,  etc. 
Time — Eighteenth  Century.  Place — ^A  town  in  Germany. 

In  the  first  part  of  Berlioz's  dramatic  legend  Faust  is 
supposed  to  be  on  the  Plains  of  Hungary.  Introspectively 
he  sings  of  nature  and  solitude.  There  are  a  chorus  and 
dance  of  peasants  and  a  recitative.  Soldiers  march  past  to 
the  stirring  measures  of  the  "Rdkoczy  March,"  the  na- 
tional air  of  Hungary. 

This  march  Berlioz  orchestrated  in  Vienna,  during  his 
tour  of  1845,  and  conducted  it  at  a  concert  in  Pesth,  when  it 
created  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  It  was  in  order  to  justify 
the  interpolation  of  this  march  that  he  laid  the  first  scene 
of  his  dramatic  legend  on  the  plains  of  Hungary.  Liszt 
claimed  that  his  pianoforte  transcription  of  the  march  had 
freely  been  made  use  of  by  Berlioz,  "especially  in  the 
harmony." 

In  the  operatic  version  Gunsbourg  shows  Faust  in  a 
mediaeval  chamber,  with  a  view,  through  a  window,  of  the 
sally-port  of  a  castle,  out  of  which  the  soldiers  march.  At 
one  point  in  the  march,  which  Berlioz  has  treated  con- 
trapuntally,  and  where  it  would  be  difficult  for  marchers 
to  keep  step,  the  soldiers  halt  and  have  their  standards 
solemnly  blessed. 

The  next  part  of  the  dramatic  legend  only  required  a 
stage  setting  to  make  it  operatic.     Faust  is  in  his  study. 


544  The  C^mpfete  Opera  Book 

He  is  about  to  quaff  poison,  when  the  walls  part  and  dis- 
close a  church  interior.  The  congregation,  kneeling,  sings 
the  Easter  canticle,  "Christ  is  Risen."  Change  of  scene  to 
Auerbach's  cellar,  Leipsic.  Revel  of  students  and  soldiers. 
Brander  sings  the  "Song  of  the  Rat, "  whose  death  is  mock- 
ingly grieved  over  by  a  "Requiescat  in  pace"  and  a  fugue 
on  the  word  "Amen,"  sung  by  the  roistering  crowd.  Me- 
phistopheles  then  "obliges"  with  the  song  of  the  flea,  in 
which  the  skipping  about  of  the  elusive  insect  is  depicted 
in  the  accompaniment. 

In  the  next  scene  in  the  dramatic  legend,  Faust  is  sup- 
posed to  be  asleep  on  the  banks  of  the  Elbe.  Here  is  the 
most  exquisite  effect  of  the  score,  the  "  Dance  of  the  Sylphs," 
a  masterpiece  of  delicate  and  airy  illustration.  Violon- 
cellos, con  sordini,  hold  a  single  note  as  a  pedal  point,  over 
which  is  woven  a  gossamer  fabric  of  melody  and  harmony, 
ending  with  the  faintest  possible  pianissimo  from  dnun  and 
harps.  Gunsbourg  employed  here,  with  admirable  re- 
sults, the  aerial  ballet,  and  has  given  a  rich  and  beautiiul 
setting  to  the  scene,  including  a  vision  of  Marguerite.  The 
ballet  is  followed  by  a  chorus  of  soldiers  and  a  students' 
song  in  Latin. 

The  scenic  directions  of  Gounod's  "Faust"  call  Mar- 
guerite's house — so  much  of  it  as  is  projected  into  the 
garden  scene — a  pavilion.  Gunsbourg  makes  it  more  like 
an  arbour,  into  which  the  audience  can  see  through  the  elimi- 
nation of  a  supposedly  existing  wall,  the  same  as  in  Spara- 
fucile's  house,  in  the  last  act  of  "Rigoletto."  Soldiers  and 
students  are  strolling  and  singing  in  the  street.  Mar- 
guerite sings  the  ballad  of  the  King  of  Thule.  Berlioz's 
setting  of  the  song  is  primitive.  He  aptly  characterizes 
the  number  as  a  "Chanson  Gothique."  The  " Invocation " 
of  Mephistopheles  is  followed  by  the  "Dance  of  Will-o'-the- 
Wisps."  Then  comes  Mephistopheles'  barocque  serenade. 
Fatist  enters  Marguerite's  pavilion.     There  is  a  love  duet. 


Hector  Berlioz  545 

which  becomes  a  trio  when  MiphistopheUs  joins  the 
lovers  and  urges  Faust's  departure. 

Marguerite  is  alone.  Berlioz,  instead  of  using  Goethe's 
song,  "Meine  Ruh  is  hin"  (My  peace  is  gone),  the  setting 
of  which  by  Schubert  is  famous,  substitutes  a  poem  of  his 
own.  The  unhappy  Marguerite  sings,  "L'Amour,  I'ardente 
flamme"  (Love,  devouring  fire). 

The  singing  of  the  students  and  the  soldiers  grows  fainter. 
The  "retreat" — the  call  to  which  the  flag  is  lowered  at 
sunset — is  sounded  by  the  drums  and  trumpets.  Mar- 
guerite, overcome  by  remorse,  swoons  at  the  window. 

A  mountain  gorge.  Faust's  soliloquy,  "  Nature,  immense, 
impenetrable  et  fiere"  (Nature,  vast,  unfathomable  and 
proud).  The  "Ride  to  Hell";  moving  panorama;  pande- 
monitun;  redemption  of  Marguerite,  whom  angels  are  seen 
welcoming  in  the  softly  illimiined  heavens  far  above  the 
town,  in  which  the  action  is  supposed  to  have  transpired. 

The  production  by  Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch  of  "La  Dam- 
nation de  Faust"  in  its  original  concert  form  in  New  York, 
was  one  of  the  sensational  events  of  the  concert  history  of 
America.  As  an  opera,  however,  the  work  has  failed  so 
far  to  make  the  impression  that  might  have  been  expected 
from  its  effect  on  concert  audiences;  .  .  .  "the  experiment, 
though  tried  in  various  theatres, "  says  Grove's  Dictionary 
of  Music  and  Musicians,  "has  happily  not  been  permanently 
successful."  Why  "happily"?  It  would  be  an  advantage 
to  operatic  art  if  a  work  by  so  distinguished  a  composer  as 
Berlioz  could  find  a  permanent  place  in  the  repertoire. 

Gounod's  "Faust,"  Boito's  " Mefistofele, "  and  Berlioz's 
"La  Damnation  de  Faust"  are  the  only  settings  of  the 
Faust  legend,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  of  Goethe's 
"Faust,"  with  which  a  book  on  opera  need  concern  itself. 
Gounod's  "Faust,"  with  its  melodious  score,  and  full  of 
a  sentiment  that  more  than  occasionally  verges  on  senti- 
mentality, has  genuine  popular  appeal,  and  is  likely  long 
35 


546  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

to  maintain  itself  in  the  repertoire.  "  Mefistofele, "  never- 
theless, is  the  profounder  work.  Boito,  in  his  setting, 
sounds  Goethe's  drama  to  greater  depths  than  Gounod. 
It  always  will  be  preferred  by  those  who  do  not  have  to  be 
written  down  to.  "La  Damnation  de  Faust,"  notwith- 
standing its  brilliant  and  still  modern  orchestration,  is  the 
most  truly  mediaeval  of  the  three  scores.  Berlioz  himself 
characterizes  the  ballad  of  the  King  of  Thule  as  "Gothic." 
The  same  spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages  runs  through  much  of  the 
work.  In  several  important  details  the  operatic  adaptation 
has  been  clumsily  made.  Were  it  improved  in  these  details, 
this  "Faust"  of  Berlioz  would  have  a  chance  of  more  than 
one  revival. 

F,  von  Flotow 

MARTHA 

Opera  in  four  acts,  by  Friedrich  von  Flotow;  words  by  Wilhelm 
Friedrich  Riese,  the  plot  based  on  a  French  ballet  pantomime  by  Jules 
H.  Vernoy  and  Marquis  St.  Georges  (see  p.  559).  Produced  at  the 
Imperial  Opera  House,  Vienna,  November  25,  1847.  Covent  Garden, 
London,  July  i,  1858,  in  Italian;  in  English  at  Drury  Lane,  October 
II,  1858.  Paris,  Theatre  Lyrique,  December  16,  1865,  when  wasinter- 
polated  the  famous  air  "M'Appari,"  from  Flotow's  two-act  opera, 
"L'Ame  en  Peine,"  produced  at  the  Grand  Opera,  Paris,  June,  1846. 
New  York,  Niblo's  Garden,  November  i,  1852,  with  Mme.  Anna  Bishop; 
in  French,  at  New  Orleans,  January  27,  i860.  An  opera  of  world-wide 
popularity,  in  which,  in  this  country,  the  title  r61e  has  been  sung  by 
Nilsson,  Patti,  Gerster,  Kellogg,  Parepa  Rosa,  and  Sembrich,  and 
Lionel  by  Campanini  and  Caruso. 

CHARACTERS 

Lady  Harriet  Durham,  Maid  of  Honor  to  Queen  A  nne Soprano 

Lord  Tristan  de  Mikleford,  her  cousin Bass 

Plunkett,  a  young  farmer Bass 

Lionel,  his  foster-brother.     Afterwards  Earl  of  Derby Tenor 

Nancy,  waiting-maid  to  Lady  Harriet Contralto 

Sheriff Bass 


F.  von  Flotow  547 

Three  Man  Servants \  '^"^  ^^  ^"O 

j      Basses 

Three  Maid  Servants j  Soprano  and 

(  Mezzo-soprano 
Courtiers,  pages,  ladies,  hunters  and  huntresses,  farmers,  servants,  etc. 
Time — ^About   17 10.  Place — In  and  near  Richmond. 

The  first  act  opens  in  Lady  Harriet's  boudoir.  The 
second  scene  of  this  act  is  the  fair  at  Richmond.  The 
scene  of  the  second  act  is  laid  mPlunkett's  farm-house;  that 
of  the  third  in  a  forest  near  Richmond.  The  fourth  act 
opens  in  the  farm-house  and  changes  to  Lady  Harriet's  park. 

Act  I.  Scene  i.  The  Lady  Harriet  yawned.  It  was 
dull  even  at  the  court  of  Queen  Anne. 

"Your  Ladyship, "  said  Nancy,  her  sprightly  maid,  "here 
are  flowers  from  Sir  Tristan." 

"Their  odour  sickens  me,"  was  her  ladyship's  weary 
comment. 

"And  these  diamonds!"  urged  Nancy,  holding  up  a 
necklace  for  her  mistress  to  view. 

"They  hurt  my  eyes,"  said  her  ladyship  petulantly. 

The  simple  fact  is  the  Lady  Harriet,  like  many  others 
whose  pleasures  come  so  easily  that  they  lack  zest,  was 
bored.     Even  the  resourceful  Nancy,  a  prize  among  maids, 
was  at  last  driven  to  exclaim: 
^     "If  your  ladyship  only  would  fall  in  love!" 

But  herein,  too.  Lady  Harriet  had  the  surfeit  that  creates 
indifference.  She  had  bewitched  every  man  at  court  only 
to  remain  unmoved  by  their  protestations  of  passion.  Even 
as  Nancy  spoke,  a  footman  announced  the  most  persistent 
of  her  ladyship's  suitors.  Sir  Tristan  of  Mikleford,  an  elderly 
cousin  who  presumed  upon  his  relationship  to  ignore  the 
rebuffs  with  which  she  met  his  suit.  Sir  Tristan  was  a 
creature  of  court  etiquette.  His  walk,  his  gesture,  almost 
his  speech  itself  were  reduced  to  rule  and  method.  The 
stiffness  that  came  with  age  made  his  exaggerated  manner 


548  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

the  more  ridiculous.  In  fact  he  was  the  incarnation  of 
everything  that  the  Lady  Harriet  was  beginning  to  find 
intolerably  tedious. 

"Most  respected  cousin,  Lady  in  Waiting  to  Her  Most 
Gracious  Majesty,"  he  began  sententiously,  and  would  have 
added  all  her  titles  had  she  not  cut  him  short  with  an 
impatient  gesture,  "will  your  ladyship  seek  diversion  by 
viewing  the  donkey  races  with  me  to-day?" 

"I  wonder,"  Nancy  whispered  so  that  none  but  her 
mistress  could  hear,  "if  he  is  going  to  run  in  the  races  him- 
self?" which  evoked  from  the  Lady  Harriet  the  first  smile 
that  had  played  around  her  lips  that  day.  Seeing  this  and 
attributing  it  to  her  pleasure  at  his  invitation  Sir  Tristan 
sighed  like  a  wheezy  bellows  and  cast  sentimental  glances 
at  her  with  his  watery  eyes.  To  stop  this  ridiculous  ex- 
hibition of  vanity  her  ladyship  straightway  sent  him  trot- 
ting about  the  room  on  various  petty  pretexts.  "Fetch 
my  fan,  Sir! — Now  my  smelling  salts — I  feel  a  draught. 
Would  you  close  the  window,  cousin?  Ah,  I  stifle  for  want 
of  air !     Open  it  again ! " 

To  these  commands  Sir  Tristan  responded  with  as  much 
alacrity  as  his  stiff  joints  would  permit,  until  Nancy  again 
whispered  to  her  mistress,  "See!  He  is  running  for  the 
prize!" 

Likely  enough  Sir  Tristan's  fair  cousin  soon  would  have 
sent  him  on  some  errand  that  would  have  taken  him  out  of 
her  presence.  But  when  he  opened  the  window  again,  in 
came  the  strains  of  a  merry  chorus  sung  by  fresh,  happy 
voices  of  young  women  who,  evidently,  were  walking  along 
the  highway.  The  Lady  Harriet's  curiosity  was  piqued. 
Who  were  these  women  over  whose  lives  ennui  never 
seemed  to  have  hung  like  a  pall?  Nancy  knew  all  about 
them.  They  were  servants  on  the  way  to  the  Richmond 
fair  to  hire  themselves  out  to  the  farmers,  according  to 
time-honoured  custom. 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Plangon  as  Mephistopheles  in  "Faust' 


F.  von  Flotow  549 

The  Richmond  fair!  To  her  ladyship's  jaded  senses  it 
conveyed  a  suggestion  of  something  new  and  froHcsome. 
"  Nancy, "  she  cried,  carried  away  with  the  novehy  of  the 
idea,  "let  us  go  to  the  fair  dressed  as  peasant  girls  and 
mingle  with  the  crowd!  Who  knows,  someone  might 
want  to  hire  us!  I  will  call  myself  Martha,  you  can  be 
Julia,  and  you,  cousin,  can  drop  your  title  for  the  nonce 
and  go  along  with  us  as  plain  Bob ! "  And  when  Sir  Tristan, 
shocked  at  the  thought  that  a  titled  lady  should  be  willing 
so  to  lower  herself,  to  say  nothing  of  the  part  he  himself 
was  asked  to  play,  protested,  she  appealed  to  him  with  a 
feigned  tenderness  that  soon  won  his  consent  to  join  them  in 
their  lark.  Then  to  give  him  a  foretaste  of  what  was  ex- 
pected of  him,  they  took  him,  each  by  an  arm,  and  danced  him 
about  the  room,  shouting  with  mock  admiration  as  he  half 
slid,  half  stumbled,  "Bravo !     What  grace !     What  agility ! " 

The  Lady  Harriet  actually  was  enjoying  herself. 

Scene  2.  Meanwhile  the  Richmond  fair  was  at  its  height. 
From  a  large  parchment  the  pompous  Sheriff  had  read  the 
law  by  which  all  contracts  for  service  made  at  the  fair  were 
binding  for  at  least  one  year  as  soon  as  money  had  passed. 
Among  those  who  had  come  to  bid  were  a  sturdy  young 
farmer,  Plunkett,  and  his  foster  brother  Lionel.  The  latter 
evidently  was  of  a  gentler  birth,  but  his  parentage  was 
shrouded  in  mystery.  As  a  child  he  had  been  left  with 
Plunkett's  mother  by  a  fugitive,  an  aged  man  who,  dying 
from  exposure  and  exhaustion,  had  confided  the  boy  to  her 
care,  first,  however,  handing  'her  a  ring  with  the  injunction 
that  if  misfortune  ever  threatened  the  boy,  to  show  the 
ring  to  the  queen. 

One  after  another  the  girls  proclaimed  their  deftness 
at  cooking,  sewing,  gardening,  poultry  tending,  and  other 
domestic  and  rural  accomplishments,  the  Sheriff  crying 
out,  "Fotir  guineas!  Who'll  have  her? — Five  guineas! 
Who'll  try  her?"     Many  of  them  cast  eyes  at  the  two 


550  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

handsome  young  farmers,  hoping  to  be  engaged  by  them. 
But  they  seemed  more  critical  than  the  rest. 

Just  then  they  heard  a  young  woman's  voice  behind 
them  call  out,  "No,  I  won't  go  with  you!"  and,  turning, 
they  saw  two  sprightly  young  women  arguing  with  a 
testy  looking  old  man  who  seemed  to  have  a  ridiculous  idea 
of  his  own  importance.  Lionel  and  Plunkett  nudged  each 
other.  Never  had  they  seen  such  attractive  looking  girls. 
And  when  they  heard  one  of  them  call  out  again  to  the  old 
man,  "No,  we  won't  go  with  you!" — for  Sir  Tristan  was 
urging  the  Lady  Harriet  and  Nancy  to  leave  the  fair — the 
young  men  hurried  over  to  the  group. 

"Can't  you  hear  her  say  she  won't  go  with  you?"  asked 
Lionel,  while  Plunkett  called  out  to  the  girls  near  the  Sheriff's 
stand,  "Here,  girls,  is  a  bidder  with  lots  of  money!"  A 
moment  later  the  absurd  old  man  was  the  centre  of  a  rioting, 
shouting  crowd  of  girls,  who  followed  him  when  he  tried  to 
retreat,  so  that  finally  "Martha"  and  "Julia"  were  left 
quite  alone  with  the  two  men.  The  young  women  were  in 
high  spirits.  They  had  sallied  forth  in  quest  of  adventure 
and  here  it  was.  Lionel  and  Plunkett,  on  the  other  hand, 
suddenly  had  become  very  shy.  There  was  in  the  demeanour 
of  these  girls  something  quite  different  from  what  they  had 
been  accustomed  to  in  other  serving  maids.  Somehow  they 
had  an  "air,"  and  it  made  the  young  men  bashful.  Plun- 
kett tried  to  push  Lionel  forward,  but  the  latter  hung  back. 

"Watch  me  then,"  said  Plunkett.  He  advanced  as  if 
to  speak  to  the  young  women,  but  came  to  a  halt  and  stood 
there  covered  with  confusion.  It  chanced  that  Lady 
Harriet  and  Nancy  had  been  watching  these  men  vinth 
quite  as  much  interest  as  they  had  been  watched  by  them. 
Lionel,  who  bore  himself  with  innate  grace  and  refinement 
under  his  peasant  garb,  had  immediately  attracted  "Mar- 
tha," while  the  sturdier  Plunkett  had  caught  "Julia's"  eye, 
and  they  were  glad  when,  after  a  few  slyly  reassuring 


F.  von  Flotow  551 

glances  from  them,  Plunkett  overcame  his  hesitancy  and 
spoke  up : 

"You're  our  choice,  girls!  We'll  pay  fifty  crowns  a  year 
for  wages,  with  half  a  pint  of  ale  on  Sundays  and  plimi 
pudding  on  New  Year's  thrown  in  for  extras." 

"Done!"  cried  the  girls,  who  thought  it  all  a  great 
lark,  and  a  moment  later  the  Lady  Harriet  had  placed 
her  hand  in  Lionel's  and  Nancy  hers  in  Plunkett's  and 
money  had  passed  to  bind  the  bargain. 

And  now,  thinking  the  adventure  had  gone  far  enough 
and  that  it  was  time  for  them  to  be  returning  to  court, 
they  cast  about  them  for  Sir  Tristan.  He,  seeing  them 
talking  on  apparently  intimate  terms  with  two  farmers, 
was  scandalized  and,  having  succeeded  in  standing  off 
the  crowd  by  scattering  money  about  him,  he  called  out 
brusquely,  "Come  away!" 

"Come  away?"  repeated  Plunkett  after  him.  "Come 
away?  Didn't  these  girls  let  you  know  plainly  enough  a 
short  time  ago  that  they  wouldn't  hire  out  to  you?" 

"But  I  rather  think,"  interposed  "Martha,"  who  was 
becoming  slightly  alarmed,  "that  it  is  time  for  'Julia' 
and  myself  to  go." 

"What's  that!"  exclaimed  Plunkett.  "Go?  No,  in- 
deed," he  added  with  emphasis.  "You  may  repent  of 
your  bargain,  though  I  don't  see  why.  But  it  is  binding 
for  a  year." 

"If  only  you  knew  who,"  began  Sir  Tristan,  and  he  was 
about  to  tell  who  the  young  women  were.  But  " Martha" 
quickly  whispered  to  him  not  to  disclose  their  identity,  as 
the  escapade,  if  it  became  known,  would  make  them  the 
sport  of  the  court.  Moreover  Plunkett  and  Lionel  were 
growing  impatient  at  the  delay  and,  when  the  crowd  again 
gathered  about  Sir  Tristan,  they  hurried  off  the  girls, — 
who  did  not  seem  to  protest  as  much  as  might  have  been 
expected, — lifted  them  into  a  farm  wagon,  and  drove  off, 


552  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

while  the  crowd  blocked  the  blustering  knight  and  jeered 
as  he  vainly  tried  to  break  away  in  pursuit. 

Act  II.  The  adventure  of  the  Lady  Harriet  and  her 
maid  Nancy,  so  lightly  entered  upon,  was  carrying  them 
ftirther  than  they  had  expected.  To  find  themselves  set 
down  in  a  humble  farmhouse,  as  they  did  soon  after  they 
left  the  fair,  and  to  be  told  to  go  into  the  kitchen  and 
prepare  supper,  was  more  than  they  had  bargained  for. 

"Kitchen  work!"  exclaimed  the  Lady  Harriet  con- 
temptuously. 

"Kitchen  work!"  echoed  Nancy  in  the  same  tone  of 
voice. 

Plunkett  was  for  having  his  orders  carried  out.  But 
Lionel  interceded.  A  certain  innate  gallantry  that  already 
had  appealed  to  her  ladyship,  made  him  feel  that  although 
these  young  women  were  servants,  they  were,  somehow,  to 
be  treated  differently.  He  suggested  as  a  substitute  for 
the  kitchen  that  they  be  allowed  to  try  their  hands  at  the 
spinning  wheels.  But  they  were  so  awkward  at  these  that 
the  men  sat  down  to  show  them  how  to  spin,  until  Nancy 
brought  the  lesson  to  an  abrupt  close  by  saucily  overturning 
Plunkett's  wheel  and  dashing  away  with  the  young  farmer 
in  pursuit,  leaving  Lionel  and  " Martha"  alone. 

It  was  an  awkward  moment  for  her  ladyship,  since 
she  could  hardly  fail  to  be  aware  that  Lionel  was  regarding 
her  with  undisguised  admiration.  To  relieve  the  situation 
she  began  to  hum  and,  finally,  to  sing,  choosing  her  favorite 
air,  "The  Last  Rose  of  Summer."  But  it  had  the  very 
opposite  effect  of  what  she  had  planned.  For  she  sang  the 
charming  melody  so  sweetly  and  with  such  tender  expression 
that  Lionel,  completely  carried  away,  exclaimed:  "Ah, 
Martha,  if  you  were  to  marry  me,  you  no  longer  would  be  a 
servant,  for  I  would  raise  you  to  my  own  station!" 

As  Lionel  stood  there  she  could  not  help  noting  that 
he  was  handsome  and  graceful.     Yet  that  a  farmer  should 


F.  von  Flotow  553 

suggest  to  her,  the  spoiled  darUng  of  the  court,  that  he 
would  raise  her  to  his  station,  struck  her  as  so  ridiculous 
that  she  burst  out  laughing.  Just  then,  fortunately, 
Plunkett  dragged  in  Nancy,  whom  he  had  pursued  into  the 
kitchen,  where  she  had  upset  things  generally  before  he 
had  been  able  to  seize  her;  and  a  distant  tower  clock  striking 
midnight,  the  young  farmers  allowed  their  servants,  whose 
accomplishments  as  such,  if  they  had  any,  so  far  remained 
undiscovered,  to  retire  to  their  room,  while  they  sought 
theirs,  but  not  before  Lionel  had  whispered: 

"Perchance  by  the  morrow,  Martha,  you  will  think 
differently  of  what  I  have  said  and  not  treat  it  so  lightly." 

Act  III.  But  when  morning  came  the  birds  had  flown  the 
cage.  There  was  neither  a  Martha  nor  a  Julia  in  the  little 
farmhouse,  while  at  the  court  of  Queen  Anne  a  certain 
Lady  Harriet  and  her  maid  Nancy  were  congratulating 
themselves  that,  after  all,  an  old  fop  named  Sir  Tristan  of 
Mikleford  had  had  sense  enough  to  be  in  waiting  with  a 
carriage  near  the  farmhouse  at  midnight  and  helped  them 
escape  through  the  window.  It  even  is  not  unlikely  that 
within  a  week  the  Lady  Harriet,  who  was  so  anxious  not  to 
have  her  escapade  become  known,  might  have  been  relating 
it  at  court  as  a  merry  adventure  and  that  Nancy  might  have 
been  doing  the  same  in  the  servants*  hall.  But  unbeknown 
to  the  others,  there  had  been  a  fifth'  person  in  the  little 
farmhouse,  none  other  than  Dan  Cupid,  who  had  hidden 
himself,  perhaps  behind  the  clock,  and  from  this  vantage 
place  of  concealment  had  discharged  arrows,  not  at  ran- 
dom, but  straight  at  the  hearts  of  two  young  women  and 
two  young  men.  And  they  had  not  recovered  from  their 
wounds.  The  Lady  Harriet  no  longer  was  bored;  she  was 
sad;  and  even  Nancy  had  lost  her  sprightliness.  The  two 
men,  one  of  them  so  courteous  despite  his  peasant  garb, 
the  other  sturdy  and  commanding,  with  whom  their  adven- 
txire  had  begun  at  the  Richmond  fair  and  ended  after 


554  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

midnight  at  the  farmhouse,  had  brought  some  zest  into 
their  lives;  they  were  so  different  from  the  smooth,  insincere 
courtiers  by  whom  the  Lady  Harriet  had  been  surrounded 
and  from  the  men  servants  who  aped  their  masters  and 
with  whom  Nancy  had  been  thrown  when  she  was  not  with 
her  ladyship.  The  simple  fact  is  that  the  Lady  Harriet 
and  Nancy,  without  being  certain  of  it  themselves,  were  in 
love,  her  ladyship  with  Lionel  and  Nancy  with  Plunkett. 
Of  course,  there  was  the  difference  in  station  between  Lady 
Harriet  and  Lionel.  But  he  had  the  touch  of  innate  breed- 
ing that  made  her  at  times  forget  that  he  was  a  peasant 
while  she  was  a  lady  of  title.  As  for  Nancy  and  Plunkett, 
that  lively  young  woman  felt  that  she  needed  just  such  a 
strong  hand  as  his  to  keep  her  out  of  mischief.  And  so  it 
happened  that  the  diversions  of  the  cotirt  again  palled 
upon  them  and  that,  when  a  great  hunt  was  organized  in 
which  the  court  ladies  were  asked  to  join,  the  Lady  Harriet, 
although  she  looked  most  dapper  in  her  hunting  costume, 
found  the  sport  without  zest  and  soon  wandered  off  into  the 
forest  solitudes. 

Here,  too,  it  chanced  that  Lionel,  in  much  the  same  state 
of  mind  and  heart  as  her  ladyship,  was  wandering,  when, 
suddenly  looking  up,  he  saw  a  young  huntress  in  whom,  in 
spite  of  her  different  costume,  he  recognized  the  "Martha" 
over  whose  disappearance  he  had  been  grieving.  But  she 
was  torn  by  conflicting  feelings.  However  her  heart  might 
go  out  toward  Lionel,  her  pride  of  birth  still  rebelled  against 
permitting  a  peasant  to  address  words  of  love  to  her. 
"You  are  mistaken.  I  do  not  know  you!"  she  exclaimed. 
And  when  he  first  appealed  to  her  in  passionate  accents 
and  then  in  anger  began  to  upbraid  her  for  denying  her 
identity  to  him  who  was  by  law  her  master,  she  cried  out 
for  help,  bringing  not  only  Sir  Tristan  but  the  entire  hunt- 
ing train  to  her  side.  Noting  the  deference  with  which  she 
was  treated  and  hearing  her  called  "My  Lady,"  Lionel 


F.  von  Flotow  555 

now  perceived  the  trick  that  had  been  played  upon  himself 
and  PlunkcU  at  the  fair.  Infuriated  at  the  heartless  deceit 
of  which  he  was  a  victim,  he  protested:  "But  if  she  ac- 
cepted earnest  money  from  me,  if  she  bound  herself  to  serve 
me  for  a  year " 

He  was  interrupted  by  a  shout  of  laughter  from  the 
bystanders,  and  the  Lady  Harriet,  quickly  profiting  by  the 
incredulity  with  which  his  words  were  received,  exclaimed: 

"  I  never  have  laid  eyes  on  him  before.  He  is  a  madman 
and  should  be  apprehended!" 

Immediately  Lionel  was  surrounded  and  might  have  been 
roughly  handled,  had  not  my  lady  herself,  moved  partly 
by  pity,  partly  by  a  deeper  feeling  that  kept  asserting  itself 
in  spite  of  all,  begged  that  he  be  kindly  treated. 

Act  IV.  Before  very  long,  however,  there  was  a  material 
change  in  the  situation.  In  his  extremity,  Lionel  remem- 
bered about  his  ring  and  he  asked  Plunkett  to  show  it  to 
the  queen  and  plead  his  cause.  The  ring  proved  to  have 
been  the  property  of  the  Earl  of  Derby.  It  was  that 
nobleman  who,  after  the  failure  of  a  plot  to  recall  James 
II.  from  France  and  restore  him  to  the  throne,  had  died 
a  fugitive  and  confided  his  son  to  the  care  of  PlunkeU's 
mother,  and  that  son  was  none  other  than  Lionel,  now  dis- 
covered to  be  the  rightful  heir  to  the  title  and  estates. 
Naturally  he  was  received  with  high  favor  at  the  court  of 
Anne,  the  daughter  of  the  king  to  whom  the  old  earl  had 
rendered  such  faithful  service. 

Despite  his  new  honours,  however,  Lionel  was  miserably 
unhappy.  He  was  deeply  in  love  with  the  Lady  Harriet. 
Yet  he  hardly  could  bring  himself  to  speak  to  her,  let  alone 
appear  so  much  as  even  to  notice  the  advances  which  she, 
in  her  contrition,  so  plainly  made  toward  him.  So,  whi'e 
she  too  suffered,  he  went  about  lonely  and  desolate,  eating 
out  his  heart  with  love  and  the  feeling  of  injvired  pride  that 
prevented  him  from  acknowledging  it. 


556  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

This  sad  state  of  affairs  might  have  continued  indefinitely 
had  not  Nancy's  nimble  wit  come  to  the  rescue.  She  and 
Plunkett,  after  meeting  again,  had  been  quick  in  coming  to 
an  understanding,  and  now  the  first  thing  they  did  was  to 
plan  how  to  bring  together  Lionel  and  the  Lady  Harriet, 
who  were  so  plainly  in  love  with  each  other.  One  afternoon 
Plunkett  joined  Lionel  in  his  lonely  walk  and,  unknown  to 
him,  gradually  guided  him  into  her  ladyship's  garden.  A 
sudden  turn  in  the  path  brought  them  in  view  of  a  bustling 
scene.  There  were  booths  as  at  the  Richmond  fair,  a 
crowd  of  servants  and  farmers  and  a  sheriff  calling  out 
the  accomplishments  of  the  girls.  As  the  crowd  saw  the 
two  men,  there  was  a  hush.  Then  above  it  Lionel  heard  a 
sweet,  familiar  voice  singing: 

*Tis  the  last  rose  of  summer. 

Left  blooming  alone; 
All  her  lovely  companions 

Are  faded  and  gone; 
No  flower  of  her  kindred. 

No  rosebud  is  nigh 
To  reflect  back  her  blushes, 

Or  give  sigh  for  sigh. 

I'll  not  leave  thee,  thou  lone  one, 

To  pine  on  the  stem; 
Since  the  lonely  are  sleeping, 

Go  sleep  thou  with  them, 
Thus  kindly  I  scatter 

Thy  leaves  o'er  the  bed — 
Where  thy  mates  of  the  garden 

Lie  scentless  and  dead. 

The  others  quickly  vanished.  "Martha!"  cried  Lionel. 
' '  Martha !  Is  it  really  you  ? ' '  She  stood  before  him  in  her 
servant's  garb,  no  longer,  however,  smiling  and  coquettish 
as  at  Richmond,  but  with  eyes  cast  down  and  sad. 

And  then  as  if  answering  to  a  would-be  master's  question 


F.  von  Flotow  557 

of  "What  can  you  do?"  she  said:  "I  can  forget  all  my 
dreams  of  wealth  and  gold.  I  can  despise  all  the  dross  in 
which  artifice  and  ignoble  ambition  mask  themselves.  I 
can  put  all  these  aside  and  remember  only  those  accents 
of  love  and  tenderness  that  I  would  have  fall  upon  my  hear- 
ing once  more."  She  raised  her  eyes  pleadingly  to  Lionel. 
All  that  had  intervened  was  swept  away.  Lionel  saw  only 
the  girl  he  loyed.  And,  a  moment  later,  he  held  his  "  Mar- 
tha" in  his  arms. 

"Martha"  teems  with  melody.  The  best  known  airs 
are  "The  Last  Rose  of  Simimer"  and  Lionel's  "M'appari" 
(Like  a  dream).  The  best  ensemble  piece,  a  quintet  with 
chorus,  occurs  near  the  close  of  Act  IIL — "Ah!  che  a  voi 
perdoni  Iddio"  (Ah!  May  Heaven  to  you  grant  pardon). 
The  spinning-wheel  quartet  in  Act  IL  is  most  sprightly. 
But,  as  indicated,  there  is  a  steady  flow  of  light  and  graceful 
melody  in  this  opera.  Almost  at  the  very  opening  of  Act 
L,  Lady  Harriet  and  Nancy  have  a  duet,  "  Que  sto  duol  che  si 
v'affano  "  (Of  the  knights  so  brave  and  charming) .  Bright, 
clever  music  abounds  in  the  Richmond  fair  scene,  and 
Lionel  and  Plunkett  express  their  devotion  to  each  other  in 
"Solo,  profugo,  regetto"  (Lost,  proscribed,  a  friendless 
wanderer),  and  "Ne  giammai  saper  potemmo"  (Never 
have  we  learned  his  station) .  Then  there  is  the  gay  quartet 
when  the  two  girls  leave  the  fair  with  their  masters,  while 
the  crowd  svurounds  Sir  Tristan  and  prevents  him  from 
breaking  through  and  interfering.  It  was  in  this  scene 
that  the  bass  singer  Castelmary,  the  Sir  Tristan  of  a  per- 
formance of  "Martha"  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
February  10,  1897,  was  stricken  with  heart  failure  and 
dropped  dead  upon  the  stage. 

A  capital  quartet  opens  Act  IL,  in  the  farmhouse,  and 
leads  to  the  spinning-wheel  quartet,  "Di  vederlo"  (What 
a  charming  occupation).     There  is  a  duet  between  Lady 


558 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Harriet  and  Lionel,  in  which  their  growing  attraction  for 
each  other  finds  expression,  "II  suo  sguardo  e  dolce  tanto" 
(To  his  eye,  mine  gently  meeting).  Then  follows  "Qtii 
sola,  vergin  rosa"  ('Tis  the  last  rose  of  summer),  the  words 
a  poem  by  Tom  Moore,  the  music  an  old  Irish  air,  "The 
Groves  of  Blarney,"  to  which  Moore  adapted  "The  Last 
Rose  of  Summer. ' '  A  new  and  effective  touch  is  given  to  the 
old  song  by  Flotow  in  having  the  tenor  join  with  the  soprano 
at  the  close.  Moreover,  the  words  and  music  fit  so  per- 
fectly into  the  situation  on  the  stage  that  for  Flotow  to 
have  "lifted"  and  interpolated  them  into  his  opera  was  a 
master-stroke.  To  it  "Martha"  owes  much  of  its  popu- 
laritv. 


There  is  a  duet  for  Lady  Harriet  and  Lionel,  "Ah I  ride 
del  mio  pianto"  (She  is  laughing  at  my  sorrow).  The 
scene  ends  with  another  quartet,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
numbers  of  the  score,  and  known  as  the  "  Good  Night  Quar- 
tet, "  "  Dormi  pur,  ma  il  mio  riposo  "  (Cruel  one,  may  dreams 
transport  thee) . 

Act  III.,  played  in  a  hunting  park  in  Richmond  forest,  on 
the  left  a  small  inn,  opens  with  a  song  in  praise  of  porter,  the 
"  Canzone  del  Porter"  by  Plunkett,  "  Chi  mi  dira  "  (Will  you 
tell  me).  The  pieces  de  resistance  of  this  act  are  the 
"M'Appari";  a  solo  for  Nancy,  "II  tuo  stral  nel  lanciar" 


(Huntress  fair,  hastens  where);  Martha's  song,  "Qui  tran- 
quilla  almen  posso"  (Here  in  deepest  forest  shadows); 
and  the  stirring  quintet  with  chorus. 


F.  von  Flotow  559 

In  Act  IV.  there  are  a  solo  for  Plunkett,  "  II  mio  Lionel 
periri"  (Soon  my  Lionel  will  perish),  and  a  repetition  of 
some  of  the  sprightly  music  of  the  fair  scene. 

It  is  not  without  considerable  hesitation  that  I  have 
classed  "  Martha  "  as  a  French  opera.  For  Flotow  was  bom 
in  Teutendorf,  April  27,  1812,  and  died  in  Darmstadt 
January  24,  1883.  Moreover,  "Martha,"  was  produced  in 
Vienna,  and  his  next  best  known  work,  "Alessandro  Stra- 
della, "in  Hamburg  (1844). 

The  music  of  "Martha,"  however,  has  an  elegance  that 
not  only  is  quite  unlike  any  music  that  has  come  out  of 
Germany,  but  is  typically  French.  Flotow,  in  fact,  was 
French  in  his  musical  training,  and  both  the  plot  and  score 
of  "  Martha  "  were  French  in  origin.  The  composer  studied 
composition  in  Paris  under  Reicha,  1827-30,  leaving 
Paris  solely  on  account  of  the  July  revolution,  and  re- 
turning in  1835,  to  remain  until  the  revolution  in  March, 
1848,  once  more  drove  him  away.  After  living  in  Paris 
again,  1863-8,  he  settled  near  Vienna,  making,  however, 
frequent  visits  to  that  city,  the  French  capital,  and  Italy. 

During  his  second  stay  in  Paris  he  composed  for  the 
Grand  Opera  the  first  act  of  a  ballet,  "Harriette,  ou  la  Ser- 
vante  de  Greenwiche."  This  ballet,  the  text  by  Vemoy 
and  St.  George,  was  for  Ad^le  Dimiilatre.  The  reason 
Flotow  was  entrusted  with  only  one  of  the  three  acts  was 
the  short  time  in  which  it  was  necessary  to  complete  the 
score.  The  other  acts  were  assigned,  one  each,  to  Robert 
BergmuUer  and  Edouard  Deldevez.  Of  this  ballet,  written 
and  composed  for  a  French  dancer  and  a  French  audience, 
"Martha"  is  an  adaptation.  This  accounts  for  its  being 
so  typically  French  and  not  in  the  slightest  degree  German. 
Flotow's  opera  "Alessandro  Stradella"  also  is  French  in 
origin.  It  is  adapted  from  a  one-act  pihe  lyrique,  brought 
out  by  him  in  Paris,  in  1837.     Few  work^  produced  so  long 


560  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

ago  as  "Martha"  have  its  freshness,  vivacity,  and  charm. 
Pre-eminently  graceful,  it  yet  carries  in  a  large  auditoritim 
like  the  Metropolitan,  where  so  many  operas  of  the  lighter 
variety  have  been  lost  in  space. 


Charles  Francois  Gounod 
(1818-1893) 

THE  composer  of  "Faust"  was  bom  in  Paris,  June  17, 
1818.  His  father  had,  in  1783,  won  the  second  prix 
de  Rome  for  painting  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts.  In  1837, 
the  son  won  the  second  prix  de  Rome  for  music,  and  two 
years  later  captured  the  grand  prix  de  Rome,  by  twenty- 
five  votes  out  of  twenty-seven,  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire. 
His  instructors  there  had  been  Reicha  in  harmony,  Hal^vy 
in  counterpoint  and  fugue,  and  Leseur  in  composition. 

Gounod's  first  works,  in  Rome  and  after  his  return  from 
there,  were  religious.  At  one  time  he  even  thought  of 
becoming  an  abb^,  and  on  the  title-page  of  one  of  his  pub- 
lished works  he  is  called  Abb6  Charles  Gounod.  A  per- 
formance of  his  "Messe  Solenelle"  in  London  evoked  so 
much  praise  from  both  English  and  French  critics  that  the 
Grand  Op^ra  commissioned  him  to  write  an  opera.  The 
result  was  "Sappho,"  performed  April  16,  1851,  without 
success.  It  was  his  "Faust"  which  gave  him  European 
fame.  " Faust "  and  his  "Romeo  et  Juliette"  (both  of  which 
see)  suffice  for  the  purposes  of  this  book,  none  of  his  other 
operas  having  made  a  decided  success. 

"La  R^emption,"  and  "Mors  et  Vita,"  Birmingham, 
England,  1882  and  1885,  are  his  best  known  religious 
compositions.  They  are  "sacred  trilogies."  Gounod  died, 
Paris,  October  17,  1893. 

In  Dr.  Theodore  Baker's  Biographical  Dictionary  of 
36  561 


562  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Musicians  Gounod's  merits  as  a  composer  are  summed  up 
as  follows:  "Gounod's  compositions  are  of  highly  poetic 
order,  more  spiritualistic  than  realistic;  in  his  finest  lyrico- 
dramatic  moments  he  is  akin  to  Weber,  and  his  modulation 
even  reminds  of  Wagner;  his  instrumentation  and  orches- 
tration are  frequently  original  and  masterly."  These 
words  are  as  true  today  as  when  they  were  written,  seven- 
teen years  ago. 

FAUST 

Opera,  in  five  acts,  by  Gounod;  words  by  Barbier  and  Carre.  Pro- 
duced, Theatre  Lyrique,  Paris,  March  19,  1859,  with  Miolan-Carvalho 
as  Marguerite;  Grand  Opera,  Paris,  March  3,  1869,  with  Christine 
Nilsson  as  Marguerite,  Colin  as  Faust,  and  Faure  as  Mephistopheles. 
London,  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  June  11,  1863;  Royal  Italian  Opera, 
Covent  Garden,  July  2,  1863,  in  Italian,  as  "Faust  e  Margherita"; 
Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  January  23,  1864,  in  an  English  version  by 
Chorley,  for  which,  Santley  being  the  Valentine,  Gounod  composed 
what  was  destined  to  become  one  of  the  most  popular  numbers  of  the 
opera,  "Even  bravest  heart  may  swell"  {"Dio  possente").  New  York, 
Academy  of  Music,  November  26, 1863,  in  Italian,  with  Clara  LouiseKel- 
logg  (Margharita),  Henrietta  Sulzer  (Siebel),  Fanny  Stockton  (Martha), 
Francesco  Mazzoleni  (Faust),  Hannibal  Biachi  (Mephistopheles),  G. 
Yppolito  (Valentine),  D.  Coletti  (Wagner).  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
opening  night,  October  22,  1883,  with  Nilsson,  Scalchi,  Lablache,  Cam- 
panini,  Novara,  Del  Puente. 

Characters 

Faust,  a  learned  doctor Tenor 

M6PHiSTOPH6Li;s,  Satan Bass 

Marguerite Soprano 

Valentine,  a  soldier,  brother  to  Marguerite Baritone 

Siebel,  a  village  youth,  in  love  with  Marguerite Mezzo-soprano 

Wagner,  a  student Baritone 

Martha  Schwerlein,  neighbour  to  Marguerite Mezzo-soprar.o 

Students,  soldiers,  villagers,  angels,  demons,  Cleopatra,  Lais,  Helen  of 

Troy,  and  others. 
Time — l6th  Century.  Place—  Germany. 


Charles  Francois  Gounod  563 

Popular  in  this  country  from  the  night  of  its  American 
production,  Gounod's  "Faust"  nevertheless  did  not  fully 
come  into  its  own  here  until  during  the  Maurice  Grau  regime 
at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House.  Sung  in  French  by 
great  artists,  every  one  of  whom  was  familiar  with  the 
traditions  of  the  Grand  Op^ra,  Paris,  the  work  was  given  so 
often  that  William  J.  Henderson  cleverly  suggested  "Faust- 
spielhaus"  as  an  appropriate  substitute  for  the  name  of 
New  York's  yellow  brick  temple  of  opera;  a  mot  which  led 
Krehbiel,  in  a  delightful  vein  of  banter,  to  exclaim,  "  Hender- 
son, your  German  jokes  are  better  than  your  serious  Ger- 
man!" 

Several  distinguished  singers  have  been  heard  in  this 
country  in  the  role  of  Faust.  It  is  doubtful  if  that  beautiful 
lyric  nvunber,  Faust's  romance,  "Salut  demeure  chaste  et 
pure"  (Hail  to  the  dwelling  chaste  and  pure),  ever  has  been 
delivered  here  with  more  exquisite  vocal  phrasing  than  by 
Campanini,  who  sang  the  Italian  version,  in  which  the 
romance  becomes  "Salve  dimora  casta  e  pura."  That 
was  in  the  old  Academy  of  Music  days,  with  Christine  Nils- 
son  as  Marguerite,  which  she  had  sung  at  the  revival  of 
the  work  by  the  Paris  Grand  Opera.  The  more  impas- 
sioned outbursts  of  the  Faust  role  also  were  sung  with  fer- 
vid expression  by  Campanini,  so  great  an  artist,  in  the  best 
Italian  manner,  that  he  had  no  Italian  successor  until 
Caruso  appeared  upon  the  scene. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  the  Faust  of  these  two  Italian  artists, 
Jean  de  Reszke  remains  the  ideal  Faust  of  memory.  With 
a  personal  appearance  distinguished  beyond  that  of  any 
other  operatic  artist  who  has  been  heard  here,  an  inborn 
chivalry  of  deportment  that  made  him  a  lover  after  the 
heart  of  every  woman,  and  a  refinement  of  musical  expres- 
sion that  clarified  every  r61e  he  undertook,  his  Faust  was 
the  most  finished  portrayal  of  that  character  in  opera  that 
has  been  heard  here.     Jean  de  Reszke's  great  distinction 


564  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

was  that  everything  he  did  was  in  perfect  taste.  Havent 
you  seen  Faust  after  Faust  keep  his  hat  on  while  making 
love  to  Marguerite?  Jean  de  Reszke,  a  gentleman,  re- 
moved his  before  ever  he  breathed  of  romance.  Muratore 
is  an  admirable  Faust,  with  all  the  refinements  of  phrasing 
and  acting  that  characterize  the  best  traditions  of  the 
Grand  Opera,  Paris. 

Great  tenors  do  not,  as  a  nile,  arrive  in  quick  succession. 
In  this  country  we  have  had  two  distinct  tenor  eras  and 
now  are  in  a  third.  We  had  the  era  of  Italo  Campanini, 
from  1873  until  his  voice  became  impaired,  about  1880. 
Not  until  eleven  years  later,  1891,  did  opera  in  America 
become  so  closely  associated  with  another  tenor,  that  there 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  the  era  of  Jean  de  Reszke.  It 
lasted  until  that  artist's  voluntary  retirement.  We  are 
now  in  the  era  of  Enrico  Caruso,  whose  repertoire  includes 
Faust  in  French. 

Christine  Nilsson,  Adelina  Patti,  Melba,  Eames,  Calve, 
have  been  among  the  famous  Marguerites  heard  here.  Nils- 
son  and  Eames  may  have  seemed  possessed  of  too  much 
natural  reserve  for  the  role;  but  Gounod's  librettists  made 
Marguerite  more  refined  than  Goethe's  Gretchen.  Patti 
acted  the  part  with  great  simplicity  and  sang  it  flawlessly. 
In  fact  her  singing  of  the  ballad  "II  etait  un  roi  de  Thule" 
(There  once  was  a  king  of  Thule)  was  a  perfect  example  of 
the  artistically  artless  in  song.  It  seemed  to  come  from  her 
lips  merely  because  it  chanced  to  be  running  through  her 
head.  Melba's  type  of  beauty  was  somewhat  mature  for 
the  impersonation  of  the  character,  but  her  voice  lent  itself 
beautifully  to  it.  Calv6's  Marguerite  is  recalled  as  a  logi- 
cally developed  character  from  first  note  to  last,  and  as 
one  of  the  most  original  and  interesting  of  Marguerites. 
But  Americans  insisted  on  Calve's  doing  nothing  but  Car- 
men. When  she  sang  in  "Faust"  she  appeared  to  them  a 
Carmen  masquerading  as  Marguerite.      So  back  to  Carmen 


Charles  Francois  Gounod  565 

she  had  to  go.  Sembrich  and  Farrar  are  other  Marguerites 
identified  with  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House. 

Plan^on  unquestionably  was  the  finest  MiphistophHh 
in  the  history  of  the  opera  in  America  up  to  the  present 
time — vivid,  sonorous,  and  satanically  polished  or  fantasti- 
cal, as  the  r61e  demanded. 

Gounod's  librettists,  Michel  Carr^  and  Jules  Barbier, 
with  a  true  Gallic  gift  for  practicable  stage  effect,  did  not 
seek  to  utilize  the  whole  of  Goethe's  "Faust "  for  their  book, 
but  contented  themselves  with  the  love  story  of  Faust  and 
Marguerite,  which  also  happens  to  have  been  entirely  origi- 
nal with  the  author  of  the  play,  since  it  does  not  occur  in 
the  legends.  But  because  the  opera  does  not  deal  with  the 
whole  of  "Faust,"  Germany,  where  Gounod's  work  enjoys 
great  popularity,  refuses  to  accept  it  under  the  same  title  as 
the  play,  and  calls  it  "Margarethe"  after  the  heroine. 

As  reconstructed  for  the  Grand  Op^ra,  where  it  was 
brought  out  ten  years  after  its  production  at  the  Th^tre 
Lyrique,  "Faust"  develops  as  follows: 

There  is  a  brief  prelude.  A  Jf  on  a  single  note,  then 
mysterious,  chromatic  chords,  and  then  the  melody  which 
Gounod  composed  for  Santley. 

Act  I.  Faust's  study.  The  philosopher  is  discovered 
alone,  seated  at  a  table  on  which  an  open  tome  lies  before 
him.  His  lamp  flickers  in  its  socket.  Night  is  about 
turning  to  dawn. 

Faust  despairs  of  solving  the  riddle  of  the  universe.  Aged, 
his  pursuit  of  science  vain,  he  seizes  a  flask  of  poison,  pours  it 
into  a  crystal  goblet,  and  is  about  to  drain  it,  when,  day  hav- 
ing dawned,  the  cheerful  song  of  young  women  on  their  way 
to  work  arrests  him.  The  song  dies  away.  Again  he  raises 
the  goblet,  only  to  pause  once-more,  as  he  hears  a  chorus  of 
labourers,  with  whose  voices  those  of  the  women  unite.  Faust, 
beside  himself  at  these  sounds  of  joy  and  youth,  curses  life 
and  advancing  age,  and  calls  upon  Satan  to  aid  him. 


566  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

There  is  a  flash  of  red  light  and  out  of  it,  up  through 
the  floor,  rises  Mephistopheles,  garbed  as  a  cavaher,  and  in 
vivid  red.  Alternately  suave,  satirical,  and  demoniacal  in 
bearing,  he  offers  to  Faust  wealth  and  power.  The  philoso- 
pher, however,  wants  neither,  unless  with  the  gift  also  is 
granted  youth.  "  Je  veux  la  jeunesse"  (What  I  long  for  is 
youth) .  That  is  easy  for  his  tempter,  if  the  aged  philosopher, 
with  pen  dipped  in  his  blood,  will  but  sign  away  his  soul. 
Faust  hesitates.  At  a  gesture  from  Mephistopheles  the 
scene  at  the  back  opens  and  discloses  Marguerite  seated 
at  her  spinning  wheel,  her  long  blond  braid  falling  down 
her  back.  "O  Merveille!"  (A  miracle!)  exclaims  Faust, 
at  once  signs  the  parchment,  and  drains  to  the  vision  of 
Marguerite  a  goblet  proffered  him  by  Mephistophelh.  The 
scene  fades  away,  the  philosopher's  garb  drops  off  Faust. 
The  grey  beard  and  all  other  marks  of  old  age  vanish. 
He  stands  revealed  a  youthful  gallant,  eager  for  adventure, 
instead  of  the  disappointed  scholar  weary  of  life.  There 
is  an  impetuous  duet  for  Faust  and  Mephistopheles:  "A 
moi  les  plaisirs"  ('Tis  pleasure  I  covet).  They  dash  out  of 
the  cell-like  study  in  which  Faust  vainly  has  devoted 
himself  to  science. 

Act  II.  Outside  of  one  of  the  city  gates.  To  the  left  is 
an  inn,  bearing  as  a  sign  a  canned  image  of  Bacchus  astride 
a  keg.  It  is  kermis  time.  There  are  students,  among  them 
WagneVt  burghers  old  and  young,  soldiers,  maidens,  and 
matrons. 

The  act  opens  with  a  chorus.  "Faust"  has  been  given 
so  often  that  this  chorus  probably  is  accepted  by  most  people 
as  a  commonplace.  In  point  of  fact  it  is  an  admirable  piece 
of  characterization.  The  groups  of  people  are  effectively 
differentiated  in  the  score.  The  toothless  chatter  of  the 
old  men  (in  high  falsetto)  is  an  especially  amusing  detail. 
In  the  end  the  choral  groups  are  deftly  united. 

Valentine  and  Siebel  join  the  kermis  throng.     The  former 


Charles  Francois  Gounod  567 

is  examining  a  medallion  which  his  sister,  Marguerite, 
has  given  him  as  a  charm  against  hann  in  battle.  He  sings 
a  cavatina.  It  is  this  nimiber  which  Gounod  composed  for 
Santley.  As  most  if  not  all  the  performances  of  "Faust" 
in  America,  up  to  the  time  Grau  introduced  the  custom  of 
giving  opera  in  the  language  of  the  original  score,  were  in 
Italian,  this  cavatina  is  familiarly  known  as  the  "Dio 
possente"  (To  thee,  0  Father!).  In  French  it  is  "A  toi, 
Seigneur  et  Roi  des  Cieux"  (To  Thee,  O  God,  and  King  of 
Heaven).  Both  in  the  Italian  and  French,  Valentine 
prays  to  Heaven  to  protect  his  sister  during  his  absence. 
In  English,  "Even  bravest  heart  may  swell,"  the  number 
relates  chiefly  to  Valentine's  ambitions  as  a  soldier. 

Wagner  mounts  a  table  and  starts  the  "  Song  of  the  Rat." 
After  a  few  lines  he  is  interrupted  by  the  sudden  appearance 
of  MephistopheUs,  who,  after  a  brief  parley,  sings  "Le  veau 
d'or"  (The  golden  calf),  a  cynical  dissertation  on  man's 
worship  of  mammon.  He  reads  the  hands  of  those  about 
him.  To  Siebel  he  prophesies  that  every  flower  he  touches 
shall  wither.  Rejecting  the  wine  proffered  him  by  Wagner, 
he  strikes  with  his  sword  the  sign  of  the  inn,  the  keg, 
astride  of  which  sits  Bacchus.  Like  a  stream  of  wine  fire 
flows  from  the  keg  into  the  goblet  held  under  the  spout  by 
Mephistophelts,  who  raising  the  vessel,  pledges  the  health  of 
Marguerite. 

This  angers  Valentine  and  leads  to  the  "Sc^ne  des  ^p^es" 
(The  scene  of  the  swords) .  Valentine  unsheathes  his  blade. 
MephistopheUs,  with  his  sword  describes  a  circle  about 
himself.  Valentine  makes  a  pass  at  his  foe.  As  the  thrust 
carries  his  sword  into  the  magic  circle,  the  blade  breaks. 
He  stands  in  impotent  rage,  while  Miphistophel^s  mocks 
him.  At  last,  realizing  who  his  opponent  is,  Valentine  grasps 
his  sword  by  its  broken  end,  and  extends  the  cruciform 
hilt  toward  the  red  cavalier.  The  other  soldiers  follow 
their  leader's  example.     Mephistophel^s,  no  longer  mocking. 


568  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

cowers  before  the  cross-shaped  sword  hilts  held  toward 
him,  and  slinks  away.  A  sonorous  chorus,  "Puisque  tu 
brises  le  fer"  (Since  you  have  broken  the  blade)  for  Valen- 
tine and  his  followers  distinguishes  this  scene. 

The  crowd  gathers  for  the  kermis  dance — "the  waltz 
from  Faust,"  familiar  the  world  round,  and  undulating 
through  the  score  to  the  end  of  the  gay  scene,  which  also 
concludes  the  act.  While  the  crowd  is  dancing  and  singing, 
Mephistopheles  enters  with  Faust.  Marguerite  approaches. 
She  is  on  her  way  from  church,  prayerbook  in  hand.  Siebel 
seeks  to  join  her.  But  every  time  the  youth  steps  toward 
her  he  confronts  the  grinning  yet  sinister  visage  of  Mephis- 
topheles, who  dexterously  manages  to  get  in  his  way.  Mean- 
while Faust  has  joined  her.  There  is  a  brief  colloquy. 
He  offers  his  arm  and  conduct  through  the  crowd.  She 
modestly  declines.  The  episode,  though  short,  is  charm- 
ingly melodious.  The  phrases  for  Marguerite  can  be  made 
to  express  coyness,  yet  also  show  that  she  is  not  wholly 
displeased  with  the  attention  paid  her  by  the  handsome 
stranger.  She  goes  her  way.  The  dance  continues, 
* '  Valsons  tou jours ' '  (Waltz  alway !) . 

Act  III.  Marguerite' s  garden.  At  the  back  a  wall  with 
a  wicket  door.  To  the  left  a  bower.  On  the  right  Mar- 
guerite's house,  with  a  bow  window  facing  the  audience. 
Trees,  shrubs,  flower  beds,  etc, 

Siebel  enters  by  the  wicket.  Stopping  at  one  of  the 
flower  beds  and  about  to  pluck  a  nosegay,  he  sings  the 
graceful  "Faites-lui  mes  aveux"  (Bear  my  avowal  to  her). 
But  when  he  culls  a  flower,  it  shrivels  in  his  hand,  as 
Mephistopheles  had  predicted.  The  boy  is  much  perturbed. 
Seeing,  however,  a  little  font  with  holy  water  suspended 
by  the  wall  of  the  house,  he  dips  his  fingers  in  it.  Now  the 
flowers  no  longer  shrivel  as  he  culls  them.  He  arranges 
them  in  a  bouquet,  which  he  lays  on  the  house  step,  where 
he  hopes  Marguerite  will  see  it.     He  then  leaves. 


Charles  Francois  Gounod 


569 


Faust  enters  with  MephistophiUs,  but  bids  the  latter 
withdraw,  as  if  he  sensed  the  incongruity  of  his  presence 
near  the  home  of  a  maiden  so  pure  as  Marguerite.  The 
tempter  having  gone,  Faust  proceeds  to  apostrophize  Mar- 
guerite's dwelling  in  the  exquisite  romance,  "Salut!  de- 
meure  chaste  et  pure." 


I^'i'j  r  1;  F  p  p  1^  ^^ 


MSphistophilh  returns.  With  him  he  brings  a  casket  of 
jewels  and  a  handsome  bouquet.  With  these  he  replaces 
SieheVs  flowers.  The  two  men  then  withdraw  into  a 
shadowy  recess  of  the  garden  to  await  Marguerite' s  return. 

She  enters  by  the  wicket.  Her  thoughts  are  with  the 
handsome  stranger — above  her  in  station,  therefore  the 
more  flattering  and  fascinating  in  her  eyes — who  addressed 
her  at  the  kermis.  Pensively  she  seats  herself  at  her  spin- 
ning wheel  and,  while  tiuming  it,  without  much  concen- 
tration of  mind  on  her  work,  sings  "Le  Roi  de  Thule," 
the  ballad  of  the  King  of  Thule,  her  thoughts,  however, 
retximing  to  Faust  before  she  resumes  and  finishes  the 
number,  which  is  set  in  the  simple  fashion  of  a  folk-song. 

Approaching  the  house,  and  about  to  enter,  she  sees  the 
flowers,  stops  to  admire  them,  and  to  bestow  a  thought  of 
compassion  upon  Siebel  for  his  unrequited  devotion,  then 
sees  and  hesitatingly  opens  the  casket  of  jewels.  Their 
appeal  to  her  feminine  vanity  is  too  great  to  permit  her  to 
return  them  at  once  to  the  casket.  Decking  herself  out  in 
them,  she  regards  herself  and  the  sparkling  gems  in  the 
handglass  that  came  with  them,  then  bursts  into  the  brilliant 
"Air  des  Bijoux"  (Jewel  Song): 


570  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Ah!  je  ris  de  me  voir 

Si  belle  en  ce  miroir!  .  .  . 

Est-ce  toi,  Marguerite? 

(Ah!  I  laugh  just  to  view 
— Marguerite!     Is  it  you? — 
Such  a  belle  in  the  glass!  .  .  .  ) 

one  of  the  most  brilliant  airs  for  coloratura  soprano,  afford- 
ing the  greatest  contrast  to  the  folklike  ballad  which  pre- 
ceded it,  and  making  with  it  one  of  the  most  effective 
scenes  in  opera  for  a  soprano  who  can  rise  to  its  demands: 
the  chaste  simplicity  required  for  the  ballad,  the  joyous 
abandon  and  faultless  execution  of  elaborate  embellish- 
ments involved  in  the  "Air  des  Bijoux."  When  well  done, 
the  scene  is  brilliantly  successful;  for,  added  to  its  own 
conspicuous  merit,  is  the  fact  that,  save  for  the  very  brief 
episode  in  Act  II.,  this  is  the  first  time  in  two  and  a  half 
acts  that  the  limpid  and  grateful  tones  of  a  solo  high  soprano 
have  fallen  upon  the  ear. 

Martha,  the  neighbour  and  companion  of  Marguerite, 
joins  her.  In  the  manner  of  the  average  duenna,  whose 
chief  duty  in  opera  is  to  encourage  love  affairs,  however 
fraught  with  peril  to  her  charge,  she  is  not  at  all  disturbed 
by  the  gift  of  the  jewels  or  by  the  entrance  upon  the  scene 
of  Faust  and  Mephistopheles.  Nor,  when  the  latter  tells 
her  that  her  husband  has  been  killed  in  the  wars,  does  she 
hesitate,  after  a  few  exclamations  of  rather  forced  grief, 
to  seek  consolation  on  the  arm  of  the  flatterer  in  red,  who 
leads  her  off  into  the  garden,  leaving  Faust  with  Mar- 
guerite. Dtiring  the  scene  immediately  ensuing  the  two 
couples  are  sometimes  in  view,  sometimes  lost  to  sight  in 
the  garden.  The  music  is  a  quartet,  beginning  with  Faust's 
"  Prenez  mon  bras  un  moment ' '  (Pray  lean  upon  mine  arm) . 
It  is  artistically  individualized.  The  couples  and  each 
member  thereof  are  deftly  characterized  in  Gounod's  score. 


Charles  Fraingois  Gounod 


571 


For  a  moment  MiphistopheUs  holds  the  stage  alone. 
Standing  by  a  bed  of  flowers  in  an  attitude  of  benediction, 
he  invokes  their  subtle  perfume  to  lull  Marguerite  into  a 
false  sense  of  security.  "II  etait  temps!"  (It  was  the 
hour),  begins  the  soliloquy.  For  a  moment,  as  it  ends, 
the  flowers  glow.  MSphistophel^s  withdraws  into  the 
shadows.  Faust  and  Marguerite  appear.  Marguerite 
plucks  the  petals  of  a  flower:  "He  loves  me — he  loves  me 
not — he  loves!"  There  are  two  ravishing  duets  for  the 
lovers,  "Laisse-moi  contempler  ton  visage"  (Let  me  gaze 
upon  thy  beauty),  and"  O  nuitd' amour  .  .  .  ciel  radieux ! " 


(Oh,  night  of  love!  oh,  starlit  sky!).     The  music  fairly 
enmeshes  the  listener  in  its  enchanting  measures. 


Faust  and  Marguerite  part,  agreeing  to  meet  on  the 
morrow — "Oui,  demain!  des  I'aurore!"  (Yes,  tomorrow! 
at  dawn!).  She  enters  the  house.  Faust  turns  to  leave 
the  garden.  He  is  confronted  by  MSphistophel^s,  who 
points  to  the  window.  The  casement  is  opened  by  Mar- 
guerite, who  believes  she  is  alone.  Kneeling  in  the  window, 
she  gazes  out  upon  the  night  flooded  with  moonlight. 
"II  m'aime;  .  .  .Ah!  presse  ton  retour,  cher  bien-aime! 
Viens!"  (He  loves  me;  ah!  haste  your  return,  dearly  be- 
loved!   Come!). 

With  a  cry,  Faust  rushes  to  the  open  casement,  sinks 


572  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

upon  his  knees.  Marguerite,  with  an  ecstatic  exclamation, 
leans  out  of  the  embrasure  and  allows  him  to  take  her  into 
his  arms.     Her  head  rests  upon  his  shoulder. 

At  the  wicket  is  Mephistopheles,  shaking  with  laughter. 

Act  IV.  The  first  scene  in  this  act  takes  place  in  Mar- 
guerite's room.  No  wonder  Mephistopheles  laughed  when 
he  saw  her  in  Faust's  arms.  She  has  been  betrayed  and 
deserted.  The  faithful  Siebel,  however,  still  offers  her  his 
love — "Si  la bonheiir a surire  t 'invite"  (When  all  was  young 
and  pleasant,  May  was  blooming) — but  Marguerite  still 
loves  the  man  who  betrayed  her,  and  hopes  against  hope 
that  he  will  return. 

This  episode  is  followed  by  the  cathedral  scene.  Mar- 
guerite has  entered  the  edifice  and  knelt  to  pray.  But, 
invisible  to  her,  Mephistopheles  stands  beside  her  and  re- 
minds her  of  her  guilt.  A  chorus  of  invisible  demons  calls 
to  her  accusingly.  Mephistopheles  foretells  her  doom. 
The  "Dies  irae, "  accompanied  on  the  organ,  is  heard. 
Marguerite's  voice  joins  with  those  of  the  worshippers. 
But  Mephistopheles,  when  the  chant  is  ended,  calls  out  that 
for  her,  a  lost  one,  there  yawns  the  abyss.  She  flees  in 
terror.  This  is  one  of  the  most  significant  episodes  of  the 
work. 

Now  comes  a  scene  in  the  street,  in  front  of  Marguerite's 
house.  The  soldiers  return  from  war  and  sing  their  familiar 
chorus,  "Gloire  immortelle"  (Glory  immortal).  Valentine, 
forewarned  by  Siebel' s  troubled  mien  that  all  is  not  well  with 
Marguerite,  goes  into  the  house.  Faust  and  Mephistopheles 
come  upon  the  scene.  Facing  the  house,  and  accompany- 
ing himself  on  his  guitar,  the  red  gallant  sings  an  offensive 
serenade.  Valentine,  aroused  by  the  insult,  which  he  cor- 
rectly interprets  as  aimed  at  his  sister,  rushes  out.  There 
is  a  spirited  trio,  "Redouble,  o  Dieu  puissant"  (Give 
double  strength,  great  God  on  high).  Valentine  smashes 
the  guitar  with    his    sword,  then    attacks    Faust,  whose 


Charles  Francois  Gounod  573 

sword-thrust,  guided  by  MSphistophSl^s,  mortally  wounds 
Marguerite's  brother.  Marguerite  comes  into  the  street, 
throws  herself  over  Valentine's  body.  With  his  dying 
breath  her  brother  curses  her. 

Sometimes  the  order  of  the  scenes  in  this  act  is  changed. 
It  may  open  with  the  street  scene,  where  the  girls  at  the 
fountain  hold  themselves  aloof  from  Marguerite.  Here 
the  brief  meeting  between  the  girl  and  Siebel  takes  place. 
Marguerite  then  goes  into  the  house;  the  soldiers  return, 
etc.     The  act  then  ends  with  the  cathedral  scene. 

Act  V.  When  Gounod  revised  "Faust"  for  the  Grand 
Op^ra,  Paris,  the  traditions  of  that  house  demanded  a  more 
elaborate  ballet  than  the  dance  in  the  kermis  scene  afforded. 
Consequently  the  authors  reached  beyond  the  love  story  of 
Faust  and  Marguerite  into  the  second  part  of  Goethe's 
drama  and  utilized  the  legendary  revels  of  Walpurgis 
Night  (eve  of  May  1st)  on  the  Brocken,  the  highest  point 
of  the  Hartz  mountains.  Here  Fatcst  meets  the  coiutesans 
of  antiquity — Lais,  Cleopatra,  Helen  of  Troy,  Phryne. 
"Les  Nubiennes,"  "Cleopatra  et  la  Coupe  d'Or"  (Cleo- 
patra and  the  Goblet  of  Gold),  "Les  Troyennes"  (The 
Troyan  Women),  "Variation,"  and  "Dance  de  Phryne" 
are  the  dances  in  this  ballet.  More  frequently  than  not 
the  scene  is  omitted.  To  connect  it  with  the  main  story, 
there  comes  to  Faust,  in  the  midst  of  the  revels,  a  vision  of 
Marguerite.  Around  her  neck  he  beholds  a  red  line,  "like 
the  cut  of  an  axe."  He  commands  Miphistophil^s  to  take 
him  to  her. 

They  find  her  in  prison,  condemned  to  death  for  killing 
her  child.  There  is  an  impassioned  duet  for  Faust  and 
Marguerite.  He  begs  her  to  make  her  escape  with  him. 
But  her  mind  is  wandering.  In  snatches  of  melody  from 
preceding  scenes,  she  recalls  the  episode  at  the  kermis, 
the  night  in  the  garden.  She  sees  Mephistophilhs,  senses 
his  identity  with  the  arch-fiend.     There  is  a  superb  trio,  in 


574  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

which  Marguerite  ecstatically  calls  upon  angels  to  intervene 
and  save  her — "Anges  purs!  Anges  radieux!"  (Angels 
pure,    radiant,    bright).     The   voices   mount   higher   and 


higher,  Marguerite' s  soaring  to  a  splendid  climax.  She 
dies. 

* '  Condemned ! ' '  cries  Miphistophel^s. 

"Saved,"  chant  ethereal  voices. 

The  rear  wall  of  the  prison  opens.  Angels  are  seen  bear- 
ing Marguerite  heavenward.  Faust  falls  on  his  knees  in 
prayer.  Mephistopheles  turns  away,  "barred  by  the  shining 
sword  of  an  archangel." 

During  the  ten  years  that  elapsed  between  the  productions 
at  the  Th^dtre  Lyrique  and  the  Grand  Opera,  "Faust" 
had  only  thirty-seven  performances.  Within  eight  years 
(1887)  after  it  was  introduced  to  the  Grand  Opera,  it  had 
1000  performances  there.  From  1 901-19 10  it  was  given 
nearly  3000  times  in  Germany.  After  the  score  had  been 
declined  by  several  publishers,  it  was  brought  out  by 
Choudens,  who  paid  Gounod  10,000  francs  ($2000)  for  it, 
and  made  a  fortune  out  of  the  venture.  For  the  English 
rights  the  composer  is  said  to  have  received  only  £40 
($200)  and  then  only  upon  the  insistence  of  Chorley,  the 
author  of  the  English  version. 

ROMEO  ET  JULIETTE 

ROMEO  AND  JULIET 

Opera  in  five  acts,  by  Gounod;  words  by  Barbier  and  Carr^,  after  the 
tragedy  by  Shakespeare.  Produced  Paris,  Theatre  Lyrique,  April  27, 
1867;  January,  1873,  taken  over  by  the  Op^ra  Comique;  Grand  Op^ra, 
November  28, 1888.    London,  Covent  Garden,  in  Italian,  July  11, 1867. 


Charles  Fraoigois  Gounod  575 

New  York,  Academy  of  Music,  November  15,  1867,  with  Minnie 
Hauck  as  Juliet;  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  December  14,  1891,  with 
Eames  (Juliet),  Jean  de  Reszke  {Romeo),  Edouard  de  Reszke  (Friar 
Lawrence).  Chicago,  December  15,  1916,  with  Muratore  as  Romeo  and 
Galli-Curci  as  Juliet. 

Characters 

The  Duke  of  Verona Bass 

Count  Paris Baritone 

Count  Capulet Bass 

Juliet,  his  daughter Soprano 

Gertrude,  her  nurse Mezzo-soprano 

T^'balt,  Capulet's  nephew Tenor 

Romeo,  a  Montague Tenor 

Mercutio Baritone 

Benvolio,  Romeo's  page Soprano 

Gregory,  a  Capulet  retainer Baritone 

Friar  Lawrence Bass 

Nobles  and  ladies  of  Verona,  citizens,  soldiers,  monks,  and  pages. 
Time — 14th  Century.  Place — Verona. 

Having  gone  to  Goethe  for  "Faust, "  Gounod's  librettisls, 
Barbier  and  Carr^,  went  to  Shakespeare  for  "Rom^o  et 
Juliette,"  which,  like  "Faust,"  reached  the  Paris  Grand 
Op^ra  by  way  of  the  Theatre  Lyrique.  Mme,  Miolan- 
Carvalho,  the  original  Marguerite,  also  created  Juliette. 

"Rom^o  et  Juliette"  has  been  esteemed  more  highly  in 
France  than  elsewhere.  In  America,  save  for  performances 
in  New  Orleans,  it  was  only  during  the  Grau  regime  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  when  it  was  given  in  French 
with  casts  familiar  with  the  traditions  of  the  Grand  Op^ra, 
that  it  can  be  said  regularly  to  have  held  a  place  in  the 
repertoire.  Eames  is  remembered  as  a  singularly  beautiftd 
Juliette,  vocally  and  personally;  Capoul,  Jean  de  Reszke, 
and  Saleza,  as  Romeos;  Edouard  de  Reszke  as  Frhe  Laurent. 

Nicolini,  who  became  Adelina  Patti's  second  husband, 
sang  Romeo  at  the  Grand  Opdra  to  her  Juliette.  She  was 
then  the  Marquise  de  Caux,  her  marriage  to  the  Marquis 


576  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

having  been  brought  about  by  the  Empress  Eugenie.  But 
that  this  marriage  was  not  to  last  long,  and  that  the  Romeo 
and  Juliet  were  as  much  in  love  with  each  other  in  actual 
life  as  on  the  stage,  was  revealed  one  night  to  a  Grand 
Opera  audience,  when,  during  the  balcony  scene,  prima 
donna  and  tenor — so  the  record  says — imprinted  twenty- 
nine  real  kisses  on  each  other's  lips. 

The  libretto  is  in  five  acts  and  follows  closely,  often  even 
to  the  text,  Shakespeare's  tragedy.  There  is  a  prologue 
in  which  the  characters  and  chorus  briefly  rehearse  the 
story  that  is  to  unfold  itself. 

Act  I.  The  grand  hall  in  the  palace  of  the  Capulets.  A 
fete  is  in  progress.  The  chorus  sings  gay  measures.  Ty- 
balt speaks  to  Paris  of  Juliet,  who  at  that  moment  appears 
with  her  father.  Capulet  bids  the  guests  welcome  and  to 
be  of  good  cheer — "Soyez  les  bienvenus,  amis"  (Be  ye 
welcome,  friends),  and  "Allons!  jeunes  gens!  Allons! 
belles  dames!"  (Bestir  ye,  young  nobles!  And  ye,  too, 
fair  ladies !) . 

Romeo,  Mercutio,  Benvolio,  and  half-a-dozen  followers 
come  masked.  Despite  the  deadly  feud  between  the  two 
houses,  they,  Montagues,  have  ventured  to  come  as  maskers 
to  the  fete  of  the  Capulets.  Mercutio  sings  of  Queen  Mab, 
a  number  as  gossamerlike  in  the  opera  as  the  monologue 
is  in  the  play;  hardly  ever  sung  as  it  should  be,  because 
the  role  of  Mercutio  rarely  is  assigned  to  a  baritone  capable 
of  doing  justice  to  the  airy  measiu-es  of  "Mab,  la  reine  des 
mensonges"  (Mab,  Queen  Mab,  the  fairies'  midwife). 

The  Montagues  withdraw  to  another  part  of  the  palace. 
Juliet  returns  with  Gertrude,  her  nurse.  Full  of  high  spirits, 
she  sings  the  graceful  and  animated  waltz,  "Dans  ce  reve, 
que  m'enivre"  (Fair  is  the  tender  dream  of  youth).     The 


Charles  Francois  Gounod  577 

nurse  is  called  away\  Romeo,  wandering  in,  meets  Juliet. 
Their  love,  as  in  the  play,  is  instantaneous.  Romeo  ad- 
dresses her  in  passionate  accents,  "Ange  adorable" 
(Angel!  adored  one).  His  addresses,  Juliet's  replies, 
make  a  charming  duo. 

Upon  the  re-entry  of  Tybalt,  Romeo,  who  had  removed 
his  mask,  again  adjusts  it.  But  Tybalt  suspects  who  he  is, 
and  from  the  utterance  of  his  suspicions,  Juliet  learns  that 
the  handsome  youth,  to  whom  her  heart  has  gone  out,  is 
none  other  than  Romeo,  scion  of  the  Montagues,  the  sworn 
enemies  of  her  house.  The  fierj'  Tybalt  is  for  attacking 
Romeo  and  his  followers  then  and  there.  But  old  Capidet, 
respecting  the  laws  of  hospitality,  orders  that  the  itXe 
proceed. 

Act  II.  The  garden  of  the  Capulets.  The  window  of 
Juliet's  apartment,  and  the  balcony,  upon  which  it  gives. 
Romeo's  page,  StepJiano,  a  character  introduced  by  the 
librettists,  holds  a  ladder  by  which  Romeo  ascends  to 
the  balcony.  Stephano  leaves,  bearing  the  ladder  with 
him. 

Romeo  sings,  "Ah!  leve  toi  soleil"  (Ah!  fairest  dawn 
arise).  The  window  opens,  Juliet  comes  out  upon  the 
balcony.  Romeo  conceals  himself.  From  her  soliloquy 
he  learns  that,  although  he  is  a  Alontague,  she  loves  him. 
He  discloses  his  presence.  The  interchange  of  pledges  is  ex- 
quisite. Lest  the  sweetness  of  so  much  love  music  become 
too  cloying,  the  librettists  interupt  it  with  an  episode.  The 
Capulet  retainer,  Gregory,  and  servants  of  the  house, 
suspecting  that  an  intruder  is  in  the  garden,  for  they  have 
seen  Stephano  speeding  away,  search  unsuccessfully  and 
depart. 

The  nurse  calls.  Juliet  re-enters  her  apartment.  Romeo 
sings,  "O  nuit  divine"  (Oh,  night  divine).  Juliet  again 
steals  out  upon  the  balcony.  "  Ah !  je  te  I'ai  dit,  je  t'adore!" 
(Ah,  I  have  told  you  that  I  adore  you) ,  sings  Romeo.     There 

37 


578  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

is  a  beautiful  duet,  "Ah!  ne  fuis  pas  encore!"  (Ah,  do  not 
flee  again).  A  brief  farewell.  The  curtain  falls  upon  the 
"balcony  scene." 

Act  III.,  Part  I.  Friar  Lawrence's  cell.  Here  takes 
place  the  wedding  of  Romeo  and  Juliet,  the  good  friar  hoping 
that  their  union  may  lead  to  peace  between  the  two  great 
Veronese  houses  of  Montague  and  Capulet.  There  are  in 
this  part  of  the  act  Friar  Laivrence' s  prayer,  "Dieu,  qui  fis 
rhomme  a  ton  image"  (God,  who  made  man  in  Thine 
image) ;  a  trio,  in  which  the  friar  chants  the  rubric,  and  the 
pair  respond;  and  an  effective  final  quartet  for  Juliet, 
Gertrude,  Romeo,  and  Friar  Lawrence, 

Part  II.  A  street  near  Capulet's  house.  Stephano, 
having  vainly  sought  Romeo,  and  thinking  he  still  may  be 
in  concealment  in  Capulet's  garden,  sings  a  ditty  likely  to 
rouse  the  temper  of  the  Capulet  household,  and  bring  its 
retainers  into  the  street,  thus  affording  Romeo  a  chance  to 
get  away.  The  ditty  is  "Que  fais-tu,  blanche  turrelle" 
(Gentle  dove,  why  art  thou  clinging?).  Gregory  and 
Stephano  draw  and  fight.  The  scene  develops,  as  in  the 
play.  Friends  of  the  two  rival  houses  appear.  Mercutio 
fights  Tybalt  and  is  slain,  and  is  avenged  by  Romeo,  who 
kills  Tybalt,  Juliet's  kinsman,  and,  in  consequence,  is 
banished  from  Verona  by  the  Duke. 

Act  IV.  It  is  the  room  of  Juliet,  to  which  Romeo  has 
found  access,  in  order  to  bid  her  farewell,  before  he  goes 
into  exile.  The  lingering  adieux,  the  impassioned  accents 
in  which  the  despair  of  parting  is  expressed — -these  find 
eloquent  utterance  in  the  music.  There  is  the  duet,  "Nuit 
d'hymenee,  0  douce  nuit  d'amour"  (Night  hymeneal, 
sweetest  night  of  love).  Romeo  hears  the  lark,  sure  sign 
of  approaching  day,  but  Juliet  protests.  "Non,  non,  ce 
n'est  pas  le  jour"  (No,  no!  'Tis  not  yet  the  day).  Yet 
the  parting  time  cannot  be  put  off  longer.  Romeo:  "Ah! 
reste!  reste  encore  dans  mes  bras  enlaces"  (Ah!  rest!  rest 


Photo  copyright,  iyi6,  by  Victor  Georg 

Galli-Curci  as  Juliette  in  "  Romeo  et  Juliette  " 


Photo  by  White 
/I^alve  as  Carmen  with  Sparkes  as  Frasquita  and  Braslau  as  Mercedes 


Charles  Frangols  Gounod  579 

once  more  within  mine  entwining  arms);  then  both,  "II 
faut  partir,  h^las"  (Now  we  must  part,  alas). 

Hardly  has  Romeo  gone  when  Gertrude  runs  in  to  warn 
Juliet  that  her  father  is  approaching  with  Friar  Lawrence. 
Tybalt's  dying  wish,  whispered  into  old  Capulet's  ear,  was 
that  the  marriage  between  Juliet  and  the  noble  whom  Capu- 
let  has  chosen  for  her  husband,  Count  Paris,  be  speeded. 
Juliet's  father  comes  to  bid  her  prepare  for  the  marriage. 
Neither  she,  the  friar,  nor  the  nurse  dare  tell  Capulet  of 
her  secret  nuptials  with  Romeo.  This  gives  significance  to 
the  quartet,  "Ne  crains  rien"  (I  fear  no  more).  Capulet 
withdraws,  leaving,  as  he  supposes,  Friar  Lawrence  to 
explain  to  Juliet  the  details  of  the  ceremony.  It  is  then 
the  friar,  in  the  dramatic,  "Buvez  done  ce  breuvage  "  (Drink 
then  of  this  philtre),  gives  her  the  potion,  upon  drinking 
which  she  shall  appear  as  dead. 

The  scene  changes  to  the  grand  hall  of  the  palace.  Guests 
arrive  for  the  nuptials.  There  is  occasion  for  the  ballet,  so 
essential  for  a  production  at  the  Grand  Op^ra.  Juliet 
drains  the  vial,  falls  as  if  dead. 

Act  V.  The  tomb  of  the  Capulets.  Romeo,  having 
heard  in  his  exile  that  his  beloved  is  no  more,  breaks  into 
the  tomb.  She,  recovering  from  the  effects  of  the  philtre, 
finds  him  dying,  plunges  a  dagger  into  her  breast,  and 
expires  with  him. 

In  the  music  there  is  an  effective  prelude.  Romeo,  on 
entering  the  tomb,  sings,  "0  ma  femme!  o  ma  bien  aim^e" 
(O  wife,  dearly  beloved).  Juliet,  not  yet  aware  that 
Romeo  has  taken  poison,  and  Romeo  forgetting  for  the  mo- 
ment that  death's  cold  hand  already  is  reaching  out  for 
him,  they  sing,  "Viens  fuyons  au  bout  du  monde"  (Come, 
let  us  fly  to  the  ends  of  the  earth).  Then  Romeo  begins  to 
feel  the  effect  of  the  poison,  and  tells  Juliet  what  he  has 
done.  "Console  toi,  pauvre  ame"  (Console  thyself,  sad 
heart).     But  Juliet  will  not  live  without  him,  and  while  he, 


580  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

in  his  wandering  mind,  hears  the  lark,  as  at  their  last  parting, 
she  stabs  herself. 

As  "Romeo  et  Juliette"  contains  much  beautiful  music, 
people  may  wonder  why  it  lags  so  far  behind  "Faust"  in 
popularity.  One  reason  is  that,  in  the  lay-out  of  the 
libretto  the  authors  deliberately  sought  to  furnish  Gounod 
with  another  "Faust,"  and  so  challenged  comparison. 
Even  Stephana,  a  character  of  their  creation,  was  intended 
to  give  the  same  balance  to  the  cast  that  Siebel  does  to 
that  of  "Faust."  In  a  performance  of  Shakespeare's  play 
it  is  possible  to  act  the  scene  of  parting  without  making  it 
too  much  the  duplication  of  the  balcony  scene,  which  it 
appears  to  be  in  the  opera.  The  "balcony  scene"  is  an 
obvious  attempt  to  create  another  "garden  scene."  But 
in  "Faust,"  what  would  be  the  too  long-drawn-out  sweet- 
ness of  too  much  love  music  is  overcome,  in  the  most 
natural  manner,  by  the  brilliant  "Jewel  Song,"  and  by 
Mephistopheles's  sinister  invocation  of  the  flowers.  In 
"Romeo  et  Juliette,"  on  the  other  hand,  the  interruption 
afforded  by  Gregory  and  the  chorus  is  too  artificial  not  to 
be  merely  disturbing. 

It  should  be  said  again,  however,  that  French  audiences 
regard  the  work  with  far  more  favour  than  we  do.  "In 
France,"  says  Storck, in  his  Opernbuch,  "the  work, perhaps 
not  unjustly,  is  regarded  as  Gounod's  best  achievement, 
and  has  correspondingly  numerous  performances." 

Ambroise  Thomas 
MIGNON 

Opera  in  three  acts  by  Ambroise  Thomas,  words,  based  on  Goethe's 
"Wilhehn  Meister, "  by  Barbier  and  Carre.  Produced,  Opera  Comique, 
Paris,  November  17,  1866.  London,  Drury  Lane,  July  5,  1870.  New 
York,  Academy  of  Music,  November  22,  1871,  with  Nilsson,  Duval 
{Filina),  Mile.  Ronconi  {Frederick)  and  Capoul;  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  October  21, 1883,  with  Nilsson,  Capoul,  and  Scalchi  {Frederick). 


Ambroise  Thomas  581 

Characters 

MiGNON,  stolen  in  childhood  from  an  Italian  castle Mezzo-soprano 

Philine,  an  actress Soprano 

Fr6d6ric,  a  young  nobleman Buffo  Tenor  or 

Contralto 

WiLHELM,  a  student  on  his  travels Tenor 

Laertes,  an  actor Tenor 

Lothario Bass 

GiARNo,  a  gypsy Bass 

Antonio,  a  servant Bass 

Townspeople,  gypsies,  actors  and  actresses,  servants,  etc. 
Time — Late  1 8th  Century.    Place — Acts  L  and  IL,  Germany.     Act  III., 

Italy. 

Notwithstanding  the  popularity  of  two  airs  in  "  Mignon" 
— "Connais-tu  le  pays?"  and  the  "Polonaise" — the  opera 
is  given  here  but  infrequently.  It  is  a  work  of  delicate 
texture;  of  charm  rather  than  passion;  with  a  story  that  is, 
perhaps,  too  ingenuous  to  appeal  to  the  sophisticated  audi- 
ence of  the  modern  opera  house.  Moreover  the  "Connais- 
tu  le  pays"  was  at  one  time  done  to  death  here,  both 
by  concert  singers  and  amateurs.  Italian  composers  are 
fortunate  in  having  written  music  so  difficult  technically 
that  none  but  the  most  accomplished  singers  can  risk  it. 

The  early  performances  of  "  Mignon  "  in  this  country  were 
in  Italian,  and  were  more  successful  than  the  later  re\4vals 
in  French,  by  which  time  the  opera  had  become  somewhat 
pass^.  From  these  early  impressions  we  are  accustomed 
to  call  Philine  by  her  Italian  eqmvalept  of  Filina.  FredSric, 
since  Trebelli  appeared  in  the  r61e  in  London,  has  become 
a  contralto  instead  of  a  buffo  tenor  part.  The  "Rondo 
Gavotte"  in  Act  II.,  composed  for  her  by  Thomas,  has 
since  then  been  a  fixture  in  the  score.  She  appeared  in  the 
r61e  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  December  5,  1883, 
with  Nilsson  and  Capoul. 

Act  I.  Courtyard  of  a  German  inn.  Chorus  of  towns- 
people and   travellers.    Lothario,   a  wandering  minstrel. 


582  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

sings,  accompanying  himself  on  his  harp,  "Fugitif  et 
tremblant"  (A  lonely  wanderer).  Filina  and  Laertes, 
on  the  way  with  their  troupe  to  give  a  theatrical  perform- 
ance in  a  neighbouring  castle,  appear  on  a  balcony.  Mignon 
is  sleeping  on  straw  in  the  back  of  a  gypsy  cart.  Giarno, 
chief  of  the  gypsy  band,  rouses  her.  She  refuses  to  dance. 
He  threatens  her  with  a  stick.  Lothario  and  Wilhelm 
protect  her.  Mignon  divides  a  bouquet  of  wild  flowers 
between  them. 

Laertes,  who  has  come  down  from  the  balcony,  engages 
Wilhelm  in  conversation.  Filina  joins  them.  Wilhelm  is 
greatly  impressed  with  her  blonde  beauty.  He  does  not 
protest  when  Laertes  takes  from  him  the  wild  flowers  he 
has  received  from  Mignon  and  hands  them  to  Filina. 

When  Filina  and  Laertes  have  gone,  there  is  a  scene 
between  Wilhelm  and  Mignon.  The  girl  tells  him  of  dim 
memories  of  her  childhood — the  land  from  which  she  was 
abducted.  It  is  at  this  point  she  sings  "Connais-tu  le 
pays"  (Knowest  thou  the  land).  Wilhelm  decides  to 
ptu"chase  her  freedom,  and  enters  the  inn  with  Giarno  to 
conclude  the  negotiations.  Lothario,  who  is  about  to  wan- 
der on,  has  been  attracted  to  her,  and,  before  leaving,  bids 
her  farewell.  They  have  the  charming  duet,  "Legeres 
hirondelles"  (0  swallows,  lightly  gliding).  There  is  a 
scene  for  Filina  and  Frederic,  a  booby,  who  is  in  love  with 
her.  Filina  is  after  better  game.  She  is  setting  her  cap 
for  Wilhelm.  Lothario  wishes  to  take  Mignon  with  him. 
But  Wilhelm  fears  for  her  safety  with  the  old  man,  whose 
mind  sometimes  appears  to  wander.  Moreover  Mignon 
ardently  desires  to  remain  in  the  service  of  Wilhelm  who  has 
freed  her  from  bondage  to  the  gypsies,  and,  when  Wilhelm 
declines  to  let  her  go  with  Lothario,  is  enraptiired,  until  she 
sees  her  wild  flowers  in  Filina' s  hand.  For  already  she  is 
passionately  in  love  with  Wilhelm,  and  jealous  when  Filina 
invites  him  to  attend  the  theatricals  at  the  castle.     Wilhelm 


Ambroise  Thomas  583 

waves  adieu  to  Filina,  as  she  drives  away.  Lothario,  pen- 
sive, remains  seated.  Mignon's  gaze  is  directed  toward 
WUhelm. 

Act  II.  Filina's  boudoir  at  the  castle.  The  actress  sings 
of  her  pleasure  in  these  elegant  surroundings  and  of  WUhelm. 
Laertes  is  heard  without,  singing  a  madrigal  to  Filina, 
"Belle,  ayez  pitid  de  nous"  (Fair  one,  pity  take  on  us). 

He  ushers  in  WUhelm  and  Mignon,  then  withdraws. 
Mignon,  pretending  to  fall  asleep,  watches  WUhelm  and 
Filina.  While  WUhelm  hands  to  the  actress  various  toilet 
accessories,  they  sing  a  graceful  duet,  "Je  crois  entendre 
les  doux  compliments"  (Pray,  let  me  hear  now  the  sweetest 
of  phrases) .  Meanwhile  Mignon' s  heart  is  tormented  with 
jealousy.  When  WUhelm  and  Filina  leave  the  boudoir  the 
girl  dons  one  of  Filina's  costumes,  seats  herself  at  the 
mirror  and  puts  on  rouge  and  other  cosmetics,  as  she  has 
seen  Filina  do.  In  a  spirit  of  abandon  she  sings  a  "Styri- 
enne, "  "Je  connais  un  pauvre  enfant"  (A  gypsy  lad  I  well 
do  know).  She  then  withdraws  into  an  adjoining  room. 
Fridiric  enters  the  boudoir  in  search  of  Filina.  He  sings 
the  gavotte,  "Me  voici  dans  son  boudoir"  (Here  am  I  in 
her  boudoir).  WUhelm  comes  in,  in  search  of  Mignon. 
The  men  meet.  There  is  an  exchange  of  jealous  accusa- 
tions. They  are  about  to  fight,  when  Mignon  rushes  be- 
tween them.  Frederic  recognizes  Filina's  costtmie  on  her, 
and  goes  off  laughing.  WUhelm,  realizing  the  awkward  sit- 
uation that  may  arise  from  the  girl's  following  him  about, 
tells  her  they  must  part.  "Adieu,  Mignon,  cotirage" 
(Farewell,  Mignon,  have  courage).  She  bids  him  a  sad 
farewell.  Filitpa  re-enters.  Her  sarcastic  references  to 
Mignon' 5  attire  wound  the  girl  to  the  quick.  When  WU- 
helm leads  out  the  actress  on  his  arm,  Mignon  exclaims: 
• '  That  woman !     I  loathe  her ! " 

The  second  scene  of  this  act  is  laid  in  the  castle  park. 
Mignon,  driven  to  distraction,  is  about  to  throw  herself 


584  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

into  the  lake,  when  she  hears  the  strains  of  a  harp.  Lothario, 
who  has  wandered  into  the  park,  is  playing.  There  is  an 
exchange  of  affection,  almost  paternal  on  his  part,  almost 
filial  on  hers,  in  their  duet,  "As-tu  souffert?  As-tu  pleure?" 
(Hast  thou  known  sorrow?  Hast  thou  wept?).  Mignon 
hears  applause  and  acclaim  from  the  conservatory  for 
Filina's  acting.  In  jealous  rage  she  cries  out  that  she 
wishes  the  building  might  be  struck  by  lightning  and  de- 
stroyed by  fire;  then  runs  off  and  disappears  among  the 
trees.  Lothario  vaguely  repeats  her  words.  "'Fire,' 
she  said !  Ah,  '  fire !  fire ! " '  Through  the  trees  he  wanders 
off  in  the  direction  of  the  conservatory,  just  as  its  doors  are 
thrown  open  and  the  guests  and  actors  issue  forth. 

They  have  been  playing  "A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream, " 
and  Filina,  flushed  with  success,  sings  the  brilliant  "Polo- 
naise," "Je  suis  Titania"  (Behold  Titania,  fair  and  gay). 
Mignon  appears.  Wilhelm,  who  has  sadly  missed  her, 
greets  her  with  so  much  joy  that  Filina  sends  her  into  the 
conservatory  in  search  of  the  wild  flowers  given  to  Wilhelm 
the  day  before.  Soon  after  Mignon  has  entered  the  con- 
servatory it  is  seen  to  be  in  flames.  Lothario,  obedient  to 
her  jealous  wish,  has  set  it  on  fire.  At  the  risk  of  his  life 
Wilhelm  rushes  into  the  burning  building  and  reappears 
with  Mignon's  fainting  form  in  his  arms.  He  places  her 
on  a  grassy  bank.  Her  hand  still  holds  a  bunch  of  withered 
flowers. 

Act  III.  Gallery  in  an  Italian  castle,  to  which  Wilhelm 
has  brought  Mignon  and  Lothario.  Mignon  has  been  dan- 
gerously ill.  A  boating  chorus  is  heard  from  the  direction 
of  a  lake  below.  Lothario,  standing  by  the  door  of  Mignon's 
sick-room,  sings  a  lullaby,  "De  son  coeur  j'ai  calme  la 
fievre"  (I've  soothed  the  throbbing  of  her  aching  heart). 
Wilhelm  tells  Lothario  that  they  are  in  the  Cipriani  castle, 
which  he  intends  to  buy  for  Mignon.  At  the  name  of  the 
castle  Lothario  is  strangely  agitated. 


Ambroise  Thomas  5ll^ 

Wilhelm  has  heard  Mignon  utter  his  own  name  in  her 
aberrations  during  her  illness.  He  sings,  "Elle  ne  croyait 
pas"  (She  does  not  know).  When  she  enters  the  gallery 
from  her  sick-room  and  looks  out  on  the  landscape,  she  is 
haunted  by  memories.  There  is  a  duet  for  Mignon  and 
Wilhelm,  "  Je  suis  heureuse,  I'air  m'enivre"  (Now  I  rejoice, 
life  reawakens).  Filina's  voice  is  heard  outside.  The 
girl  is  violently  agitated.     But  Wilhelm  reassures  her. 

In  the  scenes  that  follow,  Lothario,  his  reason  restored  by 
being  again  in  familiar  surroundings,  recognizes  in  the  place 
his  own  castle  and  in  Mignon  his  daughter,  whose  loss  had 
unsettled  his  mind  and  sent  him,  in  minstrel's  disguise, 
wandering  in  search  of  her.  The  opera  closes  with  a  trio 
for  Mignon,  Wilhelm,  and  Lothario.  In  it  is  heard  the  refrain 
of  "Connais-tu  le  pays." 

"Hamlet,"  the  words  by  Barbier  and  Carr^,  based  on 
Shakespeare's  tragedy,  is  another  opera  by  Ambroise  Thomas. 
It  ranks  high  in  France,  where  it  was  produced  at  the 
Grand  Opera,  March  9,  1868,  with  Nilsson  as  Ophelia 
and  Faure  in  the  title  role ;  but  outside  of  France  it  never 
secured  any  approach  to  the  popularity  that  "Mignon" 
at  one  time  enjoyed.  It  was  produced  in  London,  in 
Italian,  as  "Amleto,"  Covent  Garden,  June  19,  1869,  with 
Nilsson  and  Santley.  In  America,  where  it  was  produced 
in  the  Academy  of  Music,  March  22,  1872,  with  Nilsson, 
Gary,  Brignoli,  Barr^,  and  Jamet,  it  has  met  the  fate  of 
practically  all  operas  in  which  the  principal  character  is  a 
baritone — esteem  from  musicians,  but  indifference  on  the 
part  of  the  public.  It  was  revived  in  1892  for  Lasalle, 
and  by  the  Chicago  Opera  Company  for  Ruffo. 

The  opera  contains  in  Act  I.,  a  love  duet  for  Hamlet  and 
Ophelia,  and  the  scene  between  Hamlet  and  his  father's 
Ghost;  in  Act  II.,  the  scene  with  the  players,  with  a  drinking 
song  for  Hamlet;  in  Act  III.,  the  soliloquy,  "To  be  or  not 


586  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

to  be,"  and  the  scene  between  Hamlet  and  the  Queen;  in 
Act  IV.,  Ophelia's  mad  scene  and  suicide  by  drowning;  in 
Act  v.,  the  scene  in  the  graveyard,  with  a  totally  different 
ending  to  the  opera  from  that  to  the  play.  Hamlet  voices 
a  touching  song  to  Ophelia's  memory;  then,  stung  by  the 
Ghost's  reproachful  look,  stabs  the  King,  as  whose  suc- 
cessor he  is  proclaimed  by  the  people. 

Following  is  the  distribution  of  voices:  Ho w/g/,  baritone; 
Claudius,  King  of  .Denmark,  bass;  Laertes,  Polonius's  son, 
tenor;  Ghost  of  the  dead  King,  bass;  Polonius,  bass;  Gertrude, 
Queen  of  Denmark,  Hamlet's  mother,  mezzo-soprano;  and 
Ophelia,  Polonius's  daughter,  soprano. 

Ambroise  Thomas  was  born  at  Metz,  August  5,  181 1; 
died  at  Paris,  February  12,  1896.  He  studied  at  the  Paris 
Conservatory,  where,  in  1832,  he  won  the  grand  prix  de 
Rome.  In  1871  he  became  director  of  the  Conservatory, 
being  considered  Auber's  immediate  successor,  although  the 
post  was  held  for  a  few  days  by  the  communist  Salvador 
Daniel,  who  was  killed  in  battle,  May  23d. 

Georges  Bizet 
CARMEN 

Opera  in  four  acts  by  Georges  Bizet;  words  by  Henri  Meilhac  and 
Ludovic  Halevy,  founded  on  the  novel  by  Prosper  Merim^e.  Produced, 
Opera  Gamique,  Paris,  March  3,  1875,  tbe  title  r61e  being  created  by 
Galli-Mari6.  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  London,  in  Italian,  June  22, 
1878;  same  theatre,  February  5,  1879,  in  English;  same  theatre,  Novem- 
ber 8,  1886,  in  French,  with  Galli-Marie.  Minnie  Hauck,  who  created 
Carmen,  in  London,  also  created  the  rdle  in  America,  October  23,  1879, 
at  the  Academy  of  Music,  New  York,  with  Campanini  {Don  Jose), 
Del  Puente  {Escamillo),  and  Mme.  Sinico  (Micaela).  The  first  New 
Orleans  Carmen,  January  14,  1881,  was  Mme.  Ambre.  Calv^  made  her 
New  York  ddbut  as  Carmen  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  Decem- 
ber 20,  1893,  with  Jean  de  Reszke  {Don  Jose),  and  Fames  {Micaela). 
Bressler-Gianoli,  and  afterwards  Calve,  sang  the  r61e  at  the  Manhattan 
Opera  House.     Farrar  made   her  first  appearance  as  Carmen  at  the 


Georges  Bizet  587 

Metropolitan  Opera  House,  November  19,  1914.  Campanini,  Jean  de 
Reszke,  and  Caruso  are  the  most  famous  Don  Joses  who  have  appeared 
in  this  country;  but  the  r61e  also  has  been  admirably  interpreted  by 
Saleza  and  Dalmores.  No  singer  has  approached  Emma  Eames  as 
Micaela;  nor  has  any  interpreter  of  EscamiUo  equalled  Del  Puente, 
who  had  the  range  and  quality  of  voice  and  buoyancy  of  action  which 
the  r61e  requires.  Galassi,  Campanari,  Plan5on,  and  Amato  should  be 
mentioned  as  other  interpreters  of  the  r6le. 

February  13,  191 2,  Mary  Garden  appeared  as  Carmen  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  with  the  Chicago  Opera  Company. 

"Carmen"  is  an  opera  of  worldwide  popularity,  and  as  highly  es- 
teemed by  musicians  as  by  the  public. 

Characters 

Don  Jos6,  a  corporal  of  dragoons Tenor 

EscAMiLLO,  a  toreador Baritone 

El  Dancairo      )  smugglers  i  Baritone 

El  Remendado  )  (  Tenor 

ZuNiGA,  a  captain Bass 

Morales,  an  officer Bass 

Micaela,  a  peasant  girl Soprano 

Frasquita  )  gypsies^  friends  of  Carmen J  Mezzo-soprano 

Mercedes  )  (  Mezzo-soprano 

Carmen,  a  cigarette  girl  and  gypsy Soprano 

Innkeeper,  guide,  officers,  dragoons,   boys,   cigarette  girls,  gypsies, 

smugglers,  etc. 
r«»n«— About  1820.  P/c<:«— Seville,  Spain. 

Act  I.  A  square  in  Seville.  On  the  right  the  gate  of  a 
cigarette  factory.  At  the  back,  facing  the  audience,  is  a 
practicable  bridge  from  one  side  of  the  stage  to  the  other, 
and  reached  from  the  stage  by  a  winding  staircase  on  the 
right  beyond  the  factory  gate.  The  bridge  also  is  practic- 
able underneath.  People  from  a*  higher  level  of  the  city 
can  cross  it  and  descend  by  the  stairway  to  the  square. 
Others  can  pass  under  it.  In  front,  on  the  left,  is  a  guard- 
house. Above  it  three  steps  lead  to  a  covered  passage.  In 
a  rack,  close  to  the  door,  are  the  lances  of  the  dragoons  of 
Ahnanza,  with  their  little  red  and  yellow  flags. 


588  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Morales  and  soldiers  are  near  the  guard-house.  People 
are  coming  and  going.  There  is  a  brisk  chorus,  "Sur  la 
place"  (O'er  this  square).  Micaela  comes  forward,  as  if 
looking  for  someone. 

"And  for  whom  are  you  looking?"  Morales  asks  of  the 
pretty  girl,  who  shyly  has  approached  the  soldiers  lounging 
outside  the  guard-house. 

"I  am  looking  for  a  corporal,"  she  answers. 

"I  am  one,"  Morales  says,  gallantly. 

"But  not  the  one.     His  name  is  Jose." 

The  soldiers,  scenting  amusement  in  trying  to  flirt  with  a 
pretty  creature,  whose  innocence  is  as  apparent  as  her 
charm,  urge  her  to  remain  until  Don  Jose  comes  at  change 
of  guard.  But,  sajang  she  will  return  then,  she  runs  away 
like  a  frightened  deer,  past  the  cigarette  factory,  across  the 
square,  and  down  one  of  the  side  streets. 

A  fascinating  little  march  for  fifes  and  trumpets  is  heard, 
at  first  in  the  distance,  then  gradually  nearer. 

The  change  of  guard  arrives,  preceded  by  a  band  of  street 
lads,  imitating  the  step  of  the  dragoons.  After  the  lads 
come  Captain  Zuniga  and  Corporal  Jose;  then  dragoons, 
armed  with  lances.  The  ceremony  of  changing  guard  is 
gone  through  with,  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  chorus  of 
gamins  and  grown-up  spectators.     It  is  a  lively  scene. 

"  It  must  have  been  Micaela, "  says  Don  Jose,  when  they 
tell  him  of  the  girl  with  tresses  of  fair  hair  and  dress  of  blue, 
who  was  looking  for  him.  "Nor  do  I  mind  saying,"  he 
adds,  "that  I  love  her."  And  indeed,  although  there  are 
some  sprightly  girls  in  the  crowd  that  have  gathered  in  the 
square  to  see  the  guard  changed,  he  has  no  eyes  for  them, 
but,  straddling  a  chair  out  in  the  open,  busies  himself  tr\'ing 
to  join  the  links  of  a  small  chain  that  has  come  apart. 

The  bell  of  the  cigarette  factory  strikes  the  work  hoiir, 
and  the  cigarette  girls  push  their  way  through  the  crowd, 
stopping  to  make  eyes  at  the  soldiers  and  young  men,  or 


Georges  Bizet 


589 


lingering  to  laugh  and  chat,  before  passing  through  the 
factory  gates. 

A  shout  goes  up: 

"Carmen!" 

A  girl,  dark  as  a  gypsy  and  lithe  as  a  panther,  darts  across 
the  bridge  and  down  the  steps  into  the  square,  the  crowd 
parting  and  making  way  for  her. 

"Love  you?"  she  cries  insolently  to  the  men  who  press 
around  her  and  ply  her  with  their  attentions.  "Perhaps 
tomorrow.  Anyhow  not  today."  Then,  a  dangerous  fire 
kindling  in  her  eyes,  she  sways  slowly  to  and  fro  to  the 
rhythm  of  a  "Habanera,"  singing  the  while,  "L'amoiu:  est 
une  oiseau  rebelle,"  etc. 

"Love  is  a  gypsy  boy,  'tis  true, 

He  ever  was  and  ever  will  be  free; 
Love  you  not  me,  then  I  love  you, 
Yet,  if  I  love  you,  beware  of  me!" 


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Often  she  glances  toward  Jose,  often  dances  so  close  to 
him  that  she  almost  touches  him,  and  by  subtle  inflections 
in  her  voice  seeks  to  attract  his  attention.  But  he  seems 
unaware  of  her  presence.  Indeed  if,  thinking  of  Micaela, 
he  has  steeled  himself  against  the  gypsy,  in  whose  every 
glance,  step,  and  song  lurks  peril,  the  handsome  dragoon 
could  not  be  busying  himself  more  obstinately  with  the 
broken  chain  in  his  hand. 

"Yet,  if  I  love  you,  beware  of  me!" 

Tearing  from  her  bodice  a  blood-red  cassia  flower,  she 
flings  it  at  him  point  blank.     He  springs  to  his  feet,  as  if  he 


590  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

would  rush  at  her.  But  he  meets  her  look,  and  stops  where 
he  stands.  Then,  with  a  toss  of  the  head  and  a  mocking 
laugh,  she  runs  into  the  factory,  followed  by  the  other  girls, 
while  the  crowd,  having  had  its  sport,  disperses. 

The  librettists  have  constructed  an  admirable  scene. 
The  composer  has  taken  full  advantage  of  it.  The  "Haba- 
nera" establishes  Carmen  in  the  minds  of  the  audience — 
the  gypsy  girl,  passionate  yet  fickle,  quick  to  love  and 
quick  to  tire.  Hers  the  dash  of  fatalism  that  flirts  with 
death. 

At  Jose's  feet  lies  the  cassia  flower  thrown  by  Carmen, 
the  glance  of  whose  dark  eyes  had  checked  him.  Hesitat- 
ingly, yet  as  if  in  spite  of  himself,  he  stoops  and  picks  it  up, 
presses  it  to  his  nostrils  and  draws  in  its  subtle  perfume  in  a 
long  breath.  Then,  still  as  if  involuntarily,  or  as  if  a  magic 
spell  lies  in  its  odour,  he  thrusts  the  flower  under  his  blouse 
and  over  his  heart. 

He  no  more  than  has  concealed  it  there,  when  Micaela 
again  enters  the  square  and  hurries  to  him  with  joyful 
exclamations.  She  brings  him  tidings  from  home,  and  some 
money  from  his  mother's  savings,  with  which  to  eke  out 
his  small  pay.  They  have  a  charming  duet,  "Ma  mere,  je 
la  vois,  je  revois  mon  village"  (My  home  in  yonder  valley, 
my  mother,  lov'd,  again  I'll  see). 

It  is  evident  that  Micaela' s  coming  gives  him  a  welcome 
change  of  thought,  and  that,  although  she  cannot  remain 
long,  her  sweet,  pure  presence  has  for  the  time  being  lifted 
the  spell  the  gypsy  has  cast  over  him.  For,  when  Micaela 
has  gone,  Jose  grasps  the  flower  under  his  blouse,  evidently 
intending  to  draw  it  but  and  cast  it  away. 

Just  then,  however,  there  are  cries  of  terror  from  the 
cigarette  factory  and,  in  a  moment,  the  square  is  filled  with 
screaming  girls,  soldiers,  and  others.  From  the  excited 
utterances  of  the  cigarette  girls  it  is  learned  that  there  has 
been  a  quarrel  between  Carmen  and  another  girl,  and  that 


Copyright  photo  by  A.  Dupont 

Caruso  as  Don  Jose  in  "Carmen" 


Copyright  photo  by  Mishliin 

Caruso  as  Don  Jose  in   "Carmen" 


Georges  Bizet  591 

Carmen  has  wounded  the  latter  with  a  knife.  Zuniga 
promptly  orders  Josi  to  take  two  dragoons  with  him  into 
the  factory  and  arrest  her.  None  abashed,  and  smirking, 
she  comes  out  with  them.  When  the  captain  begins  ques- 
tioning her,  she  answers  with  a  gay  "Tra  la  la,  tra  la  la," 
pitching  her  voice  on  a  higher  note  after  each  question  with 
an  indescribable  effect  of  mockery,  that  makes  her  dark 
beauty  the  more  fascinating. 

Losing  patience,  the  officer  orders  her  hands  tied  behind 
her  back,  while  he  makes  out  the  warrant  for  her  imprison- 
ment. The  soldiers  having  driven  away  the  crowd,  Don 
Jose  is  left  to  guard  Carmen. 

Pacing  up  and  down  the  square,  he  appears  to  be 
avoiding  her.  But  she,  as  if  speaking  to  herself,  or 
thinking  aloud,  and  casting  furtive  glances  at  him,  tells 
of  a  handsome  young  dragoon  with  whom  she  has  fallen 
in  love. 

"He  is  not  a  captain,  nor  even  a  lieutenant — only  a  cor- 
poral. But  he  will  do  what  I  ask — because  he  is  in  love 
with  me!" 

" I? — I  love  you?"   Jose  pauses  beside  her. 

With  a  coquettish  toss  of  the  head  and  a  significant  glance 
she  asks,  "Where  is  the  flower  I  threw  at  you?  What  have 
you  done  with  it  ? "  Then,  softly,  she  sings  another,  alluring 
melody  in  typical  Spanish  dance  measure,  a  "  Seguidilla, " 
"Sur  les  ramparts  de  Seville." 


'  Near  by  the  ramparts  of  Seville, 
Is  the  inn  of  my  friend,  Lillas  Pastia; 
There  I'll  dance  the  gay  Seguidilla — 
And  the  dance  with  my  lover  I'll  share." 


592  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"Carmen!"   cries  Jose,   "you  have  bewitched  me".  .  . 

"  Near  by  the  ramparts  of  Se^'ille  "  .  .  .  "  And  the  dance 
with  my  lover  I'll  share!"  she  murmurs  insinuatingly,  and 
at  the  same  time  she  holds  back  her  bound  wrists  toward 
him.  Quickly  he  undoes  the  knot,  but  leaves  the  rope 
about  her  wrists  so  that  she  still  appears  to  be  a  captive, 
when  the  captain  comes  from  the  guard-house  with  the 
warrant.  He  is  followed  by  the  soldiers,  and  the  crowd, 
drawn  by  curiosity  to  see  Carmen  led  off  to  prison,  again 
fills  the  square. 

Jose  places  her  between  two  dragoons,  and  the  party 
starts  for  the  bridge.  When  they  reach  the  steps,  Carmen 
quickly  draws  her  hands  free  of  the  rope,  shoves  the  soldiers 
aside,  and,  before  they  know  what  has  happened,  dashes 
up  to  the  bridge  and  across  it,  tossing  the  rope  down  into 
the  square  as  she  disappears  from  sight,  while  the  crowd, 
hindering  pursuit  by  blocking  the  steps,  jeers  at  the  dis- 
comfited soldiers. 

Act  II.  The  tavern  of  Lillas  Pastia.  Benches  right  and 
left.  Towards  the  end  of  a  dinner.  The  table  is  in  con- 
fusion. 

Frasquita,  Mercedes,  and  Morales  are  with  Carmen;  also 
other  ofiicers,  gypsies,  etc.  The  officers  are  smoking. 
Two  gypsies  in  a  corner  play  the  guitar  and  two  others 
dance.  Carmen  looks  at  them.  Morales  speaks  to  her; 
she  does  not  listen  to  him,  but  suddenly  rises  and  sings, 
"  Les  tringles  des  sistres  tintaient "  (Ah,  when  of  gay  guitars 
the  sound) . 

Frasquita  and  Mercedes  join  in  the  "Tra  la  la  la"  of  the 
refrain.  While  Carmen  clicks  the  castanets,  the  dance,  in 
which  she  and  others  have  joined  the  two  gypsies,  becomes 
more  rapid  and  violent.  With  the  last  notes  Carmen  drops 
on  a  seat. 

The  refrain,  "Tra  la  la  la,"  with  its  rising  inflection,  is 
a  most  characteristic  and  effective  bit. 


Georges  Bizet 


593 


There  are  shouts  outside,  "Long  live  the  torero!  Long 
live  Escamillo ! "  The  famous  bull-fighter,  the  victor  of  the 
bull  ring  at  Granada,  is  approaching.  He  sings  the  famous 
"Couplets  de  Toreador,"  a  rousing  song  with  refrain  and 
chorus.  "Votre  toast  je  peux  vous  le  rendre"  (To  your 
toast  I  drink  with  pleasure)  begins  the  nvunber.  The 
refrain,  with  chorus,  is  "Toreador,  en  garde"  (Toreador, 
e'er  watchful  be). 


EscamUWs  debonair  manner,  his  glittering  uniform,  his 
reputation  for  prowess,  make  him  a  brilliant  and  striking 
figure.  He  is  much  struck  with  Carmen.  She  is  impressed 
by  him.  But  her  fancy  still  is  for  the  handsome  dragoon, 
who  has  been  under  arrest  since  he  allowed  her  to  escape, 
and  only  that  day  has  been  freed.  The  Toreador,  followed 
by  the  crowd,  which  includes  Morales,  departs. 

It  is  late.  The  tavern  keeper  closes  the  shutters  and 
leaves  the  room.  Carmen,  Frasquita,  and  Mercedes  are 
quickly  joined  by  the  smugglers.  El  Dancairo  and  El  Re- 
mendado.  The  men  need  the  aid  of  the  three  girls  in  whee- 
dling the  coast-guard,  and  possibly  others,  into  neglect  of 
duty.  Their  sentiments,  "En  mati^re  de  tromperie,"  etc. 
(When  it  comes  to  a  matter  of  cheating  ...  let  women 
in  on  the  deal),  are  expressed  in  a  quintet  that  is  full  of 
spontaneous  merriment — in  fact,  nowhere  in  "Carmen," 
not  even  in  the  most  dramatic  passages,  is  the  music  forced. 

3S 


594  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  men  want  the  girls  to  depart  with  them  at  once. 
Carmen  wishes  to  await  Jose.  The  men  suggest  that  she 
win  him  over  to  become  one  of  their  band.  Not  a  bad 
idea,  she  thinks.  They  "leave  it  to  her  to  carry  out  the 
plan. 

Even  now  Jose  is  heard  singing,  as  he  approaches  the 
tavern,  " Halte  la !  Qui  va  la?  Dragon  d'Alcala!"  (Halt 
there!  Who  goes  there?  Dragoon  of  Alcala !) .  He  comes 
in.  Soon  she  has  made  him  jealous  by  telling  him  that  she 
was  obliged  to  dance  for  Morales  and  the  officers.  But 
now  she  will  dance  for  him. 

She  begins  to  dance.  His  eyes  are  fastened  on  her. 
From  the  distant  barracks  a  bugle  call  is  heard.  It  is  the 
"retreat,"  the  summons  to  quarters.  The  dance,  the 
bugle  call,  which  comes  nearer,  passes  by  and  into  the  dis- 
tance, the  lithe,  swaying  figure,  the  wholly  obsessed  look  of 
Jose — these  are  details  of  a  remarkably  effective  scene. 
Jose  starts  to  obey  the  summons  to  quarters.  Carmen 
taunts  him  with  placing  duty  above  his  love  for  her.  He 
draws  from  his  breast  the  flower  she  gave  him,  and,  showing 
it  to  her  in  proof  of  his  passion,  sings  the  pathetic  air,  "La 
fleur  que  tu  m'avais  jetee"  (The  flower  that  once  to  me 
you  gave) . 


Despite  her  lure,  he  hesitates  to  become  a  deserter  and 
follow  her  to  the  mountains.  But  at  that  moment  Morales, 
thinking  to  find  Carmen  alone,  btu-sts  open  the  tavern  door. 
There  is  an  angry  scene  between  Morales  and  Jose.  They 
draw  their  sabres.  The  whole  band  of  smugglers  comes  in 
at  Carmen's  call.  El  Dancairo  and  El  Remandado  cover 
Morales  with  their  pistols,  and  lead  him  off. 

"And  you?  Will  you  now  come  with  us?"  asks  Carmen 
of  Don  Jose. 


Copyright  photo  by  Duponr 


Calv6  as  Carmen 


Copyright  photo  by  Mif^n.Kin 

Amato  as  Escamillo  in  "Carmen' 


Georges  Bizet  595 

He,  a  corporal  who  has  drawn  his  sabre  against  an  officer, 
an  act  of  insubordination  for  which  severe  punishment 
awaits  him,  is  ready  now  to  follow  his  temptress  to  the 
mountains. 

Act  III.  A  rocky  and  picturesque  spot  among  rocks 
on  a  mountain.  At  the  rising  of  the  cxirtain  there  is  com- 
plete soUtude.  After  a  few  moments  a  smuggler  appears 
on  the  summit  of  a  rock,  then  two,  then  the  whole  band, 
descending  and  scrambling  down  the  mass  of  rocks.  Among 
them  are  Carmen,  Don  Josi,  El  Dancairo,  El  Remendado, 
Frasquita,  and  Mercedes. 

The  opening  chorus  has  a  peculiarly  attractive  lilt. 

Don  Jose  is  unhappy.  Carmen's  absorbing  passion  for 
him  has  been  of  brief  duration.  A  creattu-e  of  impulse,  she 
is  fickle  and  wayward.  Don  Josi,  a  soldier  bred,  but  now 
a  deserter,  is  ill  at  ease  among  the  smugglers,  and  finds  cause 
to  reproach  himself  for  sacrificing  everything  to  a  fierce  and 
capricious  beauty,  in  whose  veins  courses  the  blood  of  a 
lawless  race.  Yet  he  still  loves  her  to  distraction,  and  is 
insanely  jealous  of  her.  She  gives  him  ample  cause  for 
jealousy.  It  is  quite  apparent  that  the  impression  made 
upon  her  by  Escamillo,  the  dashing  toreador  and  victor  in 
many  bull-fights,  is  deepening.  Escamillo  has  been  caught 
in  the  lure  of  her  dangerous  beauty,  but  he  doesn't  annoy 
her  by  sulking  in  her  presence,  like  Don  Jose,  but  goes  on 
adding  to  his  laurels  by  winning  fresh  victories  in  the 
bull  ring. 

Now  that  Don  Jose  is  more  than  usually  morose,  she  says, 
with  a  sarcastic  inflection  in  her  voice: 

"If  you  don't  like  our  mode  of  life  here,  why  don't  you 
leave?" 

' '  And  go  far  from  you !  Carmen !  If  you  say  that  again, 
it  will  be  your  death!"  He  half  draws  his  knife  from  his 
belt. 

With  a  shrug  of  her  shoulders  Carmen  replies:  "What 


596  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

matter — I  shall  die  as  fate  wills."  And,  indeed,  she  playe 
with  fate  as  with  men's  hearts.  For  whatever  else  this 
gypsy  may  be,  she  is  fearless. 

While  Don  Jose  wanders  moodily  about  the  camp,  sne 
joins  Frasquita  and  Mercedes,  who  are  telHng  their  fortunes 
by  cards.  The  superstitious  creatures  are  merry  because 
the  cards  favour  them.     Carmen  takes  the  pack  and  draws. 

"Spades! — A  grave!"  she  mutters  darkly,  and  for  a  mo- 
ment it  seems  as  if  she  is  drawing  back  from  a  shadow 
that  has  crossed  her  path.  But  the  bravado  of  the  fatalist 
does  not  long  desert  her. 

"What  matters  it?"  she  calls  to  the  two  girls.  "If  you 
are  to  die,  try  the  cards  a  hundred  times,  they  will  fall  the 
same — spades,  a  grave!"  Then,  glancing  in  the  direction 
where  Don  Jose  stood,  she  adds,  in  a  low  voice,  "First  I, 
then  he!" 

The  "Card  Trio,"  "Melons!  Coupons!"  (Shuffle! 
Throw!)  is  a  brilliant  passage  of  the  score,  broken  in  upon 
by  Carmen's  fatalistic  soliloquy. 

A  moment  later,  when  the  leader  of  the  smugglers  an- 
nounces that  it  is  an  opportune  time  to  attempt  to  convey 
their  contraband  through  the  mountain  pass,  she  is  all  on 
the  alert  and  aids  in  making  ready  for  the  departtu*e. 
Don  Jose  is  posted  behind  a  screen  of  rocks  above  the  camp, 
to  guard  against  a  surprise  from  the  rear,  while  the  smugglers 
make  their  way  through  the  pass. 

Unseen  by  him,  a  guide  comes  out  on  the  rocks,  and, 
making  a  gestiu-e  in  the  direction  of  the  camp,  hastily  with- 
draws. Into  this  wild  passage  of  nature,  where  desperate 
characters  but  a  few  moments  before  were  encamped,  and 
where  Carmen  had  darkly  hinted  at  fate,  as  foretold  by  the 
stars,  there  descends  Micaela,  the  emblem  of  sweetness  and 
purity  in  this  tragedy  of  the  passions.  She  is  seeking  Don 
Jose,  in  hopes  of  reclaiming  him.  Her  romance,  "Je  dis 
que  rien  ne  m'epouvante  "  (I  try  not  to  own  that  I  tremble), 


Georges  Bizet  597 

is  characterized  by  Mr.  Upton  as  "the  most  effective  and 
beautiful  number  in  the  whole  work."  The  introduction 
for  horns  is  an  exquisite  passage,  and  the  expectations  it 
awakens  are  fully  met  by  the  melodious  measures  of  the 
romance. 


Having  looked  about  her,  and  failing  to  find  Don  Josi, 
she  withdraws.  Meanwhile  Don  Josi,  from  the  place 
where  he  stands  guard,  has  caught  sight  of  a  man  approach- 
ing the  camp.  A  shot  rings  out.  It  is  Don  Josi  who  has 
fired  at  the  man  coming  up  the  defile.  He  is  about  to  fire 
again,  but  the  nonchalant  manner  in  which  the  stranger 
comes  on,  and,  waving  his  hat,  calls  out,  "An  inch  lower 
and  it  would  have  been  all  over  with  me!  "causes  him  to 
lower  his  gun  and  advance  to  meet  him. 

"  I  am  Escamillo  and  I  am  here  to  see  Carmen,"  he  says 
gaily.  "She  had  a  lover  here,  a  dragoon,  who  deserted 
from  his  troop  for  her.  She  adored  him,  but  that,  I  under- 
stand, is  all  over  with  now.  The  loves  of  Carmen  never 
last  long." 

"Slowly,  my  friend,"  replies  Don  Josi.  "Before  any 
one  can  take  our  gypsy  girls  away,  he  must  pay  the  price." 

"So,  so.     And  what  is  it?" 

"It  is  paid  with  the  knife,"  grimly  answers  Josi,  as  he 
draws  his  blade. 

"Ah, "  laughs  the  Toreador,  "then  you  are  the  dragoon  of 
whom  Carmen  has  wearied.  I  am  in  luck  to  have  met  you 
so  soon." 

He,  too,  draws.  The  knives  clash,  as  the  men,  the  one  a 
soldier,  the  other  a  bullfighter,  skilfully  thrust  and  parry. 
But  Don  Jose's  is  the  better  weapon,  for,  as  he  catches  one 
of  Escamillo's  thrusts  on  his  blade,  the  Toreador's  knife 


598  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

snaps  short.  It  would  be  a  fatal  mishap  for  EscamUlo, 
did  not  at  that  moment  the  gypsies  and  smugglers,  recalled 
by  the  shot,  hurry  in  and  separate  the  combatants.  Un- 
ruffled by  his  misadventure,  especially  as  his  ardent  glances 
meet  an  answering  gleam  in  Carmen's  eyes,  the  Toreador 
invites  the  entire  band  to  the  coming  bullfight  in  Seville, 
in  which  he  is  to  figure.     With  a  glad  shout  they  assent. 

"Don't  be  angry,  dragoon,"  he  adds  taimtingly.  "We 
may  meet  again." 

For  answer  Don  Jose  seeks  to  rush  at  him,  but  some  of 
the  smugglers  hold  him  back,  while  the  Toreador  leisurely 
goes  his  way. 

The  smugglers  make  ready  to  depart  again.  One  of 
them,  however,  spies  Micaela.  She  is  led  down.  Don  Jose 
is  reluctant  to  comply  with  her  pleas  to  go  away  with  her. 
The  fact  that  Carmen  urges  him  to  do  what  the  girl  says 
only  arouses  his  jealousy.  But  when  at  last  Micaela  tells 
him  that  his  mother  is  dying  of  a  broken  heart  for  him,  he 
makes  ready  to  go. 

In  the  distance  EscamUlo  is  heard  singing: 

"Toreador,  on  guard  e'er  be! 
^       Thou  shalt  read,  in  her  dark  eyes, 
Hopes  of  victory. 
Her  love  is  the  prize! " 

Carmen  listens,  as  if  enraptured,  and  starts  to  run  after 
him.  Don  Jose  with  bared  knife  bars  the  way ;  then  leaves 
with  Micaela. 

Act  IV.  A  square  in  Seville.  At  the  back  the  entrance 
to  the  arena.  It  is  the  day  of  the  bullfight.  The  square 
is  animated.  Watersellers,  others  with  oranges,  fans,  and 
other  articles.     Chorus.     Ballet. 

Gay  the  crowd  that  fills  the  square  outside  the  arena 
where  the  btillfights  are  held.     It  cheers  the  first  strains 


Georges  Bizet  599 

of  music  heard  as  the  festival  procession  approaches,  and 
it  shouts  and  applauds  as  the  various  divisions  go  by  and 
pass  into  the  arena:  "The  Aguacil  on  horseback!" — "The 
chulos  with  their  pretty  Httle  flags !"—"  Look !  The 
bandilleros,  all  clad  in  green  and  spangles,  and  waving  the 
crimson  cloths!" — "The  picadors  with  the  pointed  lances!" 
— "The  cuadrilla  of  toreros!" — "Now!  Vivo,  vivo!  Es- 
camillo!"  And  a  great  shout  goes  up,  as  the  Toreador 
enters,  with  Carmen  on  his  arm. 

There  is  a  brief  but  beautiful  duet  for  Escantillo  and 
Carmen,  "  Si  tu  m'aimes,  Carmen  "  (If  you  love  me,  Carmen), 
before  he  goes  into  the  building  to  make  ready  for  the  bull- 
fight, while  she  waits  to  be  joined  by  some  of  the  smugglers 
and  gypsies,  whom  Escamillo  has  invited  to  be  witnesses, 
with  her,  of  his  prowess. 

As  the  Alcade  crosses  the  square  and  enters  the  arena, 
and  the  crowd  pours  in  after  him,  one  of  the  gypsy  girls 
from  the  smugglers'  band  whispers  to  Carmen: 

"  If  you  value  yotir  life.  Carmen,  don't  stay  here.  He  is 
lurking  in  the  crowd  and  watching  you." 

"He? — Jos6? — I  am  no  coward. — I  fear  no  one. — If 
he  is  here,  we  will  have  it  over  with  now,"  she  answers, 
defiantly,  motioning  to  the  girl  to  pass  on  into  the  arena 
into  which  the  square  is  rapidly  emptying  itself.  Carmen 
lingers  until  she  is  the  only  one  left,  then,  with  a  shrug  of 
contempt,  t\ims  to  enter — but  finds  herself  facing  Don 
Jose,  who  has  sltmk  out  from  one  of  the  side  streets  to 
intercept  her. 

"I  was  told  you  were  here.  I  was  even  warned  to  leave 
here,  because  my  life  was  in  danger.  If  the  hour  has  come, 
well,  so  be  it.  But,  live  or  die,  yours  I  shall  never  be 
again." 

Her  speech  is  abrupt,  rapid,  but  there  is  no  tremor  of 
fear  in  her  voice. 

Don  Jose  is  pale  and  haggard.     His  eyes  are  hollow,  but 


6oo  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

they  glow  with  a  dangerous  light.  His  plight  has  passed 
from  the  pitiable  to  the  desperate  stage. 

"Carmen,"  he  says  hoarsely,  "leave  with  me.  Begin 
life  over  again  with  me  under  another  sky.  I  will  adore 
you  so,  it  will  make  3^ou  love  me." 

"You  never  can  make  me  love  you  again.  No  one  can 
make  me  do  anything.     Free  I  was  born,  free  I  die." 

The  band  in  the  arena  strikes  up  a  fanfare.  There  are 
loud  vivos  for  Escamillo.  Carmen  starts  to  rush  for  the 
entrance.  Driven  to  the  fury  of  despair,  his  knife  drawn, 
as  it  had  been  when  he  barred  her  way  in  the  smugglers' 
camp,  Don  Jose  confronts  her.     He  laughs  grimly. 

"The  man  for  whom  they  are  shouting — he  is  the  one  for 
whom  you  have  deserted  me!" 

"Let  me  pass!"  is  her  defiant  answer. 

"That  you  may  tell  him  how  you  have  spumed  me,  and 
laugh  with  him  over  my  misery!" 

Again  the  crowd  in  the  arena  shouts:  "Victory!  Vic- 
tory!    Vivo,  vivo,  Escamillo,  the  toreador  of  Granada!" 

A  cry  of  triumph  escapes  Carmen. 

"You  love  him!"  hisses  Don  Jose. 

"Yes,  I  love  him!  If  I  must  die  for  it,  I  love  him! 
Victory  for  Escamillo,  victory!  I  go  to  the  victor  of  the 
arena!" 

She  makes  a  dash  for  the  entrance.  Somehow  she  man- 
ages to  get  past  the  desperate  man  who  has  stood  between 
her  and  the  gates.  She  reaches  the  steps,  her  foot  already 
touches  the  landing  above  them,  when  he  overtakes  her, 
and  madly  plunges  his  knife  into  her  back.  With  a  shriek 
heard  above  the  shouts  of  the  crowd  within,  she  staggers, 
falls,  and  rolls  lifeless  down  the  steps  into  the  square. 

The  doors  of  the  arena  swing  open.  Acclaiming  the  prow- 
ess of  Escamillo,  out  pours  the  crowd,  suddenly  to  halt, 
hushed  and  horror-stricken,  at  the  body  of  a  woman  dead 
at  the  foot  of  the  steps. 


Georges  Bizet  6oi 

"I  am  your  prisoner,"  says  Don  Josi  to  an  officer.  "I 
killed  her."  Then,  throwing  himself  over  the  body,  he 
cries: 

"Carmen! —  Carmen!  I  love  you! —  Speak  to  me! — 
I  adore  you!"  , 

At  its  production  at  the  Op^ra  Comique,  "Carmen" 
was  a  failure.  In  view  of  the  world-wide  popularity  the 
work  was  to  achieve,  that  failiu-e  has  become  historic.  It 
had,  however,  one  lamentable  result.  Bizet,  utterly  de- 
pressed and  discouraged,  died  exactly  three  tnonths  after 
the  production,  and  before  he  could  have  had  so  much  as 
an  inkling  of  the  success  "Carmen"  was  to  obtain.  It 
was  not  until  four  months  after  his  death  that  the  opera, 
produced  in  Vienna,  celebrated  its  first  triumph.  Then 
came  Brussels,  London,  New  York.  At  last,  in  1883,  "Car- 
men" was  brought  back  to  Paris  for  what  Pierre  Berton 
calls  "the  brilliant  reparation."  But  Bizet,  mortally 
wounded  in  his  pride  as  an  artist,  had  died  disconsolate. 
The  "reparation  "  was  to  the  public,  not  to  him. 

Whoever  will  take  the  trouble  to  read  extracts  from  the 
reviews  in  the  Paris  press  of  the  first  performance  of  "Car- 
men" will  find  that  the  score  of  this  opera,  so  full  of  well 
rounded,  individual,  and  distinctive  melodies — ensemble, 
concerted,  and  solo — was  considered  too  Wagnerian.  More 
than  one  trace  of  this  curious  attitude  toward  an  opera, 
in  which  the  melodies,  or  tunes,  if  you  choose  so  to  call 
them,  crowd  upon  each  other  almost  as  closely  as  in  "II 
Trovatore,"  and  certainly  are  as  numerous  as  in  "Aida," 
still  can  be  found  in  the  article  on  "Carmen"  in  the  Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Operas,  one  of  the  most  unsatisfactory  essays 
in  that  work.  Nor,  speaking  with  the  authority  of  Berton, 
who  saw  the  second  performance,  was  the  failure  due  to 
defects  in  the  cast.  He  speaks  of  Galli-Mari6  {Carmen), 
Chapuis  (Micaela),  Lherie  {Don  Jose),  and  Bouhy  {Esca- 


6o2  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

milld),  as  "equal  to  their  tasks  ...  an  admirable 
quartet." 

America  has  had  its  Carmen  periods.  Minnie  Hauck 
established  an  individualit}'  in  the  r61e,  which  remained 
potent  until  the  appearance  in  this  country  of  Calv6.  When 
Grau  wanted  to  fill  the  house,  all  he  had  to  do  was  to 
announce  Calve  as  Carmen.  She  so  dominated  the  char- 
acter with  her  beauty,  charm,  diablerie,  and  vocal  art  that, 
after  she  left  the  Metoopolitan  Opera  House,  it  became 
impossible  to  revive  the  opera  there  with  success,  until 
Farrar  made'her  appearance  in  it,  November  19,  19 14,  with 
Alda  as  Micaela,\  Caruso  as  Don  Jose,  and  Amato  as 
Escamillo. 

A  season  or  two  before  Oscar  Hammerstein  gave  "Car- 
men" at  the  Manhattan  Opera  House,  a  French  company, 
which  was  on  its  last  legs  when  it  struck  New  York,  ap- 
peared in  a  performance  of  "Carmen"  at  the  Casino,  and 
the  next  day  went  into  bankruptcy.  The  Carmen  was 
Bressler-Gianoli.  Her  interpretation  brought  out  the 
coarse  fibre  in  the  character,  and  was  so  much  the  opposite 
of  Calve's,  that  it  was  interesting  by  contrast.  It  seemed 
that  had  the  company  been  able  to  sturvive,  "Carmen" 
could  have  been  featured  in  its  repertoire,  by  reason  of 
Bressler-Gianoli's  grasp  of  the  character  as  Merimee  had 
drawn  it  in  his  novel,  where  Carm.en  is  of  a  much  coarser 
personality  than  in  the  opera.  The  day  after  the  perfor- 
mance I  went  to  see  Heinrich  Conried,  then  director  of  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  and  told  him  of  the  impression 
she  had  made,  but  he  did  not  engage  her.  The  Carmen  of 
Bressler-Gianoli  (with  Dalmores,  Trentini,  Ancona,  and 
Gilibert)  was  one  of  the  principal  successes  of  the  Manhat- 
tan Opera  House.  It  was  first  given  December  14,  1906, 
and  scored  the  record  for  the  season  with  nineteen  per- 
formances, "Aida"  coming  next  with  twelve,  and  "Rigo- 
letto"  with  eleven. 


Georges  Bizet  603 

Mary  Garden's  Carmen  is  distinctive  and  highly  in. 
dividualized  on  the  acting  side.  It  lacks  however  the 
lusciousness  of  voice,  the  vocal  lure,  that  a  singer  miist 
lavish  upon  the  r61e  to  make  it  a  complete  success. 

One  of  the  curiosities  of  opera  in  America  was  the  ap- 
pearance at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  November 
25,  1885,  of  Lilli  Lehmann  as  Carmen. 

A  word  is  due  Bizet's  authors  for  the  admirable  libretto 
they  have  made  from  M^rim^e's  novel.  The  character  of 
Carmen  is,  of  course,  the  creation  of  the  novelist.  But  in 
his  book  the  Toreador  is  not  introduced  until  almost  the 
very  end,  and  is  but  one  of  a  succession  of  lovers  whom 
Carmen  has  had  since  she  ensnared  Don  Jose.  In  the  opera 
the  Toreador  is  made  a  principal  character,  and  figures 
prominently  from  the  second  act  on.  Micaela,  so  essential 
for  contrast  in  the  opera,  both  as  regards  plot  and  music, 
is  a  creation  of  the  librettists.  But  their  masterstroke  is 
the  placing  of  the  scene  of  the  murder  just  outside  the 
arena  where  the  bullfight  is  in  progress,  and  in  having  Car- 
men killed  by  Don  Jose  at  the  moment  Escamillo  is  acclaimed 
victor  by  the  crowd  within.  In  the  book  he  slays  her  on  a 
lonely  road  outside  the  city  of  Cordova  the  day  after  the 
bullfight. 

LES  PECHEURS  DE  PERLES 

THE  PEARL  FISHERS 

Besides  "Carmen,"  Bizet  was  the  composer  of  "Les 
Pecheurs  de  Perles"  (The  Pearl  Fishers)  and  "Djamileh." 

"Les  Pecheurs  de  Perles,"  the  words  by  Carrd  and  Cor- 
mon,  is  in  three  acts.  It  was  produced  at  the  Th^tre 
Lyrique,  Paris,  September  29,  1863.  London  saw  it  under 
the  title  of  "Leila,"  April  22,  1887,  at  Covent  Garden;  as 
"Pescatori  di  Perle,"  May  18,  1899.  The  New  York  pro- 
duction was  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  January  11, 


6o4  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

1896,  with  Ca\v6;  and  November  13,  1916,  with  Caruso. 
The  scene  is  Ceylon,  the  period  barbaric. 

The  first  act  shows  a  company  of  pearl  fishers  on  the 
coast.  They  choose  Zurga  as  chief.  He  and  his  friend 
Nadir,  in  the  duet,  "Au  fond  du  temple  saint"  (In  the 
depths  of  the  temple),  recall  their  former  rivalry  for  the 
hand  of  the  beautiful  priestess,  Leila,  and  how  they  swore 
never  to  see  her  again. 

Now  approaches  a  veiled  priestess  who  comes  annually 
to  pray  for  the  success  of  the  pearl  fishers.  She  prays 
to  Brahma.  Nadir  recognizes  Leila.  His  love  for  her 
at  once  revives.  She  goes  into  the  temple.  He  sings  "  Je 
crois  encore  entendre"  (I  hear  as  in  a  dream).  When 
she  returns  and  again  invokes  the  aid  of  Brahma,  she  man- 
ages to  convey  to  Nadir  the  knowledge  that  she  has 
recognized  and  still  loves  him. 

In  the  second  act,  in  a  ruined  temple,  the  high  priest, 
Notirahad,  warns  her,  on  pain  of  death,  to  be  faithful  to  her 
religious  vows.  Leila  tells  him  he  need  have  no  fear.  She 
.never  breaks  a  promise.  The  necklace  she  wears  was 
given  her  by  a  fugitive,  whose  hiding  place  she  refused  to 
reveal,  although  the  daggers  of  his  pursuers  were  pointed 
at  her  heart.  She  had  promised  not  to  betray  him.  Her 
solo,  "  Comme  autrefois,"  etc.  (A  fugitive  one  day),  is 
followed  by  the  retirement  of  the  priest,  and  the  entrance 
of  Nadir.  There  is  an  impassioned  love  duet,  the  effect  of 
which  is  heightened  by  a  raging  storm  without :  "  Ton  coeur 
n'a  pas  compris  (You  have  not  understood).  Nourabad,  re- 
turning unexpectedly,  overhears  the  lovers,  and  svraimons 
the  people.  Zurga,  as  chief  and  judge,  desires  to  be  merciful 
for  the  sake  of  his  friend.  But  Nourabad  tears  the  veil  from 
Leila.  It  is  the  woman  Nadir  has  sworn  never  to  see — the 
woman  Zurga  also  loves.  Enraged,  he  passes  sentence  of 
death  upon  them. 

In  the  third  act,  the  camp  of  Zurga,  Leila  expresses  her 


Georges  Bizet  605 

willingness  to  die,  but  pleads  for  Nadir,  "  Pour  moi  je  ne 
crains  rien  "  (I  have  no  fear).  Zurga  is  implacable,  until 
he  recognizes  the  necklace  she  wears  as  one  he  had  given 
many  years  before  to  the  girl  who  refused  when  he  was  a 
fugitive  to  deliver  him  up  to  his  enemies.  The  scene 
changes  to  the  place  of  execution,  where  has  been  erected 
a  funeral  pyre.  Just  as  the  guilty  lovers  are  to  be  led  to 
their  death,  a  distant  glow  is  seen.  Zurga  cries  out  that 
the  camp  is  on  fire.  The  people  rush  away  to  fight  the 
flames.  Zurga  tells  Leila  and  Nadir  that  he  set  fire  to 
the  camp.  He  then  unfastens  their  chains  and  bids 
them  flee.     Terzet:  "O  limii^re  sainte"  (0  sacred  light). 

From  a  hiding  place  Nourabad  has  witnessed  the  scene. 
When  the  people  return,  he  denounces  Zurga's  act  in 
setting  fire  to  the  camp  and  permitting  Leila  and  Nadir 
to  escape.  Zurga  is  compelled  to  mount  the  pyre.  A 
deep  glow  indicates  that  the  forest  is  ablaze.  The  people 
prostrate  themselves  to  Brahma,  whose  wrath  they  fear. 

Leila  is  for  soprano,  Nadir  tenor,  Zurga  baritone,  Noura- 
bad bass. 

In  the  performance  with  Calv6  only  two  acts  were  given. 
The  rest  of  the  program  consisted  of  "  La  Navarraise,"  by 
Massenet. 

DJAMILEH 

"Djamileh,"  produced  at  the  Op^ra  Comique,  is  in  one 
act,  words  by  Louis  Gallet,  based  on  Alfred  de  Musset's 
pqem,  "Namouna."  The  scene  is  Cairo,  the  time  mediae- 
val, 

Djamileh,  a  beautiful  slave,  is  in  love  with  her  master. 
Prince  Haroun,  a  Turkish  nobleman,  who  is  tired  of  her  and 
is  about  to  sell  her.  She  persuades  his  secretary,  Splendiano, 
who  is  in  love  with  her,  to  aid  her  in  regaining  her  master's 
affections.     She  will  marry  Splendiano  if  she  fails. 


6o6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Accordingly,  with  the  secretary's  aid,  when  the  slave 
dealer  arrives,  she  is,  in  disguise,  among  the  slaves  offered  to 
Haroun.  She  dances.  Haroun  is  entranced,  and  im- 
mediately buys  her.  When  she  discloses  her  identity,  and 
pleads  that  her  ruse  was  prompted  by  her  love  for  him,  he 
receives  her  back  into  his  affections. 

Djamileh  is  for  mezzo-soprano,  the  men's  roles  for  tenor. 
Besides  the  dance,  there  are  a  duet  for  the  men,  "Que 
I'esclave  soit  brune  ou  blonde"  (Let  the  slave  be  dark  or 
fair);  a  trio,  "Je  voyais  au  loin  la  mer  s'^tendre"  (The 
distant  sea  have  I  beheld  extending) ;  and  the  chorus, 
"Quelle  est  cette  belle"  (Who  is  the  charmer). 


Italian  Opera  Since  Verdi 

CHIEF  among  Italian  opera  composers  of  the  present  day 
are  Puccini,  Mascagni,  and  Leoncavallo.  Others  are 
Giordano,  Wolf-Ferrari,  Zandonai,  Montemezzi,  and  Leoni. 

Modem  Italian  opera  differs  from  Italian  opera,  old  style, 
largely  through  the  devotion  of  the  modems  to  effects  of 
realism — the  Italian  verismo,  of  which  we  hear  so  much. 
These  effects  of  realism  are  produced  largely  by  an  orches- 
tral accompaniment  that  constantly  adapts  itself  descrip- 
tively to  what  is  said  and  done  on  the  stage.  At  not 
infrequent  intervals,  however,  when  a  strongly  emotional 
situation  demands  sustained  expression,  the  restless  play  of 
orchestral  depiction  and  the  brief  exchange  of  vocal  phrases 
merge  into  eloquent  melody  for  voice  with  significant  in- 
stnmiental  accompaniment.  Thus  beautiful  vocal  melody, 
fluently  sung,  remains,  in  spite  of  all  tendency  toward  the 
much  vaunted  effect  of  verismo,  the  heart  and  soul,  as  ever, 
of  Italian  opera. 

Much  difl^rence,  however,  exists  between  the  character 
of  the  melody  in  the  modem  and  the  old  Italian  opera. 
Speaking,  of  course,  in  general  terms,  the  old  style  Italian 
operatic  melody  is  sharply  defined  in  outline  and  rhythm, 
whereas  the  melody  of  modern  Italian  opera,  resting  upon  a 
more  complicated  accompaniment,  is  subject  in  a  much 
greater  degree  to  rhythmic  and  harmonic  changes.  Since, 
however,  that  is  little  more  than  saying  that  the  later  style 
of  Italian  opera  is  more  modem  than  the  older,  I  will  add, 
what  seems  to  me  the   most  characteristic   difference  in 

607 


6o8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

their  idioms.  Italian  melody,  old  style,  derives  much  of  its 
character  from  the  dotted  note,  with  the  necessarily  marked 
acceleration  of  the  next  note,  as,  for  example,  in  "Ah! 
nongiunge"  ("La  Sonnambula"),  an  air  which  is  typical 
of  the  melodious  measures  of  Italian  opera  of  the  first  sixty 
or  seventy  years  of  the  last  century;  and  that,  too,  whether 
the  emotion  to  be  expressed  is  ecstasy,  as  in  "Ah!  non 
giunge, "  above;  grief,  as  in  Edgardo's  last  aria  in  "Lucia 
di  Lammermoor, " — "Tuchea  Dio  spiegasti  I'ali"  (Thou 
has  spread  thy  wings  to  Heaven),  the  spirit  of  festive  greet- 
ing as  in  the  chorus  from  the  previous  act  of  the  same 
opera,  or  passionate  love  as  in  Elvira's  and  Ernani's  duet; 
"Ah  morir  potesi  adeso." 

It  does  not  occur  as  frequently  in  Rossini  as  in  Bellini 
and  Donizetti,  while  Verdi,  as  he  approaches  his  ripest 
period,  discards  it  with  growing  frequency.  I  am  also 
aware  that  the  dotted  note  is  found  in  abundance  in  the 
music  of  all  civilized  countries.  Nevertheless  it  is  from  its 
prominence  in  the  melodic  phrase,  the  impetus  imparted  by 
it,  and  the  sharp  reiterated  rhythmic  beat  which  it  usually 
calls  for,  that  Italian  melody  of  the  last  century,  up  to  about 
1870,  derives  much  of  its  energy,  swing,  and  passion.  It  is, 
in  fact,  idiomatic. 

Wholly  different  is  the  idiom  of  modem  Italian  music. 
It  consists  of  the  sudden  stressing  of  the  melody  at  a  vital 
point  by  means  of  the  triolet — the  triplet,  as  ^e  call  it.  An 
excellent  example  is  the  love  motif  for  Nedda  in  "I  Pagli- 
acci, "  by  Leoncavallo. 


If  the  dotted  note  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  careless 
rapture  with  which  the  earlier  Italian  composers  lavished 


Italiein  Opera  Since  Verdi 


609 


melody  after  melody  upon  thqir  scores,  the  triolet  suits  the 
more  laboured  efforts  of  the  modem  Italian  muse. 

Another  effect  typical  of  modem  Italian  opera  is  the  use 
of  the  foreign  note — that  is,  the  sudden  employment  of  a 
note  strange  to  the  key  of  the  composition.  This  probably 
is  done  for  the  sake  of  giving  piquancy  to  a  melody  that 
otherwise  might  be  considered  commonplace.  Turiddu's 
drinking  song  in  "Cavalleria  Rusticana"  is  a  good  example. 


In  orderly  harmonic  progression  the  first  tone  in  the  bass 
of  the  second  bar  would  be  F  sharp,  instead  of  F  natural, 
which  is  a  note  foreign  to  the  key.  This  example  is  quoted 
in  Ferdinand  Pfohl's  Modern  Opera,  in  which  he  says  of  the 
triolet  and  its  use  in  the.  opera  of  modem  Italy,  that  its 
peculiarly  energetic  sweep,  powerful  suspense,  and  quicken- 
ing, fiery  heart-beat  lend  themselves  amazingly  to  the  art 
of  verismo. 


30 


Pietro  Mascagni 
(1863-        ) 

PIETRO  MASCAGNI  was  bom  in  Leghorn,  Italy, 
December  7,  1863.  His  father  was  a  baker.  The 
elder  Mascagni,  ambitious  for  his  boy,  wanted  him  to  study 
law.  The  son  himself  preferred  music,  and  studied  sur- 
reptitiously. An  uncle,  who  sympathized  with  his  aims, 
helped  him  financially.  After  the  uncle's  death  a  noble- 
man. Count  Florestan,  sent  him  to  the  Milan  Conserva- 
tory. There  he  came  under  the  instruction  and  influence 
of  Ponchielli. 

After  two  years'  study  at  the  conservatory  he  began  a 
wandering  life,  officiating  for  the  next  five  years  as  con- 
ductor of  opera  companies,  most  of  which  disbanded 
unexpectedly  and  impecuniously.  He  eked  out  a  meagre 
income,  being  compelled  at  one  time  to  subsist  on  a  plate 
of  macaroni  a  day.  His  finances  were  not  greatly  improved 
when  he  settled  in  Cerignola,  where  he  directed  a  school  for 
orchestra  players  and  taught  pianoforte  and  theory. 

He  was  married  and  in  most  straitened  circumstances 
when  he  composed  "Cavalleria  Rusticana"  and  sent  it 
off  to  the  publisher  Sonzogno,  who  had  offered  a  prize  for 
a  one-act  opera.     It  received  the  award. 

May  17,  1890,  at  the  Constanzi  Theatre,  Rome,  it  had 
its  first  performance.  Before  the  representation  had  pro- 
gressed very  far,  the  half-filled  house  was  in  a  state  of 
excitement  and  enthusiasm  bordering  on  hysteria.     The 

610 


Pietro  Mascagni  6ii 

production  of  "Cavalleria  Rusticana"  remains  one  of  the 
sensational  events  in  the  history  of  opera.  It  made  Mas- 
cagni famous  in  a  night.  Everywhere  it  was  given — and 
it  was  given  everywhere — it  made  the  same  sensational 
success.  Its  vogue  was  so  great,  it  "took"  so  rapidly, 
that  it  was  said  to  have  infected  the  public  with  "Mas- 
cagnitis." 

In  "  'Cavalleria Rusticana '  music  and  text  work  in  wonder- 
ful harmony  in  the  swift  and  gloomy  tragedy."  Nothing 
Mascagni  has  composed  since  has  come  within  hailing 
distance  of  it.  The  list  of  his  operas  is  a  fairly  long  one. 
Most  of  them  have  been  complete  failures.  Iif  America, 
"Iris"  has,  since  its  production,  been  the  subject  of  oc- 
casional revival.  "Lodoletta, "  brought  out  by  Gatti- 
Casazza  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  in  191 8,  had  the 
advantage  of  a  cast  that  included  Caruso  and  Farrar. 
"Isabeau"  had  its  first  performance  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  in  Chicago  by  the  Chicago  Opera  Company  under 
the  direction  of  Cleofante  Campanini  in  191 7,  and  was 
given  by  the  same  organization  in  New  York  in  191 8. 
(See  p.  125.) 

With  Mascagni's  opera,  "Le  Maschere"  (The  Maskers), 
which  was  produced  in  1901,  the  curious  experiment  was 
made  of  having  the  first  night  occur  simultaneously  in  six 
Italian  cities.  It  was  a  failure  in  all,  save  Rome,  where  it 
survived  for  a  short  time. 

Of  the  imfortunate  results  of  Mascagni's  American  visit 
in  1902  not  much  need  be  said.  A  "scratch "  company  was 
gotten  together  for  him.  With  this  he  gave  poor  per- 
formances at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  of  "Cavalleria 
Rusticana,"  "Zanetto, "  and  "Iris."  The  tour  ended  in 
lawsuits  and  failure.  "Zanetto,"  which  is  orchestrated 
only  for  string  band  and  a  harp,  was  brought  out  with 
"Cavalleria  Rusticana"  in  a  double  bill,  October  8,  1902; 
"Iris,"  October  i6th. 


6i2  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

CAVALLERIA  RUSTICANA 

RUSTIC  CHIVALRY 

Opera,  in  one  act,  by  Mascagni;  words  by  Giovanni  Targioni-Tog- 
getti  and  G.  Menasci,  the  libretto  being  founded  on  a  story  by  Giovanni 
Verga.  Produced,  Constanzi  Theatre,  Rome,  May  17,  1890.  London, 
Shaftesbury  Theatre,  October  19,  1891.  Covent  Garden,  May  16, 
1892.  America:  Philadelphia,  Grand  Opera  House,  September  9, 
1891^  under  the  direction  of  Gustav  Hinrichs,  with  Selma  Kronold 
{Santiizza) ,  Miss  Campbell  {Lola) ,  Jeannie  Teal  (Lucia) ,  Guille  ( Turridu) , 
Del  Puente  (Alfio).  Chicago,  September  30,  1891,  with  Miimie  Hauck  as 
Santuzza.  New  York,  October  i,  1891,  at  an  afternoon  "  dress  rehearsal " 
at  the  Casing),  under  the  direction  of  Rudolph  Aronson,  with  Laura 
Bellini  {Santuzza),  Grace  Golden  {Lola),  Helen  von  Doenhof  {Lucia), 
Charles  Bassett  {Turridu),  William  Pruette  {Alfio),  Gustav  Kerker, 
conductor,  Heinrich  Conried,  stage  manager.  Evening  of  same  day, 
at  the  Lenox  Lyceum,  under  the  direction  of  Oscar  Hammerstein,  with 
Mme.  Janouschoffsky  {Santuzza),  Mrs.  Pemberton  Hincks  {Lola), 
Mrs.  Jennie  Bohner  {Lucia),  Payne  Clarke  {Turiddu),  Herman  Ceroid 
{Alfio),  Adolph  Neuendorfif,  conductor.  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
December  30,  1891,  with  Eames  as  Santuzza;  November  29, 1893,  with 
Ca.\v6  (debut)  as  Santuzza. 

Characters 

Turiddu,  a  young  soldier Tenor 

Alfio,  the  village  teamster Baritone 

Lola,  his  wife Mezzo-Soprano 

Mamma  Lucia,  Turiddu's  mother Contralto 

Santuzza,  a  village  girl Soprano 

Villagers,  peasants,  boys. 
Time — The  present,  on  Easter  day.  Place — A  village  in  Sicily. 

"Cavalleria  Rusticana"  in  its  original  form  is  a  short 
story,  compact  and  tense,  by  Giovanni  Verga.  From  it 
was  made  the  stage  tragedy,  in  which  Eleonora  Duse  dis- 
played her  great  powers  as  an  actress.  It  is  a  drama  of 
swift  action  and  intense  emotion;  of  passion,  betrayal,  and 
retribution.  Much  has  been  made  of  the  role  played  by 
the  "book"  in  contributing  to  the  success  of  the  opera.     It 


Pietro  Mascagnl  613 

is  a  first-rate  libretto — one  of  the  best  ever  put  forth.  It 
inspired  the  composer  to  what  so  far  has  remained  his  only 
significant  achievement.  But  only  in  that  respect  is  it 
responsible  for  the  success  of  "Cavalleria  Rusticana"  as 
an  opera.  The  hot  blood  of  the  story  courses  through  the 
music  of  Mascagni,  who  in  his  score  also  has  quieter  pas- 
sages, that  make  the  cries  of  passion  the  more  poignant. 
Like  practically  every  enduring  success,  that  of  "Cavalleria 
Rusticana"  rests  upon  merit.  From  beginning  to  end  it  is 
an  inspiration.  In  it,  in  1890,  Mascagni,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one,  "found  himself,"  and  ever  since  has  been 
trying,  unsuccessfully,  to  find  himself  again. 

The  prelude  contains  three  passages  of  significance  in  the 
development  of  the  story.  The  first  of  these  is  the  phrase 
of  the  despairing  Santuzza,  in  which  she  cries  out  to  Turiddu 
that,  despite  his  betrayal  and  desertion  of  her,  she  still 
loves  and  pardons  him.  The  second  is  the  melody  of  the 
duet  between  Santuzza  and  Turiddu,  in  which  she  implores 
him  to  remain  with  her  and  not  to  follow  Lola  into  the 
church.  The  third  is  the  air  in  Sicilian  style,  the  ' '  Siciliano, " 
which,  as  part  of  the  prelude,  Turiddu  sings  behind  the 
curtain,  in  the  manner  of  a  serenade  to  Lola,  "O  Lola, 
bianca  come  fior  di  spino"  (O  Lola,  fair  as  a  smiling  flower). 

With  the  end  of  the  "Siciliano"  the  curtain  rises.  It 
discloses  a  public  square  in  a  Sicilian  village.  On  one  side, 
in  the  background,  is  a  church,  on  the  other  Mamma 
Lucia's  wineshop  and  dwelling.  It  is  Easter  morning. 
Peasants,  men,  women,  and  children  cross  or  move  about  the 
stage.  The  chiirch  bells  ring,  the  church  doors  swing  open, 
people  enter.  A  chorus,  in  which,  mingled  with  gladness 
over  the  mild  beauty  of  the  day,  there  also  is  the  lilt  of 
religious  ecstasy,  follows.  Like  a  refrain  the  women  voice 
and  repeat  "Gli  aranci  olezzanosui  verdi  margini"  (Sweet 
is  the  air  with  the  blossoms  of  oranges).  They  intone 
"La  Virgine serena allietasi  del  Salvator "  (The  Holy  Mother 


6i4  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

mild,  in  ecstasy  fondles  the  child),  and  sing  of  "Tempo  e 
si  momori, "  etc.  (Murmurs  of  tender  song  tell  of  a  joyful 
world).  The  men,  meanwhile,  pay  a  tribute  to  the  industry 
and  charm  of  woman.  Those  who  have  not  entered  the 
church,  go  off  singing.  Their  voices  die  away  in  the 
distance. 

Santuzza,  sad  of  mien,  approaches  Mamma  Lucia's 
house,  just  as  her  false  lover's  mother  comes  out.  There 
is  a  brief  colloquy  between  the  two  women.  Santuzza 
asks  for  Turiddu.  His  mother  answers  that  he  has  gone  to 
Francofonte  to  fetch  some  wine.  Santuzza  tells  her  that 
he  was  seen  during  the  night  in  the  village.  The  girl's 
evident  distress  touches  Mamma  Lucia.  She  bids  her  enter 
the  house.  ' 

"I  may  not  step  across  your  threshold,"  exclaims  San- 
tuzza. "I  cannot  pass  it,  I,  most  unhappy  outcast!  Ex- 
communicated ! ' ' 

Mamma  Lucia  may  have  her  suspicions  of  Santuzza' s 
plight .  * '  What  of  my  son  ?"  she  asks .  "  What  have  you  to 
tell  me?" 

But  at  that  moment  the  cracking  of  a  whip  and  the 
jingling  of  bells  are  heard  from  off  stage.  Alfio,  the  team- 
ster, comes  upon  the  scene.  He  is  accompanied  by  the 
villagers.  Cheerfully  he  sings  the  praises  of  a  teamster's 
life,  also  of  Lola's,  his  wife's,  beauty.  The  villagers  join 
him  in  chorus,  "II  cavallo  scalpita"  (Gayly  moves  the 
tramping  horse). 

Alfio  asks  Mamma  Lucia  if  she  still  has  on  hand  some  of 
her  fine  old  wine.  She  tells  him  it  has  given  out.  Turiddu 
has  gone  away  to  buy  a  fresh  supply  of  it. 

"No, "  says  Alfi^.  "He  is  here.  I  saw  him  this  morning 
standing  not  far  from  my  cottage." 

Mamma  Lucia  is  about  to  express  great  surprise.  San- 
tuzza is  quick  to  check  her. 

Alfio  goes  his  way.     A  choir  in  the  church  intones  the 


Gadski  as  Santuzza  in  "Cavalleria  Rusticana' 


Pietro  Mascagni  615 

"Regina  Coeli."  The  people  in  the  square  join  in  the 
"AUelujas."  Then  they  kneel  and,  led  by  Saniuzza's 
voice,  sing  the  Resurrection  hymn,  "Innegiamo,  il  Signor 
non  e  morto"  (Let  us  sing  of  the  Lord  now  victorious). 
The  "AUelujas"  resound  in  the  church,  which  all,  save 
Mamma  Lucia  and  Santuzza,  enter. 

Mamma  Lucia  asks  the  girl  why  she  signalled  her  to 
remain  silent  when  Alfio  spoke  of  Turiddu's  presence  in  the 
village.  "Voi  lo  sapete"  (Now  you  shall  know),  exclaims 
Santuzza,  and  in  one  of  the  most  impassioned  numbers  of 
the  score,  pours  into  the  ears  of  her  lover's  mother  the  story 
of  her  betrayal.  Before  Turiddu  left  to  serve  his  time  in 
the  army,  he  and  Lola  were  in  love  with  each  other.  But, 
tiring  of  awaiting  his  return,  the  fickle  Lola  married  Alfio. 
Turridu,  after  he  had  come  back,  made  love  to  Santuzza 
and  betrayed  her;  now,  lured  by  Lola,  he  has  taken  advan- 
tage of  Alfio' s  frequent  absences,  and  has  gone  back  to  his 
first  love.  Mamma  Lucia  pities  the  girl,  who  begs  that  she 
go  into  church  and  pray  for  her. 

Turiddu  comes,  a  handsome  fellow.  Santuzza  upbraids 
him  for  pretending  to  have  gone  away,  when  instead  he 
has  surreptitiously  been  visiting  Lola.  It  is  a  scene  of 
vehemence.  But  when  Turiddu  intimates  that  his  life 
would  be  in  danger  were  Alfic  to  know  of  his  visits  to 
Lola,  the  girl  is  terrified.  "Battimi,  insultami,  t'amo  e 
perdono"  (Beat  me,  insult  me,  I  still  love  and  forgive 
you). 

Such  is  her  mood — despairing,  yet  relenting.  But 
Lola's  voice  is  heard  off  stage.  Her  song  is  carefree,  a  key 
to  her  character,  which  is  fickle  and  selfish,  with  a  touch  of 
the  cruel.  "Fior  di  giaggiolo"  (Bright  flower,  so  glowing) 
runs  her  song.  Heard  off  stage,  it  yet  conveys  in  its  melody, 
its  pauses,  and  inflections,  a  quick  sketch  in  music  of  the 
heartless  coquette,  who,  to  gratify  a  whim,  has  stolen 
Turiddu  from  Santuzza.     She  mocks  the  girl,  then  enters 


6i6 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


the  chtirch.     Only  a  few  minutes  has  she  been  on  the  stage, 
but  Mascagni  has  let  us  know  all  about  her. 

A  highly  dramatic  scene,  one  of  the  most  impassioned 
outbursts  of  the  score,  occurs  at  this  point.  Turiddu  turns 
to  follow  Lola  into  the  church.  Santuzza  begs  him  to  stay. 
"No,  no,  Turiddu,  rimani,  rimani,  ancora — Abbandonarmi 
dunque  tu  vuoi?"  (No,  no,  Turiddu!  Remain  with  me 
now  and  forever!  Love  me  again!  How  can  you  forsake 
me?). 


A  highly  dramatic  phrase,  already  heard  in  the  prelude, 
occurs  at  "La  tua  Santuzza  piange  t'implora  (Lo!  here 
thy  Santuzza,  weeping,  implores  thee). 

Turiddu  repulses  her.  She  clings  to  him.  He  loosens 
her  hold  and  casts  her  from  him  to  the  ground.  When  she 
rises,  he  has  followed  Lola  into  the  church. 

But  the  avenger  is  nigh.  Before  Santuzza  has  time  to 
think,  Alfio  comes  upon  the  scene.  He  is  looking  for  Lola. 
To  him  in  the  fewest  possible  words,  and  in  the  white  voice 
of  suppressed  passion,  Santuzza  tells  him  that  his  wife  has 
been  unfaithful  with  Turiddu.  In  the  brevity  of  its  recita- 
tives, the  tense  stunming  up  in  melody  of  each  dramatic 
situation  as  it  develops  in  the  inexorably  swift  unfolding 
of  the  tragic  story,  lies  the  strength  of  "Cavalleria  Rusti- 
cana." 

Santuzza  and  Alfio  leave.  The  square  is  empty.  But 
the  action  goes  on  in  the  orchestra.  For  the  intermezzo 
— the  famous  intermezzo — which  follows,  recapitulates,  in 
its  forty-eight  bars,  what  has  gone  before,  and  foreshadows 
the  tragedy  that  is  impending.  There  is  no  restating  here 
of  leading  motives.  The  effect  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  terse,  vibrant  melodic  progression.  It  is  melody  and 
yet  it  is  drama.     Therein  lies  its  merit.     For  no  piece  of 


Pietro  Mascagni  617 

serious  music  can  achieve  the  world-wide  popularity  of 
this  intermezzo  and  not  possess  merit. 


Mr.  Krehbiel,  in  A  Second  Book  of  Operas,  gives  an  in- 
stance of  its  unexampled  appeal  to  the  multitude.  A 
burlesque  on  this  opera  was  staged  in  Vienna.  The  author 
of  the  burlesque  thought  it  would  be  a  great  joke  to  have  the 
intermezzo  played  on  a  hand-organ.  Up  to  that  point  the 
audience  had  been  hilarious.  But  with  the  first  wheezy 
tone  of  the  grinder  the  people  settled  down  to  silent  atten- 
tion, and,  when  the  end  came,  burst  into  applause.  Even 
the  hand-organ  could  not  rob  the  intermezzo  of  its  charm 
for  the  public ! 

What  is  to  follow  in  the  opera  is  quickly  accomplished. 
The  people  come  out  of  church.  Turiddu,  in  high  spirits, 
because  he  is  with  Lola  and  because  Santuzza  no  longer  is 
hanging  around  to  reproach  him,  invites  his  friends  over 
to  his  mother's  wineshop.  Their  glasses  are  filled.  Turid- 
du dashes  off  a  drinking  song,  "Viva,  I  vino  spumeggiante " 
(Hail !  the  ruby  wine  now  flowing) . 

The  theme  of  this  song  will  be  found  quoted  on  p.  609. 
.  Alfio  joins  them.  Turiddu  offers  him  wine.  He  refuses 
it.  The  women  leave,  taking  Lola  with  them.  In  a  brief 
exchange  of  words  Alfio  gives  the  challenge.  In  Sicilian 
fashion  the  two  men  embrace,  and  Turiddu,  in  token  of 
acceptance,  bites  Alfi^'s  ear.  Alfio  goes  off  in  the  direction 
of  the  place  where  they  are  to  test  their  skill  with  the 
stiletto. 

Turiddu  calls  for  Mamma  Lucia.  He  is  going  away,  he 
tells  her.  At  home  the  wine  cup  passes  too  freely.  He  must 
leave.  If  he  should  not  come  back  she  must  be  like  a  kindly 
mother  to  Santuzza — "Santa,  whom  I  have  promised  to 
lead  to  the  altar." 


6i8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"Un  bacio,  mamma!  Un  alto  bacio! — Addio!"  (One 
kiss,  one  kiss,  my  mother.     And  yet  another.   '  Farewell !) 

He  goes.  Mamma  Lucia  wanders  aimlessly  to  the  back 
of  the  stage.  She  is  weeping.  Santuzza  comes  on,  throws 
her  arms  around  the  poor  woman's  neck.  People  crowd 
upon  the  scene.  All  is  suppressed  excitement.  There  is  a 
murmur  of  distant  voices.  A  woman  is  heard  calling  from 
.  afar :     * '  They  have  murdered  neighbour  Turiddu ! ' ' 

Several  women  enter  hastily.  One  of  them,  the  one 
whose  voice  was  heard  in  the  distance,  repeats,  but  now  in  a 
shriek,  "Hanno  ammazzato  compre  compare  Turiddu!" — 
(They  have  murdered  neighbour  Turiddu !) 

Santuzza  falls  in  a  swoon.  The  fainting  form  of  Mamma 
Lu^ia  is  supported  by  some  of  the  women. 

"Cala  rapidamente  la  tela"  (The  curtain  falls  rapidly). 

A  tragedy  of  Sicily,  hot  in  the  blood,  is  over. 

When  "Cavalleria  Rusticana"  was  produced,  no  Italian 
opera  had  achieved  such  a  triumph  since  "  Aida" — a  period 
of  nearly  twenty  years.  It  was  hoped  that  Mascagni  would 
prove  to  be  Verdi's  successor,  a  hope  which,  needless  to  say, 
has  not  been  fulfilled. 

To  "  Cavalleria  Rusticana, "  however,  we  owe  the  succes- 
sion of  short  operas,  usually  founded  on  debased  and  sordid 
material,  in  which  other  composers  have  paid  Mascagni 
the  doubtful  compliment  of  imitation  in  hopes  of  achieving 
similar  success.  Of  all  these,  "Pagliacci,"  by  Leoncavallo, 
is  the  only  one  that  has  shared  the  vogue  of  the  Mascagni 
opera.     The  two  make  a  remarkably  effective  double  bill. 

L'AMICO  FRITZ 

FRIEND   FRITZ 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Pietro  Mascagni;  text  by  Suaratoni,  from  the 
story  by  Erckmann-Chatrian.  Produced,  Rome,  1891.  Philadelphia, 
by  Gustav  Hinrichs,  June  8,  1892.  New  York,  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  with  Calv^  as  Susel,  January  10,  1894. 


Pietro  Mascagni  619 

Characters 

Fritz  Kobus,  a  rich  bachelor Tenor 

David,  a  Rabbi Baritone 

^fKEcri'"-^-'''"'^ ]rz: 

SusEL,  a  farmer's  daughter Soprano 

Beppe,  a  gypsy Soprano 

Caterina,  a  housekeeper Contralto 

Time — The  present.  Place — Alsace. 

Act  I.  Fritz  Kobus,  a  well-to-do  landowner  and  con- 
firmed bachelor,  receives  felicitations  on  his  fortieth  birth- 
day. He  invites  his  friends  to  dine  with  him.  Among  the 
guests  is  Susel,  his  tenant's  daughter,  who  presents  him  with 
a  nosegay,  and  sits  beside  him.  Never  before  has  he  realized 
her  charm.  Rabbi  David,  a  confirmed  matchmaker,  wagers 
with  the  protesting  Fritz  that  he  will  soon  be  married. 

Act  II.  Friend  Fritz  is  visiting  Susel's  father.  The 
charming  girl  mounts  a  ladder  in  the  garden,  picks  cherries, 
and  throws  them  down  to  Fritz,  who  is  charmed.  When 
Rabbi  David  appears  and  tells  him  that  he  has  found  a 
suitable  husband  for  Susel,  Fritz  cannot  help  revealing  his 
own  feelings. 

Act  III.  At  home  again  Fritz  finds  no  peace.  David 
tells  him  Susel's  marriage  has  been  decided  on.  Fritz  loses 
his  temper;  says  he  will  forbid  the  bans.  Susel,  pale  and 
sad,  comes  in  with  a  basket  of  fruit.  When  her  wedding  is 
mentioned  she  bursts  into  tears.  That  gives  Fritz  his  chance 
which  he  improves.  David  wins  his  wager,  one  of  Fritz's 
vineyards,  which  he  promptly  bestows  upon  Susel  as  a 
dowry. 

The  duet  of  the  cherries  in  the  second  act  is  the  jprincipal 
musical  number  in  the  opera. 

IRIS 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Mascagni.  Words  by  Luigi  lUica.  Produced, 
Constanzi  Theatre,  Rome,  November  22,  1898;  revised  version,  La 
Scala,  Milan,  1899.     Philadelphia,  October  14,  1902,  and  Metropolitan 


620  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Opera  House,  New  York,  October  i6,  1902,  under  the  composer's  direc- 
tion (Marie  Fameti,  as  Iris);  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  1908,  with 
Eames  {Iris),  Caruso  {Osaka),  Scotti,  and  Joumet;  April  3,  1915,  Bori, 
Botta,  and  Scotti. 

Characters 

II  Cieco,  the  blind  man Bass 

Iris,  his  daughter Soprano 

Osaka Tenor 

Kyoto,  a  takiomati Baritone 

Ragpickers,  shopkeepers,  geishas,  mousmes  (laundry  girls),  sumarai, 
citizens,  strolling  players,  three  women  representing  Beauty, 
Death,  and  the  Vampire;  a  yoimg  girl. 
Time — ^Nineteenth  century.        "  Place — Japan- 

Act  I.  The  home  of  Iris  near  the  city.  The  hour  is 
before  dawn.  The  music  depicts  the  passage  from  night 
into  day.  It  rises  to  a  crashing  climax — the  instrumenta- 
tion including  tamtams,  cymbals,  drums,  and  bells — while 
voices  reiterate,  "Galore!  Luce!  Amor!"  (Warmth!  Light! 
Love!).  In  warmth  and  light  there  are  love  and  life.  A 
natiiralistic  philosophy,  to  which  this  opening  gives  the  key, 
runs  through  "Iris." 

Fujiyama  glows  in  the  early  morning  light,  as  Iris,  who 
loves  only  her  blind  father,  comes  to  the  door  of  her  cottage. 
She  has  dreamed  that  monsters  sought  to  injure  her  doll, 
asleep  under  a  rosebush.  With  the  coming  of  the  sun  the 
monsters  have  fled.  Mousmes  come  to  the  bank  of  the 
stream  and  sing  prettily  over  their  work. 

Iris  is  young  and  beautiful.  She  is  desired  by  Osaka, 
a  wealthy  rake.  Kyoto,  keeper  of  a  questionable  resort, 
plots  to  obtain  her  for  him.  He  comes  to  her  cottage  with  a 
marionette  show.  While  Iris  is  intent  upon  the  perform- 
ance, three  geisha  girls,  representing  Beauty,  Death,  and 
the  Vampire,  dance  about  her.  They  conceal  her  from  view 
by  spreading  their  skirts.  She  is  seized  and  carried  off. 
Osaka,  by  leaving  money  for  the  blind  old  father,  makes  the 


Pietro  Mascagni  621 

abduction  legal.  When  //  Cieco  returns,  he  is  led  to  believe 
that  his  daughter  has  gone  voluntarily  to  the  Yoshiwara.  In 
a  rage  he  starts  out  to  find  her. 

Act  II.  Interior  of  the  "Green  House"  in  the  Yoshi- 
wara. Iris  awakens.  At  first  she  thinks  it  is  an  awakening 
after  death.  But  death  brings  paradise,  while  she  is  un- 
happy. Osaka,  who  has  placed  jewels  beside  her,  comes  to 
woo,  but  vainly  seeks  to  arouse  her  passions.  In  her  purity 
she  remains  unconscious  of  the  significance  of  his  words  and 
caresses.  His  brilliant  attire  leads  her  to  mistake  him  for 
Tor,  the  sun  god,  but  he  tells  her  he  is  Pleasure.  That  fright- 
ens her.  For,  as  she  narrates  to  him,  one  day,  in  the  temple, 
a  priest  told  her  that  pleastire  and  death  were  one. 

Osaka  wearies  of  her  innocence  and  leaves  her.  But 
Kyoto,  wishing  to  lure  him  back,  attires  her  in  transparent 
garments  and  places  her  upon  a  balcony.  The  crowd  in  the 
street  cries  out  in  amazement  over  her  beauty.  Again 
Osaka  wishes  to  buy  her.  She  hears  her  father's  voice. 
Joyously  she  makes  her  presence  known  to  him.  He, 
ignorant  of  her  abduction  and  believing  her  a  voluntary 
inmate  of  the  "Green  House,"  takes  a  handful  of  mud 
from  the  street,  flings  it  at  her,  and  curses  her.  In  terror, 
she  leaps  from  a  window  into  the  sewer  below. 

Act  III.  Ragpickers  and  scavengers  are  dragging  the 
sewer  before  daylight.  In  song  they  mock  the  moon.  A 
flash  of  light  from  the  mystic  mountain  awakens  what  is 
like  an  answering  gleam  in  the  muck.  They  discover  and 
drag  out  the  body  of  Iris.  They  begin  to  strip  her  of  her 
jewels.  She  shows  signs  of  life.  The  sordid  men  and 
women  flee.  The  rosy  light  from  Fujiyama  spreads  over  the 
sky.  Warmth  and  light  come  once  more.  Iris  regains 
consciousness.  Spirit  voices  whisper  of  earthly  existence 
and  its  selfish  aspirations  typified  by  the  knavery  of  Kyoto, 
the  lust  of  Osaka,  the  desire  of  Iris's  father,  II  Cieco,  for  the 
comforts  of  life  through  her  ministrations. 


622  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Enough  strength  comes  back  to  her  for  her  to  acclaim  the 
sanctity  of  the  sun.  In  its  warmth  and  light — the  expres- 
sion of  Nature's  love — she  sinks,  as  if  to  be  absorbed  by 
Nature,  into  the  blossoming  field  that  spreads  about  her. 
Again,  as  in  the  beginning,  there  is  the  choired  tribute  to 
warmth,  light,  love — the  sim! 

Partly  sordid,  partly  ethereal  in  its  exposition,  the  sig- 
nificance of  this  story  has  escaped  Mascagni,  save  in  the 
climax  of  the  opening  allegory  of  the  work.  Elsewhere 
he  employs  instnunents  associated  by  us  with  Oriental 
music,  but  the  spirit  of  the  Orient  is  lacking.  In  a  score 
requiring  subtlety  of  invention,  skill  in  instrumentation, 
and,  in  general,  the  gift  for  poetic  expression  in  music,  these 
qualities  are  not.  The  scene  of  the  mousmes  in  the  first 
act  with  Iris's  song  to  the  flowers  of  her  garden,  "In  pure 
stille"    (  );  the  vague,   yet  unmistakable  hum  of 

Japanese  melody  in  the  opening  of  Act  II. ;  and  her  narrative 
in  the  scene  with  Osaka  in  the  same  act,  "Un  di  al  tempio" 
(One  day  at  the  temple) — these,  with  the  hymn  to  the  sun, 
are  about  the  only  passages  that  require  mention. 

LODOLETTA 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Mascagni.  Words  by  Gioacchino  Forzano, 
after  Ouida's  novel.  Two  Little  Wooden  Shoes.  Produced,  Rome,  April 
30,  191 7.  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York,  January  12,  1918, 
with  Farrar  (later  in  the  season,  Florence  Easton)  as  Lodoletta,  Caruso 
(Flammen),  Amato  (Gianetto),  and  Didur  (Antonio). 

Characters 

Lodoletta Soprano 

Flammen Tenor 

Franz Bass 

Gianetto Baritone 

Antonio Bass 

A  Mad  Woman Mezzo-Soprano 

Vannard Mezzo-Soprano 


Pietro  Mascagni  623 

Maud Soprano 

A  Voice Tenor 

A  letter  carrier,  an  old  violinist. 
Time — Second  empire.  .     Place — A  Dutch  village. 


Lodolelta,  a  young  girl,  who  lives  in  a  little  Dutch  village, 
is  a  foundling,  who  has  been  brought  up  by  old  Antonio. 
He  discovered  her  as  an  infant  in  a  basket  of  flowers  at  the 
lakeside.  When  she  has  grown  up  to  be  sixteen,  she  is 
eager  for  a  pair  of  red  wooden  shoes,  but  Antonio  cannot 
afford  to  buy  them.  Flammen,  a  painter  from  Paris,  offers 
him  a  gold  piece  for  a  roadside  Madonna  he  owns.  Antonio 
takes  it,  and  with  it  buys  the  shoes  for  Lodoletta.  Soon 
afterwards  the  old  man  is  killed  by  a  fall  from  a  tree.  Lodo- 
letta is  left  alone  in  the  world. 

Flammen,  who  has  conceived  a  deep  affection  for  her, 
persuades  her  to  be  his  model.  This  makes  the  villagers 
regard  her  with  suspicion.  She  begs  him  to  go.  He  returns 
to  Paris,  only  to  find  that  absence  makes  him  fonder  of  the 
girl  than  ever.  He  returns  to  the  village.  Lodoletta  has 
disappeared.  His  efforts  to  find  her  fail.  On  New  Year's 
his  friends  gather  at  his  villa  to  celebrate,  and  make  him 
forget  his  love  affair  in  gayety.  The  celebration  is  at  its 
height,  when  Lodoletta,  who,  in  her  turn,  has  been  searching 
for  Flammen,  reaches  the  garden.  She  has  wandered  far 
and  is  almost  exhausted,  but  has  found  Flammen' s  house 
at  last.  She  thinks  he  is  expecting  her,  because  the  villa  is 
so  brilliantly  illuminated.  But,  when  she  looks  through  the 
window  upon  the  gay  scene,  she  falls,  cold,  exhausted,  and 
disillusioned,  in  the  snow  just  as  midnight  sounds.  Flam- 
men's  party  of  friends  depart,  singing  merrily.  As  he  turns 
back  toward  the  house  he  discovers  a  pair  of  little  red  wooden 
shoes.  They  are  sadly  worn.  But  he  recognizes  them. 
He  looks  for  Lodoletta,  only  to  find  her  frozen  to  death  in 
the  snow. 


624  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

It  may  be  that  "  Lodoletta's "  success  at  its  production 
in  Rome  was  genuine.  Whatever  acclaim  it  has  received 
at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  is  due  to  the  fine  cast 
with  which  it  has  been  presented.  There  is  little  spontane- 
ity in  the  score.  A  spirit  of  youthfulness  is  supposed  to 
pervade  the  first  act,  but  the  composer's  efforts  are  so 
apparent  that  the  result  is  childish  rather  than  youthful. 
Moreover,  as  Henry  T.  Finck  writes  in  the  N.  Y.  Evening 
Post,  "Lodoletta"  seems  to  have  revived  some  of  the 
dramatic  inconsistencies  of  the  old-fashioned  kind  of  Italian 
opera.  For  instance,  in  the  last  act,  the  scene  is  laid  out- 
side Flammen's  villa  in  Paris  on  New  Year's  eve — it  is  zero 
weather  to  all  appearances,  although  there  is  an  inter- 
mittent snowstorm — but  Flammen  and  Franz,  and  later  all 
his  guests,  come  out  without  wraps,  and  stay  for  quite 
awhile.  Later  Lodoletta,  well  wrapped  (though  in  rags), 
appears,  and  is  quickly  frozen  to  death. 

The  scene  of  the  first  act  is  laid  in  the  village  in  April. 
Lodoletta's  cottage  is  seen  and  the  shrine  with  the  picture  of 
the  Madonna.  It  is  in  order  to  copy  or  obtain  this  that 
Flammen  comes  from  Paris.  In  the  background  is  the  tree 
which  Antonio  climbs  and  from  which,  while  he  is  plucking 
blossom-laden  branches  for  the  spring  festival,  he  falls  and 
is  killed — a  great  relief,  the  character  is  so  dull  There  is 
much  running  in  and  out,  and  singing  by  boys  and  girls  in 
this  act.  The  music  allotted  to  them  is  pretty  without 
being  extraordinarily  fetching.  An  interchange  of  phrases 
between  Flammen  and  Lodoletta  offers  opportunity  for  high 
notes  to  the  tenor,  but  there  is  small  dramatic  significance 
in  the  music. 

In  the  second  act  the  stage  setting  is  the  same,  except  that 
the  season  is  autumn.  There  is  a  song  for  Lodoletta,  and, 
as  in  Act  I.,  episodes  for  her  and  the  children,  who  exclaim 
delightedly,  when  they  see  the  picture  Flammen  has  been 
painting,  "E  Lodoletta  viva,  e  bella"   (See!     Lodoletta, 


Pietro  Mascagni  625 

and  so  pretty!).     But  there  is  little  progress  made  in  this 
act.     Much  of  it  has  the  effect  of  repetition. 

In  the  third  act  one  sees  the  exterior  of  Flammen's  villa, 
and  through  the  open  gates  of  the  courtyard  Paris  in  the 
midst  of  New  Year's  gayety.  The  merriment  within  the 
villa  is  suggested  by  music  and  silhouetted  figures  against 
the  windows.  Some  of  the  guests  dash  out,  throw  confetti, 
and  indulge  in  other  pranks,  which,  intended  to  be  bright 
and  lively,  only  seem  silly.  As  in  the  previous  acts,  the 
sustained  meastires  for  Lodoletta  and  for  Flammen,  while 
intended  to  be  dramatic,  lack  that  quality — one  which 
cannot  be  dispensed  with  in  opera.  "The  spectacle  of 
Flammen,  in  full  evening  dress  and  without  a  hat,  sinking 
on  his  doorstep  in  a  snowstorm,  would  tickle  the  funny  bone 
of  any  but  an  operatic  audience, "  writes  Grenville  Vernon 
in  the  N.  Y.  Tribune. 

ISABEAU 

With  Rosa  Raisa  in  the  title  rdle,  the  Chicago  Opera 
Company  produced  Mascagni's  "Isabeau"  at  the  Audi- 
toritun,  Chicago,  November  12,  1918.  The  company  re- 
peated it  at  the  Lexington  Theatre,  New  York,  February 
13,  1918,  also  with  Rosa  Raisa  as  Isabeau.  The  opera  had 
its  first  performances  on  any  stage  at  Buenos  Aires,  June 
2,  191 1.  The  libretto,  based  upon  the  story  of  Lady  Go- 
diva,  is  in  three  acts,  and  is  the  work  of  Luigi  Illica.  The 
opera  has  made  so  little  impression  that  I  restrict  myself 
to  giving  the  story. 

In  mica's  version  of  the  Godiva  story,  the  heroine,  Isa- 
beau, is  as  renowned  for  her  aversion  to  marriage  as  for  her 
beauty.  Her  father,  King  Raimondo,  eager  to  find  for  her 
a  husband,  arranges  a  tournament  of  love,  at  which  she  is 
to  award  her  hand  as  prize  to  the  knight  who  wins  her 

favour.     She    rejects    them  all.     For  this  obstinacy  and 
40 


626  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

because  she  intercedes  in  a  quarrel,  Raimondo  dooms  her  to 
ride  unclad  through  the  town  at  high  noon  of  the  same  day. 
At  the  urging  of  the  populace  he  modifies  his  sentence,  but 
only  so  far  as  to  announce  that,  while  she  rides,  no  one 
shall  remain  in  the  streets  or  look  out  of  the  windows. 
The  order  is  disobeyed  only  by  a  simpleton,  a  country  lout 
named  Folco.  Dazed  by  Isabeati's  beauty,  he  strews 
flowers  for  her  as  she  comes  riding  along.  For  this  the 
people  demand  that  he  suffer  the  full  penalty  for  violation 
of  the  order,  which  is  the  loss  of  eyesight  and  life.  Isabeau, 
horrified  by  Folco's  act.  visits  him  in  prison.  Her  revulsion 
turns  to  love.  She  decides  to  inform  her  father  that  she  is 
ready  to  marry.  But  the  Chancellor  incites  the  populace 
to  carry  out  the  death  sentence.  Isabeau  commits  suicide. 
When  "  Isabeau ' '  had  its  American  production  in  Chicago, 
more  than  twenty-seven  years  had  elapsed  since  the  first 
performance  of  "Cavalleria  Rusticana."  A  long  list  of 
operas  by  Mascagni  lies  between.  But  he  still  remains  a 
one-opera  man,  that  opera,  however,  a  masterpiece. 


Ruggiero  Leoncavallo 

(1858-       ) 

LEONCAVALLO,  bom  March  8,  1858,  at  Naples,  is  a 
dramatic  composer,  a  pianist,  and  a  man  of  letters. 
He  is  the  composer  of  the  successful  opera  "Pagliacci, " 
has  made  concert  tours  as  a  pianoforte  virtuoso,  is  his  own 
librettist,  and  has  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Letters 
from  the  University  of  Bologna. 

He  studied  at  the  Naples  Conservatory.  His  first  opera, 
"Tommaso  Chatterton, "  was  a  failure,  but  was  successfully 
revived  in  1896,  in  Rome.  An  admirer  of  Wagner  and 
personally  encouraged  by  him,  he  wrote  and  set  to  music  a 
trilogy,  " Crepusculum "  (Twilight) :  I.  "I  Medici " ;  " H. 
"Gerolamo  Savonarola";  III.  "Cesare  Borgia."  The 
performing  rights  to  Part  I.  were  acquired  by  the  Ricordi 
publishing  house,  but,  no  preparations  being  made  for  its 
production,  he  set  off  again  on  his  travels  as  a  pianist,  officiat- 
ing also  as  a  r^petiteur  for  opera  singers,  among  them  Maurel, 
in  Paris,  where  he  remained  several  years.  His  friendship 
with  that  singer  bore  unexpected  fruit.  Despairing  of  ever 
seeing  "I  Medici"  performed,  and  inspired  by  the  success 
of  "Cavalleria  Rusticana, "  Leoncavallo  wrote  and  com- 
posed "Pagliacci, "  and  sent  it  to  Ricordi's  rival,  the  music 
publisher  Sonzogno.  The  latter  accepted  "PagHacci" 
immediately  after  reading  the  libretto.  Maurel  then  not 
only  threw  his  influence  in  favour  of  the  work,  but  even 
offered  to  create  the  rdle  of  Tonio;  and  in  that  character 

637 


628  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

he  was  in  the  original  cast  (1892).  "I  Medici"  was  now 
produced  (La  Scala,  Milan,  1893),  but  failed  of  success. 
Later  operas  by  Leoncavallo,  "La  Boheme"  (La  Fenice 
Theatre,  Venice,  1897)  and  "Zaza"  (Milan,  1900),  fared 
somewhat  better,  and  the  latter  is  played  both  in  Italy  and 
Germany.  But  "Roland  of  Berlin,"  commissioned  by  the 
German  Emperor  and  performed  December  13,  1904,  was 
a  complete  failure.  In  fact  Leoncavallo's  name  is  so  identi- 
fied with  "Pagliacci"  that,  like  Mascagni,  he  may  be  called 
a  one-opera  composer. 

PAGLIACCI 

CLOWNS 

Opera  in  two  acts,  words  and  music  by  Ruggiero  Leoncavallo.  Pro- 
duced, Teatro  dal  Verme,  Milan,  May  17,  1892.  Grand  Opera  House, 
New  York,  June  15,  1893,  under  the  direction  of  Gustav  Hinrichs,  with 
Selma  Kronold  (Nedda),  Montegriffo  (Canto),  and  Campanari  {Tonio). 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  December  11,  1893,  with  Melba  as  Nedda, 
De  Lucia  as  Canto,  and  Ancona  as  Tonio. 

Characters 

Canio  (in  the  play  Pagliaccio),  head  of  a  troupe  of  strolling 

players Tenor 

Nedda  (in  the  play  Columbine),  wife  of  Canio Soprano 

Tonio  (in  the  play  Taddeo,  a  clown) Baritone 

Beppe  (in  the  play  Harlequin) Tenor 

Silvio,  a  villager Baritone 

Villagers. 
Place — Montalto,  in  Calabria. 

Time — The  Feast  of  the  Assumption,  about  1865-70. 

"Pagliacci"  opens  with  a  prologue.  There  is  an  instru- 
mental introduction.  Then  Tonio  pokes  his  head  through 
the  curtains, — "  Si  puo.''  Signore  e  Signori "  (By  your  leave, 
Ladies  and  Gentlemen), — comes  out,  and  sings.  The  pro- 
logue rehearses,  or  at  least  hints  at,  the  story  of  the  opera, 
and  does  so  in  musical  phrases,  which  we  shall  hear  again  as 


Ruggiero  Leoncavallo 


629 


the  work  progresses — the  bustle  of  the  players  as  they  make 
ready  for  the  performance;  Canto's  lament  that  he  must  be 
merry  before  his  audiences,  though  his  heart  be  breaking; 
part  of  the  lovemaking  music  between  Nedda  and  Silvio; 
and  the  theme  of  the  intermezzo,  to  the  broad  measures  of 
which  Tonio  sings,  "Evo  piuttosto  che  le  nostre  povere 
gabbane"  (Ah,  think  then,  sweet  people,  when  you  behold 
us  clad  in  our  motley). 


The  prologue,  in  spite  of  ancient  prototypes,  was  a  bold 
stroke  on  the  part  of  Leoncavallo,  and,  as  the  result  proved, 
a  successful  one.  Besides  its  effectiveness  in  the  opera, 
it  has  made  a  good  concert  number.  Moreover,  it  is  quite 
unlikely  that  without  it  Maurel  would  have  offered  to  play 
Tonio  at  the  production  of  the  work  in  Milan. 

Act  I.  The  edge  of  the  village  of  Montalto,  Calabria. 
People  are  celebrating  the  Feast  of  the  Assumption.  In  the 
background  is  the  tent  of  the  strolling  players.  These 
players,  Canio,  Nedda,  Tonio,  and  Beppe,  in  the  costume  of 
their  characters  in  the  play  they  are  to  enact,  are  parading 
through  the  village. 

The  opening  chorus,  "Son  qua  "  (They're  here),  proclaims 
the  innocent  joy  with  which  the  village  hails  the  arrival  of 
the  players.  The  beating  of  a  drum,  the  blare  of  a  trtmipet 
are  heard.  The  players,  having  finished  their  parade 
through  the  village,  are  returning  to  their  tent.  Beppe, 
in  his  Harlequin  costume,  enters  leading  a  donkey  drawing 
a  gaudily  painted  cart,  in  which  Nedda  is  reclining.  Behind 
her,  in  his  Pagliaccio  costume,  is  Canio,  beating  the  big 
drum  and  blowing  the  trumpet.  Tonio,  dressed  as  Taddeo, 
the  clown,  brings  up  the  rear.  The  scene  is  full  of  life  and 
gayety. 


63b  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

i  Men,  women,  and  boys,  singing  sometimes  in  separate 
groups,  sometimes  together,  form  the  chorus.  The  rising 
inflection  in  their  oft-repeated  greeting  to  Canto  as  "il 
principe  se  dei  Pagliacci"  (the  prince  of  Pagliaccios),  adds 
materially  to  the  lilt  of  joy  in  their  greeting  to  the  players 
whose  coming  performance  they  evidently  regard  as  the 
climax  to  the  festival. 

Canio  addresses  the  crowd.  At  seven  o'clock  the  play 
will  begin.  They  will  witness  the  troubles  of  poor  Pagliac- 
cio,  and  the  vengeance  he  wreaked  on  the  Clown,  a  treacher- 
ous fellow.  'Twill  be  a  strange  combination  of  love  and 
of  hate. 

Again  the  crowd  acclaims  its  joy  at  the  prospect  of  seeing 
the  players  on  the  stage  behind  the  flaps  of  the  tent. 

Tonic  comes  forward  to  help  Nedda  out  of  the  cart. 
Canio  boxes  his  ears,  and  lifts  Nedda  down  himself.  Tonio, 
jeered  at  by  the  women  and  boys,  angrily  shakes  his  fists 
at  the  youngsters,  and  goes  off  muttering  that  Canio  will 
have  to  pay  high  for  what  he  has  done.  Beppe  leads  off 
the  donkey  with  the  cart,  comes  back,  and  throws  down  his 
whip  in  front  of  the  tent.  A  villager  asks  Canio  to  drink 
at  the  tavern.  Beppe  joins  them.  Canio  calls  to  Tonio. 
Is  he  coming  with  them?  Tonio  replies  that  he  must  stay 
behind  to  groom  the  donkey.  A  villager  suggests  that 
Tonio  is  remaining  in  order  to  make  love  to  Nedda.  Canio 
takes  the  intended  humour  of  this  sally  rather  grimly.  He 
says  that  in  the  play,  when  he  interferes  with  Tonio' s  love- 
making,  he  lays  himself  open  to  a  beating.  But  in  real  life 
— let  any  one,  who  would  try  to  rob  him  of  Nedda' s  love,  be- 
ware.    The  emphasis  with  which  he  speaks  causes  comment. 

"What  can  he  mean?"  asks  Nedda  in  an  aside. 

"Surely  you  don't  suspect  her?"  question  the  villagers 
of  Canio. 

Of  course  not,  protests  Canio,  and  kisses  Nedda  on  the 
forehead. 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Caruso  as  Canio  in  "I  Pagliacci" 


Copyright  photo  by 


Farrar  as  Nedda  in  "I  Pagliacci" 


Ruggiero  Leoncavallo  631 

Just  then  the  bagpipers  from  a  neighbouring  village  are 
heard  approaching.  The  musicians,  followed  by  the  people 
of  their  village,  arrive  to  join  in  the  festival.  All  are  made 
welcome,  and  the  villagers,  save  a  few  who  are  waiting  for 
Canio  and  Beppe,  go  off  down  the  road  toward  the  village. 
The  church  bells  ring.  The  villagers  sing  the  pretty  chorus, 
"Din,  don — suona  vespero"  (Ding,  dong — the  vespers 
bell).  Canio  nods  good-bye  to  Nedda.  He  and  Beppe  go 
toward  the  village. 

Nedda  is  alone.  Canio' s  words  and  manner  worry  her. 
"How  fierce  he  looked  and  watched  me! — Heavens,  if  he 
should  suspect  me!"  But  the  birds  are  singing,  the  birds, 
whose  voices  her  mother  understood.  Her  thoughts  go 
back  to  her  childhood.  She  sings,  "Oh!  che  volo  d'angelli" 
(Ah,  ye  beautiful  song-birds),  which  leads  up  to  her  viva- 
cious ballatella,  "Stridono  lassu,  liberamente"  (Forever 
flying  through  the  boundless  sky). 

Tonio  comes  on  from  behind  the  theatre.  He  makes 
violent  love  to  Nedda.  The  more  passionately  the  clown 
pleads,  the  more  she  mocks  him,  and  the  more  angry  he 
grows.  He  seeks  forcibly  to  grasp  and  kiss  her.  She  backs 
away  from  him.  Spying  the  whip  where  Beppe  threw  it 
down, "she  seizes  it,  and  with  it  strikes  Tonio  across  the  face. 
Infuriated,  he  threatens,  as  he  leaves  her,  that  he  will  yet 
be  avenged  on  her. 

A  man  leans  over  the  wall.  He  calls  in  a  low  voice, 
"Nedda!" 

"  Silvio !"  she  cries.     "At  this  hour  .  .  .  what  madness ! " 

He  assiu"es  her  that  it  is  safe  for  them  to  meet.  He  has 
just  left  Canio  drinking  at  the  tavern.  She  cautions  him 
that,  if  he  had  been  a  few  moments  earlier,  his  presence 
would  have  been  discovered  by  Tonio.  He  laughs  at  the 
suggestion  of  danger  from  a  clown. 

Silvio  has  come  to  secure  the  promise  of  the  woman  he 
loves,  and  who  has  pledged  her  love  to  him,  that  she  will 


632  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

run  away  with  him  from  her  husband  after  the  performance 
that  night.  She  does  not  consent  at  once,  not  because  of 
any  moral  scruples,  but  because  she  is  afraid.  After  a 
little  persuasion,  however,  she  yields.  The  scene  reaches  its 
climax  in  an  impassioned  love  duet,  "E  allor  perch^,  di', 
tu  mai  stregato"  (Why  hast  thou  taught  me  Love's  magic 
story).  The  lovers  prepare  to  separate,  but  agree  not 
to  do  so  until  after  the  play,  when  they  are  to  meet  and 
elope. 

The  jealous  and  vengeful  Tonio  has  overheard  them,  and 
has  run  to  the  tavern  to  bring  back  Canio.  He  comes  just 
in  time  to  hear  Nedda  call  after  Silvio,  who  has  climbed  the 
wall,  "Tonight,  love,  and  forever  I  am  thine." 

Canio,  with  drawn  dagger,  makes  a  rush  to  overtake  and 
stay  the  man,  who  was  with  his  wife.  Nedda  places  her- 
self between  him  and  the  wall,  but  he  thrusts  her  violently 
aside,  leaps  the  wall,  and  starts  in  pursuit.  "May  Heaven 
protect  him  now, "  prays  Nedda  for  her  lover,  while  Tonio 
chuckles. 

The  fugitive  has  been  too  swift  for  Canio.  The  latter 
returns. 

"His  name!"  he  demands  of  Nedda,  for  he  does  not 
know  who  her  lover  is.  Nedda  refuses  to  give  it.  '  Silvio 
is  safe !  What  matter  what  happens  to  her.  Canio  rushes 
at  her  to  kill  her.  Tonio  and  Beppe  restrain  him.  Tonio 
whispers  to  him  to  wait.  Nedda's  lover  surely  will  be  at 
the  play.  A  look,  or  gesture  from  her  will  betray  him. 
Then  Canio  can  wreak  vengeance.  Canio  thinks  well  of 
Tonic's  ruse.     Nedda  escapes  into  the  theatre. 

It  is  time  to  prepare  for  the  performance.  Beppe  and 
Tonio  retire  to  do  so. 

Canio' s  grief  over  his  betrayal  by  Nedda  finds  expression 
in  one  of  the  most  famous  numbers  in  modern  Italian  opera, 
"Vesti  la  giubba"  (Now  don  the  motley),  with  its  tragic 
"Ridi  Pagliaccio"  (Laugh  thou,  Pagliaccio),  as  Canio  goes 


Ruggiero  Leoncavallo 


633 


toward  the  tent,  and  enters  it.  It  is  the  old  and  ever 
effective  story  of  the  buffoon  who  must  laugh,  and  make 
others  laugh,  while  his  heart  is  breaking. 


Act  II.  The  scene  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  preceding 
act.  Tonio  with  the  big  drum  takes  his  position  at  the  left 
angle  of  the  theatre.  Beppe  places  benches  for  the  specta- 
tors, who  begin  to  assemble,  while  Tonio  beats  the  drum. 
Silvio  arrives  and  nods  to  friends.  Nedda,  dressed  as 
Columbine,  goes  about  with  a  plate  and  collects  money. 
As  she  approaches  Silvio,  she  pauses  to  speak  a  few  words  of 
warning  to  him,  then  goes  ori,  and  re-enters  the  theatre 
with  Beppe.  The  brisk  chorus  becomes  more  insistent 
that  the  play  begin.  Most  of  the  women  are  seated. 
Others  stand  with  the  men  on  slightly  rising  ground. 

A  bell  rings  loudly.  The  curtain  of  the  tent  theatre 
on  the  stage  rises.  The  mimic  scene  represents  a  small 
room  with  two  side  doors  and  a  practicable  window  at  the 
back.  Nedda,  as  Columbine,  is  walking  about  expectantly 
and  anxiously.  Her  husband,  Pagliaccio,  has  gone  away 
till  morning.  Taddeo  is  at  the  market.  She  awaits  her 
lover,  Arlecchino  (Harlequin).  A  dainty  minuet  forms  the 
musical  background. 

A  guitar  is  heard  outside.  Columbine  runs  to  the  window 
with  signs  of  love  and  impatience.  Harlequin,  outside, 
sings  his  pretty  serenade  to  his  Columbine,  "O  Colombina, 
il  tenero  "  (0  Columbine,  unbar  to  me  thy  lattice  high). 

The  ditty  over,  she  returns  to  the  front  of  the  mimic 
stage,  seats  herself,  back  to  the  door,  through  which  Tonio, 
as  Taddeo,  a  basket  on  his  arm,  now  enters.  He  makes 
exaggerated  love  to  Columbine,  who,  disgusted  with  his 
advances,  goes  to  the  window,  opens  it,  and  signals.     Beppe 


634  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

as  Harlequin,  enters  by  the  window.  He  makes  light  of 
Taddeo,  whom  he  takes  by  the  ear  and  turns  out  of  the 
room,  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  few  kicks.  All  the  while 
the  minuet  has  tripped  its  pretty  measure  and  the  mimic 
audience  has  found  plenty  to  amuse  it. 

Harlequin  has  brought  a  bottle  of  wine,  also  a  phial  with 
a  sleeping  potion,  which  she  is  to  give  her  husband,  when 
opportunity  offers,  so  that,  while  he  sleeps,  she  and  Harle- 
quin may  fly  together.  Love  appears  to  prosper,  till, 
suddenly,  Taddeo  bursts  in.  Columbine's  husband,  Pag- 
liaccio,  is  approaching.  He  suspects  her,  and  is  stamp- 
ing with  anger.  "Pour  the  philtre  in  his  wine,  love!" 
admonishes  Harlequin,  and  hurriedly  gets  out  through 
the  window. 

Columbine  calls  after  him,  just  as  Canio,  in  the  character 
of  Pagliaccio,  appears  in  the  door,  "Tonight,  love,  and 
forever,  I  am  thine!" — the  same  words  Canio  heard  his 
wife  call  after  her  lover  a  few  hours  before. 

Columbine  parries  Pagliaccio' s  questions.  He  has  re- 
turned too  early.  He  has  been  drinking.  No  one  was 
with  her,  save  the  harmless  Taddeo,  who  has  become  alarmed 
and  has  sought  safety  in  the  closet.  From  within,  Taddeo 
expostulates  with  Pagliaccio.  His  wife  is  true,  her  pious 
lips  would  ne'er  deceive  her  husband.  The  audience 
laughs. 

But  now  it  no  longer  is  Pagliaccio,  it  is  Canio,  who  calls 
out  threateningly,  not  to  Columbine,  but  to  Nedda,  "His 
name!" 

"Pagliaccio!  Pagliaccio!"  protests  Nedda,  still  trying 
to  keep  in  the  play.  "No!"  cries  out  her  husband — in  a 
passage  dramatically  almost  as  effective  as  "Ridi  Pagliac- 
cio!"— "I  am  Pagliaccio  no  more!  I  am  a  man  again, 
with  anguish  deep  and  human!"  The  audience  thinks  his 
intensity  is  wonderful  acting — all  save  Silvio,  who  shows 
signs  of  anxiety. 


Ruggiero  Leoncavallo  635 

"Thou  had'st  my  love, "  concludes  Canto,  "but  now  thou 
hast  my  hate  and  scorn." 

"If  you  doubt  me,"  argues  Nedda,  "why  not  let  me 
leave  you?" 

' '  And  go  to  your  lover ! — His  name !     Declare  it ! " 

Still  desperately  striving  to  keep  in  the  play,  and  avert 
the  inevitable,  Nedda,  as  if  she  were  Columbine,  sings  a  chic 
gavotte,  "Suwia,  cosi  terrible"  (I  never  knew,  my  dear, 
that  you  were  such  a  tragic  fellow) . 


She  ends  with  a  laugh,  but  stops  short,  at  the  fury  in 
Canto's  look,  as  he  takes  a  knife  from  the  table. 

"His  name!" 

"No!" — Save  her  lover  she  will,  at  whatever  cost  to 
herself. 

The  audience  is  beginning  to  suspect  that  this  is  no 
longer  acting.  The  women  draw  back  frightened,  over- 
turning the  benches.  Silvio  is  trying  to  push  his  way 
through  to  .the  stage. 

Nedda  makes  a  dash  to  escape  Into  the  audience.  Canto 
pursues  and  catches  up  with  her. 

"Take  that — and — that!"  (He  stabs  her  in  the  back.) 
"Di  morte  negli  spasimi  lo  diral"  (In  the  last  death 
agony,  thou'lt  call  his  name). 

"Soccorso  .  .  .  Silvio!"     (Help!     Help !— Silvio !) 
^    A  voice  from  the  audience  cries,  "Nedda!"     A  man  has 
nearly  reached  the  spot  where  she  lies  dead.     Canio  turns 
savagely,  leaps  at  him.     A  steel  blade  flashes.     Silvio  falls 
dead  beside  Nedda. 

"Gesumaria!"  shriek  the  women;  "Ridi  Pagliacciof* 
sob  the  instruments  of  the  orchestra.  Canio  stands  stupe- 
fied.    The  knife  falls  from  his  hand : 

"La  commedia  e  finita"  (The  comedy  is  ended). 


636  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

There  are  plays  and  stories  in  which,  as  in  "Pagliacci, " 
the  drama  on  a  mimic  stage  suddenly  becomes  real  life, 
so  that  the  tragedy  of  the  play,  changes  to  the  life-tragedy 
of  one  or  more  of  the  characters.  "Yorick's  Love,"  in 
which  I  saw  Lawrence  Barrett  act,  and  of  which  I  wrote  a 
review  for  Harper's  Weekly,  was  adapted  by  William  D. 
Howells  from  "Drama  Nuevo"  by  Estebanez,  which  is  at 
least  fifty  years  older  than  "Pagliacci."  In  it  the  actor 
Yorick  really  murders  the  actor,  whom  in  character,  he  is 
supposed  to  kill  in  the  play.  In  the  plot,  as  in  real  life,  this 
actor  had  won  away  the  love  of  Yorick's  wife,  before  whose 
eyes  he  is  slain  by  the  wronged  husband.  About  1883,  I 
should  say,  I  wrote  a  story,  "A  Performance  of  Othello," 
for  a  periodical  published  by  students  of  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, in  which  the  player  of  Othello,  impelled  bj^  jealousy, 
actually  kills  his  wife,  who  is  the  Desdemona,  and  then,  as 
in  the  play,  slays  himself.  Yet,  although  the  motif  is  an 
old  one,  this  did  not  prevent  Catulle  Mendes,  who  himself 
had  been  charged  with  plagiarizing,  in  "La  Femme  de 
Tabarin, "  Paul  Ferrier's  earlier  play,  "Tabarin,"  from 
accusing  Leoncavallo  of  plagiarizing  "Pagliacci"  from  "La 
Femme  de  Tabarin, "  and  from  instituting  legal  proceedings 
to  enjoin  the  performance  of  the  opera  in  Brussels.  There- 
upon Leoncavallo,  in  a  letter  to  his  publisher,  stated  that 
during  his  childhood  at  Montalta  a  jealous  player  killed  his 
wife  after  a  performance,  that  his  father  was  the  judge  at 
the  criminal's  trial — circumstances  which  so  impressed  the 
occurrence  on  his  mind  that  he  was  led  to  adapt  the  episode 
for  his  opera.  Catulle  Mendes  accepted  the  explanation 
and  withdrew  his  suit. 

There  has  been  some  discussion  regarding  the  correct 
translation  of  ' '  Pagliacci . "  It  is  best  rendered  as  ' '  Clowns , ' ' 
although  it  only  is  necessary  to  read  in  Italian  cyclopedias 
the  definition  of  Pagliaccio  to  appreciate  Philip  Hale's 
caution  that  the  character  is  not  a  clown  in  the  restricted 


Ruggiero  Leoncavallo  637 

circus  sense.  Originally  the  word,  which  is  the  same  as 
the  French  paillasse,  signified  a  bed  of  straw,  then  was 
extended  to  include  an  upholstered  under-mattress,  and 
finally  was  applied  to  the  buffoon  in  the  old  Italian  comedy, 
whose  costume  generally  was,  striped  like  the  ticking  or 
stuff,  of  which  the  covering  of  a  mattress  is  made. 

The  play  on  the  mimic  stage  in  "Pagliacci"  is,  in  fact, 
one  of  the  Harlequin  comedies  that  has  been  acted  for  cen- 
turies by  strolling  players  in  Italy.  But  for  the  tragedy 
that  intervenes  in  the  opera  Pagliaccio's  ruse  in  returning 
before  he  was  expected,  in  order  to  surprise  his  wife,  Colum- 
bina,  with  Arlecchino,  would  have  been  punished  by  his 
being  buffetted  about  the  room  and  ejected.  .  For  "the 
reward  of  Pagliaccio's  most  adroit  stratagems  is  to  be  boxed 
on  the  ears  and  kicked." 

Hence  the  poignancy  of  "Ridi  Pagliaccio!" 


Giacomo  Puccini 

(1858-       ) 

THIS  composer,  born  in  Lucca,  Italy,  June  22,  1858, 
first  studied  music  in  his  native  place  as  a  private 
pupil  of  Angeloni.  Later,  at  the  Royal  Conservatory, 
Milan,  he  came  under  the  instruction  of  Ponchielli,  com- 
poser of  "La  Gioconda, "  whose  influence  upon  modern 
Italian  opera,  both  as  a  preceptor  and  a  composer,  is  re- 
garded as  greater  than  that  of  any  other  musician.  '■ 
Puccini  himself  is  considered  the  most  important  figure 
in  the  operatic  world  of  Italy  today,  the  successor  of  Verdi, 
if  there  is  any.  For  while  Mascagni  and  Leoncavallo  each 
has  one  sensationally  successful  short  opera  to  his  credit, 
neither  has  shown  himself  capable  of  the  sustained  effort 
required  to  create  a  score  vital  enough  to  maintain  the 
interest  of  an  audience  throughout  three  or  fotir  acts,  a 
criticism  I  consider  applicable  even  to  Mascagni 's  "Lodo- 
letta,"  notwithstanding  its  production  and  repetitions  at 
the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York,  which  I  believe 
largely  due  to  unusual  conditions  produced  by  the  European 
war.  Puccini,  on  the  other  hand,  is  represented  in  the  reper- 
toire of  the  modern  opera  house  by  four  large  works: 
"Manon  Lescaut"  (1870),  "La  Boheme"  (1896),  "Tosca" 
(1900),  and  "Madama  Butterfly"  (1904).  His  early  two- 
act  opera,  "Lea Villi"  (The  Wilis,  Dal  Verme Theatre,  Milan, 
1884),  and  his  three-act  opera,  "La  Fanciulla  del  West" 
(The  Girl  of  the  Golden  West),  1910,  have  been  much  less 

638 


Giacomo  Puccini      .  639 

successful ;  his  "Edgar"  (La  Scala,  Milan,  1889),  is  not  heard 
outside  of  Italy.  And  his  opera,  "LaRondine, "  has  not 
at  this  writing  been  produced  here,  and  probably  will  not 
be  until  after  the  war,  the  full  score  being  the  property  of  a 
publishing  house  in  Vienna,  which,  because  of  the  war, 
has  not  been  able  to  send  copies  of  it  to  the  people  in  several 
countries  to  whom  the  performing  rights  had  been  sold. 

LE  VILLI 

"Le  Villi"  (The  Wilis),  signifying  the  ghosts  of  maidens 
deserted  by  their  lovers,  is  the  title  of  a  two-act  opera  by 
Puccini,  words  by  Ferdinando  Fortuna,  produced  May 
31,  1884,  Dal  Verme  Theatre,  Milan,  after  it  had  been 
rejected  in  a  prize  competition  at  the  Milan  Conservatory, 
but  revised  by  the  composer  with  the  aid  of  Boito.  It  is 
Puccini's  first  work  for  the  lyric  stage.  When  produced 
at  the  Dal  Verme  Theatre,  it  was  in  one  act,  the  composer 
later  extending  it  to  two,  in  which  form  it  was  brought  out 
at  the  Reggio  Theatre,  Turin,  December  26,  1884;  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  N.  Y.,  December  17,  1908,  with  Alda 
{Anna),  Bonci  (Robert),  Amato  (Wulf). 

Of  the  principal  characters  Wulf  is  a  mountaineer  of 
the  Black  Forest;  Anna,  his  daughter;  Robert,  her  lover. 
After  the  betrothal  feast,  Robert,  obliged  to  depart  upon  a 
journey,  swears  to  Anna  that  he  will  be  faithful  to  her.  In 
the  second  act,  however,  we  find  him  indulging  in  wild 
orgies  in  Mayence  and  squandering  money  on  an  evil 
woman.  In  the  second  part  of  this  act  he  returns  to  the 
Black  Forest  a  broken-down  man.  The  Wilis  dance  about 
him.  From  Wtilf's  hut  he  hears  funeral  music.  Anna's 
ghost  now  is  one  of  the  wild  dancers.  While  he  appeals  to 
her,  they  whirl  about  him.  He  falls  dead.  The  chorus 
sings  "Hosanna"  in  derision  of  his  belated  plea  for  for- 
giveness. 


640  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Most  expressive  in  the  score  is  the  wild  dance  of  the 
Wilis,  who  "have  a  character  of  their  own,  entirely  distinct 
from  that  of  other  operatic  spectres"  (Streatfield) .  The 
prelude  to  the  second  act,  "  L'Abbandono,"  also  is  effective. 
Attractive  in  the 'first  act  are  the  betrothal  scene,  a  prayer, 
and  a  waltz.  "Le  Villi,"  however,  has  not  been  a  success 
outside  of  Italy. 

"Manon  Lescaut, "  on  the  other  hand,  has  met  with 
success  elsewhere.  Between  it  and  "Le  Villi"  Puccini 
produced  another  opera,  "Edgar,"  Milan,  La  vScala,  1889, 
but  unknown  outside  of  the  composer's  native  country. 

MANON  LESCAUT 

Opera  in  four  acts,  by  Puccini.  Produced  at  Turin,  February  i, 
1893.  Covent  Garden,  London,  May  14,  1894.  Grand  Opera  House, 
Philadelphia,  in  English,  August  29,  1894;  Wallack's  Theatre,  New 
York,  May  27,  1898,  by  the  Milan  Royal  Italian  Opera  Company 
of  La  Scala;  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York,  January  18,  1907, 
with  Caruso,  Cavalieri,  and  Scotti.  The  Hbretto,  founded  on  Abb^ 
Prevost's  novel,  is  by  Puccini,  assisted  by  a  committee  of  friends.  The 
composer  himself  directed  the  production  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House. 

Characters 

Manon  Lescaut Soprano 

Lescaut,  sergeant  of  the  King's  Guards Baritone 

Chevalier  des  Grieux Tenor 

Geronte  de  Ravoir,  Treasurer-General Bass 

Edmund,  a  student Tenor 

Time — Second  half  of  eighteenth  century. 

Place — Amiens,  Paris,  Havre,  Louisiana. 

Act  I.  plays  in  front  of  an  inn  at  Amiens.  Edmund  has 
a  solo  with  chorus  for  students  and  girls.  Lescaut,  Geronte, 
and  Manon  arrive  in  a  diligence.  Lescaut  is  taking  his 
sister  to  a  convent  to  complete  her  education,  but  finding 
her  to  be  greatly  admired  by  the  wealthy  Geronte,  is  quite 
willing  to  play  a  negative  part  and  let  the  old  satyr  plot 


Giacomo  Puccini 


641 


with  the  landlord  to  abduct  Manon.  Des  Grieux,  however, 
has  seen  her.  "Donna  non  vidi  mai  simile  a  quests" 
(Never  did  I  behold  so  fair  a  maiden),  he  sings  in  praise  of 
her  beauty. 


With  her  too  it  is  love  at  first  sight.  When  she  re- 
joins him,  as  she  had  promised  to,  they  have  a  love  duet. 
"Vedete!  lo  son  fedele  alia  parola  mia"  (Behold  me!  I 
have  been  faithful  to  my  promise),  she  sings.  Edmund,  who 
has  overheard  Geronte's  plot  to  abduct  Manon,  informs  Des 
Grieux,  who  has  little  trouble  in  inducing  the  girl  to  elope 
with  him.  They  drive  off  in  the  carriage  Geronte  had 
ordered.  Lescaut,  who  has  been  carousing  with  the  stu- 
dents, hints  that,  as  Des  Grieux  is  not  wealthy  and  Manon 
loves  luxury,  he  will  soon  be  able  to  persuade  her  to  desert 
her  lover  for  the  rich  Treasurer-General. 

Such,  indeed,  is  the  case,  and  in  Act  II.,  she  is  found 
ensconced  in  luxurious  apartments  in  Geronte's  house  in 
Paris.  But  to  Lescaut,  who  prides  himself  on  having  brought 
the  business  with  her  wealthy  admirer  to  a  successful  con- 
clusion, she  complains  that  "in  quelle  trine  morbide" — 
in  those  silken  curtains — there's  a  chill  that  freezes  her. 
"0  mia  dimora  imiile,  tu  mi  ritomi  innanzi  (My  little 
humble  dwelling,  I  see  you  there  before  me).  She  left  Des 
Grieux  for  wealth  and  the  luxuries  it  can  bring — "Tell  me, 
does  not  this  gown  suit  me  to  perfection  ? "  she  asks  Lescaut 
— and  yet  she  longs  for  her  handsome  young  lover. 

Geronte  sends  singers  to  entertain  her.  They  sing  a 
madrigal,  "Sulla  vetta  tu  del  monte  erri,  O  Clori"  (Speed 
o'er  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  gentle  Chloe). 


642 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Ther  a  dancing  master  enters.  Manon,  Lescaut,  Geronte, 
and  old  beaus  and  abbes,  who  have  come  in  with  Geronte, 
form  for  the  dance,  and  a  lesson  in  the  minuet  begins. 


Lescaut  hvirries  off  to  inform  Des  Grieux,  who  has  made 
money  in  gambling,  where  he  can  find  Manon.  When  the 
lesson  is  over  and  all  have  gone,  her  lover  appears  at  the 
door.  At  first  he  reproaches  her,  but  soon  is  won  by  her 
beauty.  There  is  an  impassioned  love  duet,  "Vieni!  Colle 
tue  braccia  stringi  Manon  che  t'ama"  ''Oh,  come  love!  In 
your  arms  enfold  Manon,  who  loves  you). 

Geronte  surprises  them,  pretends  to  approve  of  their 
affection,  but  really  sends  for  the  police.  Lescaut  urges 
them  to  make  a  precipitate  escape.  Manon,  however, 
now  loathe  to  leave  the  luxuries  Geronte  has  lavished  on 
her,  insists  on  gathering  up  her  jewels  in  order  to  take 
them  with  her.  The  delay  is  fatal.  The  police  arrive. 
She  is  arrested  pn  the  charge  made  by  Geronte  that  she  is 
an  abandoned  woman. 

Her  sentence  is  banishment,  with  other  women  of  loose 
character,  to  the  then  French  possession  of  Louisiana. 
The  journey  to  Havre  for  embarkation  is  represented  by 
an  intermezzo  in  the  score,  and  an  extract  from  Abb^ 
Prevost's  story  in  the  libretto.  The  theme  of  the  "Inter- 
mezzo, "  a  striking  composition,  is  as  follows: 


Act  III.     The  scene  is  laid  in  a  square  near  the  harbour 
at    Havre.     Des    Grieux    and   Lescaut    attempt    to    free 


Giacomo  Puccini  643 

Manon  from  imprisonment,  but  are  foiled.  There  is  much 
hubbub.  Then  the  roll  is  called  of  the  women,  who  are  to 
be  transported.  As  they  step  forward,  the  crowd  com- 
ments upon  their  looks.  This,  together  with  Des  Grieux's 
plea  to  the  captain  of  the  ship  to  be  taken  along  with 
Manon,  no  matter  how  lowly  the  capacity  in  which  he  may 
be  required  to  serve  on  board,  make  a  dramatic  scene. 

Act  IV.  "A  vast  plain  on  the  borders  of  the  territory 
of  New  Orleans.  The  country  is  bare  and  undulating,  the 
horizon  is  far  distant,  the  sky  is  overcast.  Night  falls." 
Thus  the  libretto.  The  score  is  a  long,  sad  duet  between 
Des  Grieux  and  Manon.  Manon  dies  of  exhaustion.  Des 
Grieux  falls  senseless  upon  her  body. 

LA  BOHEME 

THE  BOHEMIANS 

Opera  in  four  acts  by  Puccini;  words  by  Giuseppe  Giacosa  and  Luigi 
Illica,  founded  on  Henri  Murger's  book,  La  Vie  de  Boheme.  Pro- 
duced, Teatro  Reggio,  Turin,  February  i,  1896.  Manchester,  England, 
in  English,  as  "The  Bohemians,"  April  22,  1897.  Covent  Garden, 
London,  in  English,  October  2,  1897;  in  Italian,  July  i,  1899.  San 
Francisco,  March,  1898,  and  Wallack's  Theatre,  New  York,  May  16, 
1898,  by  a  second-rate  travelling  organization,  which  called  itself  The 
Milan  Royal  Italian  Opera  Company  of  La  Scala;  American  Theatre, 
New  York,  in  English,  by  Henry  W.  Savage's  Castle  Square  Opera 
Company,  November  20,  1898;  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York, 
in  Italian,  December  18,  1901. 

Characters 

Rudolph,  a  poet Tenor 

Marcel,  a  painter Baritone 

CoLLiNE,  a  philosopher Bass 

Schaunard,  a  musician Baritone 

Benoit,  a  landlord , Bass 

Alcindoro,  a  state  councillor  and  follower  of  Musetta Bass 

Parpignol,  an  itinerant  toy  vender Tenor 

Custom-house  Sergeant Bass 

Musetta,  a  grisette Soprano 


644  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

MiMi,  a  maker  of  embroidery Soprano 

Students,   work  girls,  citizens,   shopkeepers,  street  venders,    soldiers, 

waiters,  boys,  girls,  etc. 
Time — About  1830.  Place — Latin  Quarter,  Paris. 

"La  Boheme"  is  considered  by  many  Puccini's  finest 
score.  There  is  little  to  choose,  however,  between  it, 
"Tosca, "  and  "Madama  Butterfly."  Each  deals  success- 
fully with  its  subject.  It  chances  that,  as  "La  Boheme" 
is  laid  in  the  Quartier  Latin,  the  students'  quarter  of  Paris, 
where  gayety  and  pathos  touch  elbows,  it  laughs  as  well  as 
weeps.  Authors  and  composers  who  can  tear  passion  to 
tatters  are  more  numerous  than  those  who  have  the  light 
touch  of  high  comedy.  The  latter,  a  distinguished  gift, 
confers  distinction  upon  many  passages  in  the  score  of 
"La  Bohdme, "  which  anon  sparkles  with  merriment,  anon 
is  eloquent  of  love,  anon  is  stressed  by  despair. 

Act  L  The  garret  in  the  Latin  Quarter,  where  live  the 
inseparable  quartet — Rudolph,  poet;  Marcel,  painter;  Col- 
line,  philosopher;  Schaunard,  musician,  who  defy  hunger 
with  cheerfulness  and  play  pranks  upon  the  landlord  of 
their  meagre  lodging,  when  he  importunes  them  for  his 
rent. 

When  the  act  opens,  Rudolph  is  at  a  table  writing,  and 
Marcel  is  at  work  on  a  painting,  "The  Passage  of  the  Red 
Sea."  He  remarks  that,  owing  to  lack  of  fuel  for  the  garret 
stove,  the  Red  Sea  is  rather  cold. 

"Questo  mar  rosso"  (This  Red  Sea),  runs  the  duet,  in  the 
course  of  which  Rudolph  says  that  he  will  sacrifice  the  manu- 
script of  his  tragedy  to  the  needs  of  the  stove.  They  tear 
up  the  first  act,  throw  it  into  the  stove,  and  light  it.  Col- 
line  comes  in  with  a  bundle  of  books  he  has  vainly  been 
attempting  to  pawn.  Another  act  of  the  tragedy  goes  into 
the  fire,  by  which  they  warm  themselves,  still  hungry. 

But  relief  is  nigh.  Two  boys  enter.  They  bring  provi- 
sions and  fuel.     After  them  comes  Schaunard,     He  tosses 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Farrar  as  Mimi  in  "La  Bohfime" 


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Giacomo  Puccini  645 

money  on  the  table.  The  boys  leave.  In  vain  Schaunard 
tries  to  tell  his  friends  the  ludicrous  details  of  his  three- 
days'  musical  engagement  to  an  eccentric  Englishman. 
It  is  enough  for  them  that  it  has  yielded  fuel  and  food,  and 
that  some  money  is  left  over  for  the  immediate  future. 
Between  their  noise  in  stoking  the  stove  and  unpacking  the 
provisions,  Schaunard  cannot  make  himself  heard. 

Rtidolph  locks  the  door.  Then  all  go  to  the  table  and 
pour  out  wine.  It  is  Christmas  eve.  Schaunard  suggests 
that,  when  they  have  emptied  their  glasses,  they  repair  to 
their  favourite  resort,  the  Caf6  Momus,  and  dine.  Agreed. 
Just  then  there  is  a  knock.  It  is  Benoit,  their  landlord,  for 
the  rent.  They  let  him  in  and  invite  him  to  drink  with  them. 
The  sight  of  the  money  on  the  table  reassures  him.  He 
joins  them.  The  wine  loosens  his  tongue.  He  boasts  of 
his  conquests  of  women  at  shady  resorts.  The  four  friends 
feign  indignation.  What!  He,  a  married  man,  engaged 
in  such  disreputable  proceedings!  They  seize  him,  lift 
him  to  his  feet,  and  eject  him,  locking  the  door  after  him. 

The  money  on  the  table  was  earned  by  Schaunard,  but, 
according  to  their  custom,  they  divide  it.  Now,  off  for  the 
Caf^  Momus — that  is,  all  but  Rudolph,  who  will  join  them 
soon — when  he  has  finished  an  article  he  has  to  write  for  a 
new  journal,  the  Beaver.  He  stands  on  the  landing  with 
a  lighted  candle  to  aid  the  others  in  making  their  way  down 
the  rickety  stairs. 

With  little  that  can  be  designated  as  set  melody,  there 
nevertheless  has  not  been  a  dull  moment  in  the  music  of 
these  scenes.  It  has  been  brisk,  merry  and  sparkling,  in  keep- 
ing with  the  careless  gayety  of  the  four  dwellers  in  the  garret. 

Re-entering  the  room,  and  closing  the  door  after  htm, 
Rudolph  clears  a  space  on  the  table  for  pens  and  paper, 
then  sits  down  to  write.  Ideas  are  slow  in  coming.  More- 
over, at  that  moment,  there  is  a  timid  knock  at  the  door. 

"Who's  there?"  he  calls. 


646 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


It  is  a  woman's  voice  that  says,  hesitatingly,  "Excuse 
me,  my  candle  has  gone  out." 

Rudolph  runs  to  the  door,  and  opens  it.  On  the  thresh- 
old stands  a  frail,  appealingly  attractive  young  woman. 
She  has  in  one  hand  an  extinguished  candle,  in  the  other 
a  key.  Rudolph  bids  her  come  in.  She  crosses  the  thresh- 
old. A  woman  of  haunting  sweetness  in  aspect  and  manner 
has  entered  Bohemia. 

She  lights  her  candle  by  his,  but,  as  she  is  about  to  leave, 
the  draught  again  extinguishes  it.  Rudolph's  candle  also 
is  blown  out,  as  he  hastens  to  relight  hers.  The  room  is 
dark,  save  for  the  moonlight  that,  over  the  snow-clad  roofs 
of  Paris,  steals  in  through  the  garret  window.  Mimi  ex- 
claims that  she  has  dropped  the  key  to  the  door  of  her  room. 
They  search  for  it.  He  finds  it  but  slips  it  into  his  pocket. 
Guided  by  Mimi's  voice  and  movements,  he  approaches. 
As  she  stoops,  his  hand  meets  hers.     He  clasps  it. 

"Che  gelida  manina"  (How  cold  your  hand),  he  ex- 
claims with  tender  soHcitude.  "Let  me  warm  it  into  life." 
He  then  tells  her  who  he  is,  in  what  has  become  known  as 
the  "Racconto  di  Rodolfo"  (Rudolph's  Narrative),  which, 
from  the  gentle  and  solicitous  phrase,  "Che  gelida  manina, " 
followed  by  the  proud  exclamation,  "Sono  un  poeta" 
(I  am  a  poet),  leads  up  to  an  eloquent  avowal  of  his  dreams 
and  fancies.  Then  comes  the  girl's  charming  "Mi  chia- 
mano  Mimi"  (They  call  me  Mimi),  in  which  she  tells  of  her 
work  and  how  the  flowers  she  embroiders  for  a  living  trans- 
port her  from  her  narrow  room  out  into  the  broad  fields 
and  meadows.     "Mi  chiamano  Mimi"  is  as  follows:— 


Giacomo  Puccini 


647 


Her  frailty,  which  one  can  see  is  caused  by  consumption 
in  its  early  stages,  makes  her  beauty  the  more  appealing  to 
Rudolph. 

His  friends  call  him  from  the  street  below.  Their  voices 
draw  Mimi  to  the  window.  In  the  moonlight  she  appears 
even  lovelier  to  Rudolph.  "O  soave  fanciulla"  (Thou 
beauteous  maiden) ,  he  exclaims,  as  he  takes  her  to  his  arms. 
This  is  the  beginning  of  the  love  duet,  which,  though  it  be 
sung  in  a  garret,  is  as  impassioned  as  any  that,  in  opera, 
has  echoed  through  the  corridors  of  palaces,  or  the  moonlit 
colonnades  of  forests  by  historic  rivers.  The  theme  is 
quoted  here  in  the  key,  in  which  it  occurs,  like  a  premoni- 
tion, a  little  earlier  in  the  act. 


The  theme  of  the  love  duet  is  used  by  the  composer  several 
times  in  the  course  of  the  opera,  and  always  in  association 
with  Mimi.  Especially  in  the  last  act  does  it  recur  with 
poignant  effect. 

Act  II.  A  meeting  of  streets,  where  they  form  a  square, 
with  shops  of  all  sorts,  and  the  Caf^  Momus.  The  square 
is  filled  with  a  happy  Christmas  eve  crowd.  Somewhat 
aloof  from  this  are  Rudolph  and  Mimi.  Colline  stands  near 
the  shop  of  a  clothes  dealer.  Schaunard  is  haggling  with  a 
tinsmith  over  the  price  of  a  horn.  Marcel  is  chaffing  the 
girls  who  jostle  against  him  in  the  crowd. 

There  are  street  venders  crying  their  wares;  citizens, 
students,  and  work  girls,  passing  to  and  fro  and  calling  to 
each  other;  people  at  the  caf6  giving  orders — a  merrj'^  whirl, 
depicted  in  the  music  by  snatches  of  chorus,  bits  of  recitative, 
and  an  instrumental  accompaniment  that  runs  through  the 
scene  like  a  many-coloured  thread,  and  holds  the  pattern 
together. 


648  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Rudolph  and  Mimi  enter  a  bonnet  shop.  The  animation 
outside  continues.  When  the  two  lovers  come  out  of  the 
shop,  Mimi  is  wearing  a  new  bonnet  trimmed  with  roses. 
She  looks  about. 

"What  is  it?"  Rudolph  asks  suspiciously. 

"Are  you  jealous?"  asks  Mimi. 

"The  man  in  love  is  always  jealous." 

Rudolph's  friends  are  at  a  table  outside  the  caf^.  Ru- 
dolph joins  them  with  Mimi.  He  introduces  her  to  them  as 
one  who  will  make  their  party  complete,  for  he  "will  play 
the  poet,  while  she's  the  muse  incarnate." 

Parpignol,  the  toy  vender,  crosses  the  square  and  goes 
off,  followed  by  children,  whose  mothers  try  to  restrain 
them.  The  toy  vender  is  heard  crying  his  wares  in  the 
distance.  The  quartet  of  Bohemians,  now  a  quintet 
through  the  accession  of  Mimi,  order  eatables  and 
wine. 

Shopwomen,  who  are  going  away,  look  down  one  of  the 
streets,  and  exclaim  over  some  one  whom  they  see  approach- 
ing. 

"  'Tis  Musetta!  My,  she  is  gorgeous! — Some  stammer- 
ing old  dotard  is  with  her." 

Musetta  and  Marcel  have  loved,  quarrelled,  and  parted. 
She  has  recently  put  up  with  the  aged  but  wealthy 
Alcindoro  de  Mittoneaux,  who,  when  she  comes  upon 
the  square,  is  out  of  breath  trying  to  keep  up  with 
her. 

Despite  Musetta's  and  Marcel's  attempt  to  appear 
indifferent  to  each  other's  presence,  it  is  plain  that  they  are 
not  so.  Musetta  has  a  chic  waltz  song,  "Quando  me  'n 
vo  soletta  per  la  via"  (As  through  the  streets  I  wander 
onward  merrily),  one  of  the  best  known  numbers  of  the 
score,  which  she  deliberately  sings  at  Marcel,  to  make  him 
aware,  without  arousing  her  aged  gallant's  suspicions,  that 
she  still  loves  him. 


Giacomo  Puccini 


Feigning  that  a  shoe  hurts  her,  she  makes  the  ridiculous 
Alcindoro  unlatch  and  remove  it,  and  trot  off  with  it  to  the 
cobbler's.  She  and  Marcel  then  embrace,  and  she  joins 
the  five  friends  at  their  table,  and  the  expensive  supper 
ordered  by  Alcindoro  is  served  to  them  with  their  own. 

The  military  tattoo  is  heard  approaching  from  the  dis- 
tance. There  is  great  confusion  in  the  square.  A  waiter 
brings  the  bill  for  the  Bohemians'  order.  Schaunard  looks 
in  vain  for  his  purse.  Musetta  comes  to  the  rescue.  ' '  Make 
one  bill  of  the  two  orders.  The  gentleman  who  was  with 
me  will  pay  it." 

The  patrol  enters,  headed  by  a  drum  major.  Musetta, 
being  without  her  shoe,  cannot  walk,  so  Marcel  and  Colline 
lift  her  between  them  to  their  shoulders,  and  carry  her 
through  the  crowd,  which,  sensing  the  humour  of  the  situa- 
tion, gives  her  an  ovation,  then  swirls  around  Alcindoro, 
whose  foolish,  senile  figure,  appearing  from  the  direction 
of  the  cobbler's  shop  with  a  pair  of  shoes  for  Musetta,  it 
greets  with  jeers.  For  his  gay  ladybird  has  fled  with  her 
friends  from  the  Quartier,  and  left  him  to  pay  all  the  bills. 

Act  III.  A  gate  to  the  city  of  Paris  on  the  Orleans  road. 
A  toll  house  at  the  gate.  To  the  left  a  tavern,  from  which, 
as  a  signboard  hangs  Marcel's  pictiu"e  of  the  Red  Sea.  Several 
plane  trees.  It  is  February.  Snow  is  on  the  ground. 
The  hour  is  that  of  dawn.  Scavengers,  milk  women,  truck- 
men, peasants  with  produce,  are  waiting  to  be  admitted 
to  the  city.  Custom-house  officers  are  seated,  asleep, 
around  a  brazier.  Sounds  of  revelry  are  heard  from  the 
tavern.     These,  together  with  characteristic  phrases,  when 


650 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


the  gate  is  opened  and  people  enter,  enliven  the  first  scene. 

Into  the  small  square  comes  Mimi  from  the  Rue  d'Enfer, 
which  leads  from  the  Latin  Quarter.  She  looks  pale,  dis- 
tressed, and  frailer  than  ever.  A  cough  racks  her.  Now 
and  then  she  leans  against  one  of  the  bare,  gaunt  plane 
trees  for  support. 

A  message  from  her  brings  Marcel  out  of  the  tavern.  He 
tells  her  he  finds  it  more  lucrative  to  paint  signboards  than 
pictures.  Musetta  gives  music  lessons.  Rudolph  is  with 
them.  Will  not  Mimi  join  them?  She  weeps,  and  tells 
him  that  Rudolph  is  so  jealous  of  her  she  fears  they  must 
part.  When  Rudolph,  having  missed  Marcel,  comes  out  to 
look  for  him,  Mimi  hides  behind  a  plane  tree,  from  where 
she  hears  her  lover  tell  his  friend  that  he  wishes  to  give  her 
up  because  of  their  frequent  quarrels.  "Mimi  e  una  civ- 
etta"  (Mimi  is  a  heartless  creature)  is  the  burden  of  his 
song.  Her  violent  coughing  reveals  her  presence.  They 
decide  to  part — not  angrily,  but  regretfully :  "Addio,  senza 
rancore"  (Farewell,  then,  I  wish  you  well),  sings  Mimi. 


Meanwhile  Marcel,  who  has  re-entered  the  tavern,  has 
caught  Musetta  flirting  with  a  stranger.  This  starts  a 
quarrel,  which  brings  them  out  into  the  street.  Thus  the 
music  becomes  a  quartet:  "Addio,  dolce  svegliare"  (Fare- 
well, sweet  love),  sing  Rudolph  and  Mimi,  while  Marcel 
and  Musetta  upbraid  each  other.  The  temperamental 
difference  between  the  two  women,  Mimi  gentle  and  melan- 
choly, Musetta  aggressive  and  disputatious,  and  the  differ- 
ence in  the  effect  upon  the  two  men,  are  admirably  brought 
out  by  the  composer.     "Viper!"     "Toad!"     Marcel  and 


Giacomo  Puccini  651 

Musetta  call  out  to  each  other,  as  they  separate;  while  the 
frail  Mimi  sighs,  "Ah!  that  our  winter  night  might  last 
forever, "  and  she  and  Rudolph  sing,  "Our  time  for  parting's 
when  the  roses  blow." 

Act  IV.  The  scene  is  again  the  attic  of  the  four  Bohe- 
mians. Rudolph  is  longing  for  Mimi,  of  whom  he  has  heard 
nothing.  Marcel  for  Musetta,  who,  having  left  him,  is  indulg- 
ing in  one  of  her  gay  intermezzos  with  one  of  her  wealthy 
patrons.  "Ah,  Mimi,  tu  piu"  (Ah,  Mimi,  fickle-hearted), 
sings  Rudolph,  as  he  gazes  at  the  little  pink  bonnet  he  bought 
her  at  the  milliner's  shop  Christmas  eve.  Schaunard 
thrusts  the  water  bottle  into  Colline's  hat  as  if  the  latter 
were  a  champagne  cooler.  The  four  friends  seek  to  forget 
sorrow  and  poverty  in  assuming  mock  dignities  and  then 
indulging  in  a  frolic  about  the  attic.  When  the  fun  is  at  its 
height,  the  door  opens  and  Musetta  enters.  She  announces 
that  Mimi  is  dying  and,  as  a  last  request,  has  asked  to  be 
brought  back  to  the  attic,  where  she  had  been  so  happy 
with  Rudolph.  He  rushes  out  to  get  her,  and  supports  her 
feeble  and  faltering  footsteps  to  the  cot,  on  which  he  gently 
lowers  her. 

She  coughs;  her  hands  are  very  cold.  Rudolph  takes 
them  in  his  to  warm  them.  Musetta  hands  her  earrings  to 
Marcel,  and  bids  him  go  out  and  sell  them  quickly,  then 
buy  a  tonic  for  the  dying  girl.  There  is  no  coffee,  no  wine. 
Colline  takes  off  his  overcoat,  and,  having  apostrophized 
it  in  the  "Song  of  the  Coat, "  goes  out  to  sell  it,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  replenish  the  larder.  Musetta  runs  off  to  get  her 
muff  for  Mimi,  her  hands  are  still  so  cold. 

Rudolph  and  the  dying  girl  are  now  alone.  This  tragic 
moment,  when  their  love  revives  too  late,  finds  expression, 
at  once  passionate  and  exquisite,  in  the  music.  The 
phrases  "How  cold  your  hand,"  "They  call  me  Mimi," 
from  the  love  scene  in  the  first  act,  recur  like  mournful 
memories. 


652 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


Mimi  whispers  of  incidents  from  early  in  their  love.     ' '  Te 
lorammenti"  (Ah!  do  you  remember) 


H^^^k 

r^ — 1 

s-^t=^ 

1  J;--   vj 

h4n 

"r^^ 

\J__j:^\ 

N   V    J^  V    H 

k  ■  r  - 

—•^f-,^- 
T  5 

} — 2 — a'—l ! 

4-^ 

_c 

Musetta  and  the  others  return.  There  are  tender  touches 
in  the  good  offices  they  would  render  the  dying  girl.  They 
are  aware  before  Rudolph  that  she  is  beyond  aid.  In  their 
faces  he  reads  what  ha,s  happened.  With  a  cry,  "Mimi! 
Mimi!"  he  falls  sobbing  upon  her  lifeless  form.  Musetta 
kneels  weeping  at  the  foot  of  the  bed.  Schaunard,  overcome 
sinks  back  into  a  chair.  Colline  stands  dazed  at  the  sud- 
denness of  the  catastrophe.  Marcel  turns  away  to  hide  his 
emotion. 

Mi  chiamano  Mimi ! 


TOSCA 

Opera  in  three  acts  by  Puccini;  words  by  L.  Illica  and  G.  Giacosa 
after  the  drama,  "  La  Tosca,"  by  Sardou.  Produced,  Constanzi  Theatre, 
Rome,  January  14,  1900;  London,  Covent  Garden,  July  12,  1900. 
Buenos  Aires,  June  16,  1900.  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York, 
February  4,  1901,  with  Temina,  Cremonini,  Sfotti,  Gilibert  {Sacristan), 
and  Dufriche  {Angelotti). 

Characters 

Floria  Tosca,  a  celebrated  singer Soprano 

Mario  Cavaradossi,  a  painter Tenor 

Baron  Scarpia,  Chief  of  Police Baritone 


Giacomo  Puccini  653 

Cesare  Angelotti Bass 

A  Sacristan Baritone 

Spoletta,  police  agent  Tenor 

SciARRONE,  a  gendarme Bass 

A  Gaoler Bass 

A  Shepherd  Boy Contralto 

Roberti,  executioner;  a  cardinal,  judge,  scribe,  officer,  and  sergeant, 

soldiers,  police  agents,  ladies,  nobles,  citizens,  artisans,  etc. 
Time — ^June,  1800.  Place — Rome. 

Three  sharp,  vigorous  chords,  denoting  the  imperious 
yet  sinister  and  vindictive  character  of  Scarpia — such  is 
the  introduction  to  "Tosca." 

Act  I.  The  church  of  Sant'  Andrea  alia  Valle.  To  the 
right  the  Attavanti  chapel ;  left  a  scaffolding,  dais,  and  easel. 
On  the  easel  a  large  picture  covered  by  a  cloth.  Painting 
accessories.     A  basket. 

Enter  Angelotti.  He  has  escaped  from  prison  and  is 
seeking  a  hiding  place.  Looking  about,  he  recognizes  a 
pillar  shrine  containing  an  image  of  the  Virgin,  and  sur- 
mounting a  receptacle  for  holy  water.  Beneath  the  feet  of 
the  image  he  searches  for  and  discovers  a  key,  unlocks  the 
Attavanti  chapel  and  disappears  within  it.  The  Sacristan 
comes  in.  He  has  a  bunch  of  brushes  that  he  has  been 
cleaning,  and  evidently  is  surprised  not  to  find  Cavaradossi 
at  his  easel.  He  looks  into  the  basket,  finds  the  luncheon  in 
it  untouched,  and  now  is  sure  he  was  mistaken  in  thinking 
he  had  seen  the  painter  enter. 

The  Angelus  is  rung.  The  Sacristan  kneels.  Cavara- 
dossi enters.  He  uncovers  the  painting — a  Mary  Magdalen 
with  large  blue  eyes  and  masses  of  golden  hair.  The 
Sacristan  recognizes  in  it  the  portrait  of  a  lady  who  lately 
has  come  frequently  to  the  church  to  worship.  The  good 
man  is  scandalized  at  what  he  considers  a  sacrilege.  Cavara- 
dossi, however,  has  other  things  to  think  of.  He  compares 
the  face  in  the  portrait  with  the  features  of  the  woman 


654  I'he  Complete  Opera  Book 

he  loves,  the  dark-eyed  Floria  Tosca,  famous  as  a  singer. 
"Recondita  armonia  di  bellezza  diverse"  (Strange  harmony 
of  contrasts  deliciously  blending),  he  sings. 

Meanwhile  the  Sacristan,  engaged  in  cleaning  the  brushes 
in  a  jug  of  water,  continues  to  growl  over  the  sacrilege  of 
putting  frivolous  women  into  religious  paintings.  Finally, 
his  task  with  the  brushes  over,  he  points  to  the  basket  and 
asks,  "Are  you  fasting?"  "Nothing  for  me,"  says  the 
painter.  The  Sacristan  casts  a  greedy  look  at  the  basket, 
as  he  thinks  of  the  benefit  he  will  derive  from  the  artist's 
abstemiousness.  The  painter  goes  on  with  his  work.  The 
Sacristan  leaves. 

Angelotti,  believing  no  one  to  be  in  the  church,  comes 
out  of  his  hiding  place.  He  and  Cavaradossi  recognize  each 
other.  Angelotti  has  just  escaped  from  the  prison  in  the 
castle  of  Sant'  Angelo.  The  painter  at  once  offers  to  help 
him.  Just  then,  however,  Tosca' s  voice  is  heard  outside. 
The  painter  presses  the  basket  with  wine  and  viands  upon 
the  exhausted  fugitive,  and  urges  him  back  into  the  chapel, 
while  from  without  Tosca  calls  more  insistently,  "Mario!" 

Feigning  calm,  for  the  meeting  with  Angelotti,  who  had 
been  concerned  in  the  abortive  uprising  to  make  Rome  a 
republic,  has  excited  him,  Cavaradossi  admits  Tosca.  Jeal- 
ously she  insists  that  he  was  whispering  with  some  one, 
and  that  she  heard  footsteps  and  the  swish  of  skirts.  Her 
lover  reassures  her,  tries  to  embrace  her.  Gently  she 
reproves  him.  She  cannot  let  him  kiss  her  before  the 
Madonna  until  she  has  prayed  to  her  image  and  made  an 
offering.  She  adorns  the  Virgin's  figure  with  flowers  she 
has  brought  with  her,  kneels  in  prayer,  crosses  herself  and 
rises.  She  tells  Cavaradossi  to  await  her  at  the  stage  door 
that  night,  and  they  will  steal  away  together  to  his  villa. 
He  is  still  distrait.  When  he  replies,  absent-mindedly,  he 
surely  will  be  there,  her  comment  is,  "Thou  say'st  it  badly." 
Then,  beginning  the  love  duet,  "Non,  la  sospiri  la  nostra 


Giacomo  Puccini  655 

casetta"  (Dost  thou  not  long  for  our  dovecote  secluded), 
she  conjures  up  for  him  a  vision  of  that  "sweet,  sweet  nest 
in  which  we  love-birds  hide." 

For  the  moment  Cavaradossiiorgets  Angelotti;  then,  how- 
ever, urges  Tosca  to  leave  him,  so  that  he  may  continue 
with  his  work.  She  is  vexed  and,  when  she  recognizes  in 
the  picture  of  Mary  Magdalen  the  fair  features  of  the 
Marchioness  Attavanti,  she  becomes  jealous  to  the  point  of 
rage.  But  her  lover  soon  soothes  her.  The  episode  is 
charming.  In  fact  the  libretto,  following  the  Sardou  play, 
unfolds,  scene  by  scene,  an  always  effective  drama. 

Tosca  having  departed,  Cavaradossi  lets  Angelotti  out  of 
the  chapel.  He  is  a  brother  of  the  Attavanti,  of  whom 
Tosca  is  so  needlessly  jealous,  and  who  has  concealed  a  suit 
of  woman's  clothing  for  him  under  the  altar.  They  men- 
tion Scarpia — "A  bigoted  satyr  and  hypocrite,  secretly 
steeped  in  vice,  yet  most  demonstratively  pious" — the 
first  hint  we  have  in  the  opera  of  the  relentless  character, 
whose  desire  to  possess  Tosca  is  the  mainspring  of  the 
drama. 

A  cannon  shot  startles  them.  It  is  from  the  direction  of 
the  castle  and  announces  the  escape  of  a  prisoner — Angelotti. 
Cavaradossi  suggests  the  grounds  of  his  villa  as  a  place  of 
concealment  from  Scarpia  and  his  police  agents,  especially 
the  old  dried-up  well,  from  which  a  secret  passage  leads  to  a 
dark  vault.  It  can  be  reached  by  a  rough  path  just  outside 
the  Attavanti  chapel.  The  painter  even  offers  to  guide  the 
fugitive.     They  leave  hastily. 

The  Sacristan  enters  excitedly.  He  has  great  news. 
Word  has  been  received  that  Bonaparte  has  been  defeated. 
The  old  man  now  notices,  however,  greatly  to  his  surprise, 
that  the  painter  has  gone.  Acolytes,  penitents,  choristers, 
and  pupils  of  the  chapel  crowd  in  from  all  directions.  There 
is  to  be  a  "Te  Deum"  in  honoiu:  of  the  victory,  and  at 
evening,  in  the  Farnese  palace,  a  cantata  with  Floria  Tosca 


656  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

as  soloist.  It  means  extra  pay  for  the  choristers.  They 
are  jubilant. 

Scarpia  enters  unexpectedly.  He  stands  in  a  doorway. 
A  sudden  hush  falls  upon  all.  For  a  while  they  are  motion- 
less, as  if  spellbound.  While  preparations  are  making 
for  the  "Te  Deum, "  Scarpia  orders  search  made  in  the 
Attavanti  chapel.  He  finds  a  fan  which,  from  the  coat- 
of-arms  on  it,  he  recognizes  as  having  been  left  there  by  An- 
gehtti's  sister.  A  police  agent  also  finds  a  basket.  As  he 
comes  out  with  it,  the  Sacristan  unwittingly  exclaims  that 
it  is  Cavaradossi's,  and  empty,  although  the  painter  had 
said  that  he  would  eat  nothing.  It  is  plain  to  Scarpia,  who 
has  also  discovered  in  the  Mary  Magdalen  of  the  picture 
the  likeness  to  the  Marchioness  Attavanti,  that  Cavaradossi 
had  given  the  basket  of  provisions  to  A  ngelotti,  and  has  been 
an  accomplice  in  his  escape. 

Tosca  comes  in  and  quickly  approaches  the  dais.  She  is 
greatly  surprised  not  to  find  Cavaradossi  at  work  on  the 
picture.  Scarpia  dips  his  fingers  in  holy  water  and  defer- 
entially extends  them  to  Tosca.  Reluctantly  she  touches 
them,  then  crosses  herself.  Scarpia  insinuatingly  compli- 
ments her  on  her  religious  zeal.  She  comes  to  church  to 
pray,  not,  like  certain  frivolous  wantons — he  points  to  the 
picture — to  meet  their  lovers.  He  now  produces  the  fan. 
"Is  this  a  painter's  brush  or  a  mahlstick?"  he  asks,  and 
adds  that  he  found  it  on  the  easel.  Quickly,  jealously, 
Tosca  examines  it,  sees  the  arms  of  the  Attavanti.  She 
had  come  to  tell  her  lover  that,  because  she  is  obliged  to 
sing  in  the  cantata  she  will  be  unable  to  meet  him  that 
night.  Her  reward  is  this  evidence,  offered  by  Scarpia, 
that  he  has  been  carrying  on  a  love  affair  with  another 
woman,  with  whom  he  probably  has  gone  to  the  villa. 
She  gives  way  to  an  outburst  of  jealous  rage;  then,  weeping, 
leaves  the  chapel,  to  the  gates  of  which  Scarpia  gallantly 
escorts  her.     He  beckons  to  his  agent  Spoletta,  and  orders 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 


Cavalieri  as  Tosca 


Photo  by  Mishkin 


Scotti  as  Scarpia 


Giacomo  Puccini  657 

him  to  trail  her  and  report  to  him  at  evening  at  the  Farnese 
palace. 

Church  bells  are  tolling.  Intermittently,  from  the 
castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  comes  the  boom  of  the  cannon.  A 
Cardinal  has  entered  and  is  advancing  to  the  high  altar. 
The  "Te  Deum"  has  begun.  Scarpia  soliloquizes  vindic- 
tively: "Va,  Tosca!  Nel  tuo  cuor  s'annida  Scarpia" 
(Go,  Tosca !     There  is  room  in  your  heart  for  Scarpia) . 

He  pauses  to  bow  reverently  as  the  Cardinal  passes  by. 
Still  soliloquizing,  he  exults  in  his  power  to  send  Cavaradossi 
to  execution,  while  Tosca  he  will  bring  to  his  own  arms. 
For  her,  he  exclaims,  he  would  renounce  his  hopes  of  heaven; 
then  kneels  and  fervently  joins  in  the  "Te  Deum." 

This  finale,  with  its  elaborate  apparatus,  its  complex 
emotions  and  the  sinister  and  dominating  figure  of  Scarpia 
set  against  a  brilliant  and  constantly  shifting  background, 
is  a  stirring  and  effective  climax  to  the  act. 

Act  II.  The  Farnese  Palace.  Scarpia's  apartments 
on  an  upper  floor.  A  large  window  overlooks  the  palace 
courtyard.  Scarpia  is  seated  at  table  supping.  At  inter- 
vals he  breaks  off  to  reflect.  His  manner  is  anxious.  An 
orchestra  is  heard  from  a  lower  story  of  the  palace,  where 
Queen  Caroline  is  giving  an  entertainment  in  honour  of 
the  reported  victory  over  Bonaparte.  They  are  dancing, 
while  waiting  for  Tosca,  who  is  to  sing  in  the  cantata. 
Scarpia  summons  Sciarrone  and  gives  him  a  letter,  which 
is  to  be  handed  to  the  singer  upon  her  arrival. 

Spoletta  returns  from  his  mission.  Tosca  was  followed 
to  a  villa  almost  hidden  by  foliage.  She  remained  but  a 
short  time.  When  she  left  it,  Spoletta  and  his  men  searched 
the  house,  but  could  not  find  Angelotti.  Scarpia  is  furious, 
but  is  appeased  when  Spoletta  tells  him  that  they  discovered 
Cavaradossi,  put  him  in  irons,  and  have  brought  him  with 
them. 

Through  the  open  window  there  is  now  heard  the  begin- 
42 


658  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

ning  of  the  cantata,  showing  that  Tosca  has  arrived  and  is 
on  the  floor  below,  where  are  the  Queen's  reception  rooms. 
Upon  Scarpia's  order  there  9,re  brought  in  Cavaradossi, 
Roberti,  the  executioner,  and  a  judge  with  his  clerk.  Cava- 
radossi's  manner  is  indignant,  defiant.  Scarpia's  at  first 
suave.  Now  and  then  Tosca's  voice  is  heard  singing  below. 
Finally  Scarpia  closes  the  window,  thus  shutting  out  the 
music.  His  questions  addressed  to  Cavaradossi  are  now 
put  in  a  voice  more  severe.  He  has  just  asked,  "Once 
more  and  for  the  last  time, "  where  is  Angelotti,  when  Tosca, 
evidently  alarmed  by  the  contents  of  the  note  received  from 
Scarpia,  hurries  in  and,  seeing  Cavaradossi,  fervently  em- 
braces him.  Under  his  breath  he  manages  to  warn  her 
against  disclosing  anything  she  saw  at  the  villa. 

Scarpia  orders  that  Cavaradossi  be  removed  to  an  ad- 
joining room  and  his  deposition  there  taken.  Tosca  is  not 
aware  that  it  is  the  torture  chamber  the  door  to  which 
has  closed  upon  her  lover.  With  Tosca  Scarpia  begins  his 
interview  quietly,  deferentially.  He  has  deduced  from 
Spoletta's  report  of  her  having  remained  but  a  short  time 
at  the  villa  that,  instead  of  discovering  the  Attavanti  with 
her  lover,  as  she  jealously  had  suspected,  she  had  found 
him  making  plans  to  conceal  Angelotti.  In  this  he  has  just 
been  confirmed  by  her  frankly  affectionate  manner  toward 
Cavaradossi. 

At  first  she  answers  Scarpia's  questions  as  to  the  presence 
of  someone  else  at  the  villa  lightly;  then,  when  he  becomes 
more  insistent,  her  replies  show  irritation,  until,  turning  on 
her  with  "ferocious  sternness,"  he  tells  her  that  his  agents 
are  attempting  to  wring  a  confession  from  Cavaradossi  by 
torture.  Even  at  that  moment  a  groan  is  heard.  Tosca 
implores  mercy  for  her  lover.  Yes,  if  she  will  disclose  the 
hiding  place  of  Angelotti.  Groan  after  groan  escapes  from 
the  torture  chamber.  Tosca,  overcome,  bursts  into  con- 
vulsive sobs  and  sinks  back  upon  a  sofa.     Spoletta  kneels 


•,h,(     Giacomo  Puccini      IT  6^ 

and  mutters  a  Latin  prayer.  Scarpia  remains  cruelly  im- 
passive, silent,  until,  seeing  his  opportunity  in  Tosca's 
collapse,  he  steps  to  the  door  and  signals  to  the  executioner, 
Roherti,  to  apply  still  greater  torture.  The  air  is  rent  with 
a  prolonged  cry  of  pain.  Unable  longer  to  bear  her  lover's 
anguish  and,  in  spite  of  warnings  to  say  nothing,  which  he 
has  called  out  to  her  between  his  spasms,  she  says  hurriedly 
and  in  a  stifled  voice  to  Scarpia,  "The  well  ...  in  the 
garden." 

Cavaradossi  is  borne  in  from  the  torture  chamber  and 
deposited  on  the  sofa.  Kneeling  beside  him  Tosca  lavishes 
tears  and  kisses  upon  him.  Sciarrone,  the  judge,  Roberti 
and  the  Clerk  go.  In  obedience  to  a  sign  from  Scarpia, 
Spoletta  and  the  agents  remain  behind.  Still  loyal  to  his 
friend,  Cavaradossi,  although  racked  with  pain,  asks  Tosca 
if  unwittingly  in  his  anguish  he  has  disclosed  aught.  She 
reassures  him. 

In  a  loud  and  commanding  voice  Scarpia  says  to  Spoletta: 
"In  the  well  in  the  garden — Go  Spoletta!'' 

From  Scarpia's  words  Cavaradossi  knows  that  Tosca 
has  betrayed  Angelotti's  hiding  place.  He  tries  to  repulse 
her. 

Sciarrone  rushes  in  much  perturbed.  He  brings  bad 
news.  The  victory  they  have  been  celebrating  has  turned 
into  defeat.  Bonaparte  has  triumphed  at  Marengo.  Cava- 
radossi is  roused  to  enthusiasm  by  the  tidings.  "Tremble, 
Scarpia,  thou  butcherly  hypocrite,"  he  cries. 

It  is  his  death  warrant.  At  Scarpia's  command  Sciarrone 
and  the  agents  seize  him  and  drag  him  away  to  be  hanged. 

Quietly  seating  himself  at  table,  Scarpia  invites  Tosca  to 
a  chair.  Perhaps  they  can  discover  a  plan  by  which  Cava- 
radossi may  be  saved.  He  carefully  polishes  a  wineglass 
with  a  napkin,  fills  it  with  wine,  and  pushes  it  toward  her. 

"Your  price?"  she  asks,  contemptuously. 

Imperturbably  he  fills  his  glass.     She  is  the  price  that 


66o 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


must  be  paid  for  Cavaradossi's  life.  The  horror  with  which 
she  shrinks  from  the  proposal,  her  unfeigned  detestation  of 
the  man  putting  it  forward,  make  her  seem  the  more  fasci- 
nating to  him.  There  is  a  sound  of  distant  drums.  It  is 
the  escort  that  will  conduct  Cavaradossi  to  the  scaffold. 
Scarpia  has  almost  finished  supper.  Imperturbably  he 
peels  an  apple  and  cuts  it  in  quarters,  occasionally  looking 
up  and  scanning  his  chosen  victim's  featm"es. 

Distracted,  not  knowing  whither  or  to  whom  to  turn, 
Tosca  now  utters  the  famous  "Vissi  d'arte  e  d'amor,  non 
feci  ma  male  ad  anima  viva" : 

(Music  and  love — these  have  I  lived  for, 
Nor  ever  have  I  harmed  a  living  being  .  .  . 

In  this,  my  hour  of  grief  and  bitter  tribulation, 
O,  Heavenly  Father,  why  hast  Thou  forsaken  me), 

The  "  Vissi  d'arte  "  justly  is  considered  the  most  beautiful 
air  in  the  repertoire  of  modern  Italian  opera.  It  is  to 
passages  of  surpassing  eloquence  like  this  that  Puccini 
owes  his  fame,  and  his  operas  are  indebted  for  their  lasting 
power  of  appeal. 

Beginning    quietly,    "Vissi    d'arte  e  d'amor,"  it  works 


up  to  the  impassioned,  heart-rending  outburst  of  grief  with 
which  it  comes  to  an  end. 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 


Emma  Eames  as  Tosca 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Caruso  as  Mario  in  "Tosca" 


Giacomo  Puccini 

-jH- 


66 1 


A  knock  at  the  door.  Spoletta  comes  to  announce  that 
Angelotti,  on  finding  himself  discovered,  swallowed  poison. 
"The  other,"  he  adds,  meaning  Cavaradossi,  "awaits  your 
decision."  The  life  of  Tosca's  lover  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
man  who  has  told  her  how  she  may  save  him.  Softly 
Scarpia  asks  her,  "What  say  you?"  She  nods  consent; 
then,  weeping  for  the  shame  of  it,  buries  her  head  in  the 
sofa  cushions. 

Scarpia  says  it  is  necessary  for  a  mock  execution  to  be 
gone  through  with,  before  Tosca  and  Cavaradossi  can  flee 
Rome.  He  directs  Spoletta  that  the  execution  is  to  be 
simulated — "as  we  did  in  the  case  of  Palmieri. — You 
understand." 

"Just  like  Palmieri,"  Spoletta  repeats  with  emphasis, 
and  goes. 

Scarpia  turns  to  Tosca.  "I  have  kept  my  promise" 
She,  however,  demands  safe  conduct  for  Cavaradossi  and 
herself.  Scarpia  goes  to  his  desk  to  write  the  paper. 
With  trembling  hand  Tosca,  standing  at  the  table,  raises 
to  her  lips  the  wineglass  filled  for  her  by  Scarpia.  As  she 
does  so  she  sees  the  sharp,  pointed  knife  with  which  he 
peeled  and  quartered  the  apple.  A  rapid  glance  at  the 
desk  assures  her  that  he  still  is  writing.  With  infinite 
caution  she  reaches  out,  secures  possession  of  the  knife, 
conceals  it  on  her  person.  Scarpia  has  finished  writing. 
He  folds  up  the  paper,  advances  toward  Tosca  with  open 
arms  to  embrace  her. 

"  Tosca,  at  last  thou  art  mine!" 


662  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

With  a  swift  stroke  of  the  knife,  she  stabs  him  full  in 
the  breast. 

"It  is  thus  that  Tosca  kisses!" 

He  staggers,  falls.  Ineffectually  he  strives  to  rise;  makes 
a  final  effort;  falls  backward ;  dies. 

Glancing  back  from  time  to  time  at  Scarpia's  corpse, 
Tosca  goes  to  the  table,  where  she  dips  a  napkin  in  water 
and  washes  her  fingers.  She  arranges  her  hair  before  a 
looking-glass,  then  looks  on  the  desk  for  the  safe-conduct. 
Not  finding  it  there,  she  searches  elsewhere  for  it,  finally 
discovers  it  clutched  in  Scarpia's  dead  fingers,  lifts  his  arm, 
draws  out  the  paper  from  between  the  fingers,  and  lets  the 
arm  fall  back  stiff  and  stark,  as  she  hides  the  paper  in  her 
bosom.  For  a  brief  moment  she  surveys  the  body,  then 
extinguishes  the  lights  on  the  supper  table. 

About  to  leave,  she  sees  one  of  the  candles  on  the  desk 
still  burning.  With  a  grace  of  solemnity,  she  lights  with 
it  the  other  candle,  places  one  candle  to  the  right,  the  other 
to  the  left  of  Scarpia's  head,  takes  down  a  crucifix  from 
the  wall,  and,  kneeling,  places  it  on  the  dead  man's  breast. 
There  is  a  roll  of  distant  drums.  She  rises;  steals  out  of  the 
room. 

In  the  opera,  as  in  the  play,  which  was  one  of  Sarah 
Bemhardt's  triiunphs,  it  is  a  wonderful  scene — one  of  the 
greatest  in  all  drama.  Anyone  who  has  seen  it  adequately 
acted,  knows  what  it  has  signified  in  the  success  of  the 
opera,  even  after  giving  Puccini  credit  for  "Vissi  d'arte" 
and  an  expressive  accompaniment  to  all  that  transpires  on 
the  stage. 

Act  III.  A  platform  of  the  Castle  Sant'  Angelo.  Left,  a 
casement  with  a  table,  a  bench,  and  a  stool.  On  the  table 
are  a  lantern,  a  huge  register  book,  and  writing  materials. 
Suspended  on  one  of  the  walls  are  a  crucifix  and  a  votive 
lamp.     Right,  a  trap  door  opening  on  a  flight  of  steps  that 


>,, .     Giacomo  Puccini  663 

lead  to  the  platform  from  below.  The  Vatican  and  St. 
Paul's  are  seen  in  the  distance.  The  clear  sky  is  studded 
with  stars.  It  is  just  before  dawn.  The  jangle  of  sheep 
bells  is  heard,  at  first  distant,  then  nearer.  Without,  a 
shepherd  sings  his  lay.  A  dim,  grey  light  heralds  the 
approach  of  dawn. 

The  firing  party  conducting  Cavaradossi  ascends  the 
steps  through  the  trap  door  and  is  received  by  a  jailer. 
From  a  paper  handed  him  by  the  sergeant  in  charge  of  the 
picket,  the  jailer  makes  entries  in  the  register,  to  which 
the  sergeant  signs  his  name,  then  descends  the  steps  fol- 
lowed by  the  picket.  A  bell  strikes.  "You  have  an  hour, " 
the  jailer  tells  Cavaradossi.  The  latter  craves  the  favour 
of  being  permitted  to  write  a  letter.  It  being  granted,  he 
begins  to  write,  but  soon  loses  himself  in  memories  of 
Tosca.  "E  lucevan  le  stelle  ed  olezzava  la  terra"  (When 
the  stars  were  brightly  shining,  and  faint  perfumes  the 
air  pervaded) — a  tenor  air  of  great  beauty. 


He  buries  his  face  in  his  hands.  Spoletta  and  the  sergeant 
conduct  Tosca  up  the  steps  to  the  platform,  and  point  out 
to  her  where  she  will  find  Cavaradossi.  A  dim  light  still 
envelopes  the  scene  as  with  mystery.  Tosca,  seeing  her 
lover,  rushes  up  to  him  and,  unable  to  speak  for  sheer 
emotion,  lifts  his  hands  and  shows  him — herself  and  the 
safe-conduct. 

"At  what  price?"  he  asks. 

Swiftly  she  tells  him  wTiat  Scarpia  demanded  of  her,  and 
how,  having  consented,  she  thwarted  him  by  slaying  him 
with  her  own  hand.  Lovingly  he  takes  her  hands  in  his. 
"O  dolci  mani  mansuede  e  pure"  (Oh!  gentle  hands,  so 
pitiful  and  tender).  Her  voice  mingles  with  his  in  love 
and  gratitude  for  deliverance. 


664 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


"  Amaro  sol  per  te  m'era  il  morire  "  (The  sting  of  death, 
I  only  felt  for  thee,  love). 


She  informs  him  of  the  necessity  of  going  through  a 
mock  execution.  He  must  fall  naturally  and  lie  perfectly 
still,  as  if  dead,  until  she  calls  to  him.  They  laugh  over 
the  ruse.  It  will  be  amusing.  The  firing  party  arrives. 
The  sergeant  offers  to  bandage  CavaradossV s  eyes.  The 
latter  declines.  He  stands  with  his  back  to  the  wall.  The 
soldiers  take  aim.  Tosca  stops  her  ears  with  her  hands  so 
that  she  may  not  hear  the  explosion.  The  officer  lowers 
his  sword.     The  soldiers  fire.     Cavaradossi  falls. 

"How  well  he  acts  it!"  exclaims  Tosca. 

A  cloth  is  thrown  over  Cavaradossi.  The  firing  party 
marches  off.  Tosca  cautions  her  lover  not  to  move  yet. 
The  footsteps  of  the  firing  party  die  away — "Now  get 
up."  He  does  not  move.  Can  he  not  hear?  She  goes 
nearer  to  him.  "Mario!  Up  quickly!  Away! — Up!  up! 
Mario!" 

She  raises  the  cloth.  To  the  last  Scarpia  has  tricked  her. 
He  had  ordered  a  real,  not  a  mock  execution.  Her  lover 
lies  at  her  feet — a  corpse. 

There  are  cries  from  below  the  platform.  Scarpia* s 
murder  has  been  discovered.  His  myrmidons  are  hastening 
to  apprehend  her.  She  springs  upon  the  parapet  and 
throws  herself  into  space. 


MADAMA  BUTTERFLY 


MADAM    BUTTERFLY 


Opera  in  two  acts,  by  Giacomo  Puccini,  words  after  the  story  of  John 
Luther  Long  and  the  drama  of  David  Belasco  by  L.  Illica  and  G.  Gia- 
cosa.     English  version  by  Mrs.  R.  H.  Elkin.     Produced  unsuccessfully, 


Farrar  as  Tosca 


^  > 


Giacomo  Puccini  665 

La  Scala,  Milan,  February  17,  1904,  with  Storchio,  Zenatello,  and  De 
Luca,  conductor  Cleofante  Campanini.  Slightly  revised,  but  with 
Act  II.  divided  into  two  distinct  parts,  at  Brescia,  May  28,  1904,  with 
Krusceniski,  Zenatello,  and  Bellati;  when  it  scored  a  success.  Covent 
Garden,  London,  July  10,  1905,  with  Destinn,  Caruso,  and  Scotti,  con- 
ductor Campanini.  Washington,  D.  C,  October,  1906,  in  English,  by 
the  Savage  Opera  Company,  and  by  the  same  company, Garden  Theatre, 
New  York,  November  12,  1906,  with  Elsa  Szamozy,  Harriet  Behne, 
Joseph  F.  Sheehan,  and  Winifred  Goff ;  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New 
York,  February  11,  1907,  with  Farrar  {Butterfly),  Homer  (Suzuki), 
Caruso  (Pinkerton),  Scotti  (Sharpless),  and  Reiss  (Goro). 

Characters 

Madam  Butterfly  (Cio-Cio-San) Soprano 

Suzuki  (her  servant) Mezzo-Soprano 

Kate  Pinkerton .- Mezzo-Soprano 

B.  F.  Pinkerton,  Lieutenant,  U.  S.  N Tenor 

Sharpless  (U.  S.  Consul  at  Nagasaki) Baritone 

Goro  (a  marriage  broker) Tenor 

Prince  Yamadori Baritone 

The  Bonze  {Cio-Cio-San' s  uncle) Bass 

Yakuside Baritone 

The  Imperial  Commissioner Bass 

The  Official  Registra  \    Baritone 

Cio-Cio-San's  Mother   (   Members  of Mezzo-Soprano 

The  Aunt  l       the  Chorus Mezzo-Soprano 

The  Cousin  j    Soprano 

Trouble  {Cio-Cio-San's  Child) 

Cio-Cio-San' s  relations  and  friends.     Servants. 

Time — Present  day.  Place — Nagasaki. 

Although  "Madama  Butterfly"-  is  in  two  acts,  the  divi- 
■  sion  of  the  second  act  into  two  parts  by  the  fall  of  the  cur- 
tain, there  also  being  an  instrumental  introduction  to  part 
second,  practically  gives  the  opera  three  acts. 

Act  I.  There  is  a  prelude,  based  on  a  Japanese  theme. 
This  theme  runs  through  the  greater  part  of  the  act.  It  is 
employed  as  a  background  and  as  a  connecting  link,  with 
the  result  that  it  imparts  much  exotic  tone  colour  to  the 


666  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

scenes.  The  prelude  passes  over  into  the  first  act  without 
a  break. 

Lieutenant  B.  F.  Pinkerton,  U.  S.  N.,  is  on  the  point  of 
contracting  a  "Japanese  marriage"  with  Cio-Cio-San, 
whom  her  friends  call  Butterfly.  At  the  rise  of  the  curtain 
Pinkerton  is  looking  over  a  little  house  on  a  hill  facing  the 
harbour.  This  house  he  has  leased  and  is  about  to  occupy 
with  his  Japanese  wife.  Goro,  the  nakodo  or  marriage 
broker,  who  has  arranged  the  match,  also  has  found  the 
house  for  him  and  is  showing  him  over  it,  enjoying  the 
American's  surprise  at  the  clever  contrivances  found  in 
Japanese  house  construction.  Three  Japanese  servants 
are  in  the  house,  one  of  whom  is  Suzuki,  Butterfly's  faithful 
maid. 

Sharpless,  the  American  Consul  at  Nagasaki,  arrives. 
In  the  chat  which  follows  between  the  two  men  it  becomes 
apparent  that  Sharpless  looks  upon  the  step  Pinkerton  is 
about  to  take  with  disfavour.  He  argues  that  what  may 
be  a  mere  matter  of  pastime  to  the  American  Naval  lieuten- 
ant, may  have  been  taken  seriously  by  the  Japanese  girl 
and,  if  so,  may  prove  a  matter  of  life  or  death  with  her. 
Pinkerton  on  the  other  hand  laughs  off  his  friend's  fears 
and,  having  poured  out  drinks  for  both,  recklessly  pledges 
his  real  American  wife  of  the  future.  Further  discussion 
is  interrupted  by  the  arrival  of  the  bride  with  her  relatives 
and  friends. 

After  greetings  have  been  exchanged,  the  Consul  on 
conversing  with  Butterfly  becomes  thoroughly  convinced 
that  he  was  correct  in  cautioning  Pinkerton.  For  he  dis- 
covers that  she  is  not  contemplating  the  usual  Japanese 
marriage  of  arrangement,  but,  actually  being  in  love  with 
Pinkerton,  is  taking  it  with  complete  seriousness.  She  has 
even  gone  to  the  extent,  as  she  confides  to  Pinkerton,  of 
secretly  renouncing  her  religious  faith,  the  faith  of  her  fore- 
fathers, and  embracing  his,  before  entering  on  her  new  life 


> ,  (    Giacomo  Puccini  667 

with  him.  This  step,  when  discovered  by  her  relatives, 
means  that  she  has  cut  herself  loose  from  all  her  old  associ- 
ations and  belongings,  and  entrusts  herself  and  her  future 
entirely  to  her  husband. 

Minor  officials  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  the  marriage 
contract,  even  though  it  be  a  "Japanese  marriage, "  is  signed 
with  proper  ceremony,  arrive.  In  the  midst  of  drinking 
and  merry-making  on  the  part  of  all  who  have  come  to  the 
wedding,  they  are  startled  by  fierce  imprecations  from  a 
distance  and  gradually  drawing  nearer.  A  weird  figure, 
shouting  and  cursing  wildly,  appears  upon  the  scene.  It  is 
Butterfly s  uncle,  the  Bonze  (Japanese  priest).  He  has  dis- 
covered her  renunciation  of  faith,  now  calls  down  curses 
upon  her  head  for  it,  and  insists  that  all  her  relatives,  even 
her  immediate  family,  renounce  her.  Pinkerton  enraged  at 
the  disturbance  turns  them  out  of  the  house.  The  air 
shakes  with  their  imprecations  as  they  depart.  Butterfly  is 
weeping  bitterly,  but  Pinkerton  soon  is  enabled  to  comfort 
her.     The  act  closes  with  a  passionate  love  scene. 

The  Japanese  theme,  which  I  have  spoken  of  as  forming 
the  introduction  to  the  act,  besides,  the  background  to  the 
greater  part  of  it,  in  fact  up  to  the  scene  with  the  Bonze, 
never  becomes  monotonous  because  it  is  interrupted  by 
several  other  musical  episodes.  Such  are  the  short  theme 
to  which  Pinkerton  sings  "Tutto  e  Pronto"  (All  is  ready), 
and  the  skippy  little  theme  when  Goro  tells  Pinkerton 
about  those  who  will  be  present  at  the  ceremony.  When 
Pinkerton  sings,  "The  whole  world  over,  on  business  or 
pleasure  the  Yankee  travels,"  a  motif  based  on  the  "Star 
Spangled  Banner,"  is  heard  for  the  first  time. 

In  the  duet  between  Pinkerton  and  Sharpless,  which 
Pinkerton  begins  with  the  words,  "  Amore  o  grillo"  (Love  or 
fancy),  Sharpless' s  serious  argument  and  its  suggestion  of 
the  possibility  of  Butterfly's  genuine  love  for  Pinkerton  are 
well  brought  out  in  the  music.     When  Butterfly  and  her 


668  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

party  arrive,  her  voice  soars  above  those  of  the  others  to  the 
strains  of  the  same  theme  which  occurs  as  a  climax  to  the 
love  duet  at  the  end  of  the  act  and  which,  in  the  course 
of  the  opera,  is  heard  on  other  occasions  so  intimately 
associated  with  herself  and  her  emotions  that  it  may  be 
regarded  as  a  motif,  expressing  the  love  she  has  conceived 
for  Pinker  ton. 

Full  of  feeling  is  the  music  of  her  confession  to  Pinkerton 
that  she  has  renounced  the  faith  of  her  forefathers,  in  order 
to  be  a  fit  wife  for  the  man  she  loves: — "leri  son  salita" 
(Hear  what  I  would  tell  you).  An  episode,  brief  but  of 
great  charm,  is  the  chorus  "Kami!  O  Kami!  Let's  drink  to 
the  newly  married  couple."  Then  comes  the  interruption 
of  the  cheerful  scene  by  the  appearance  of  the  Bonze, 
which  forms  a  dramatic  contrast. 

It  is  customary  with  Puccini  to  create  "atmosphere"  of 
time  and  place  through  the  medium  of  the  early  scenes  of  his 
operas.  It  is  only  necessary  to  recall  the  opening  episodes 
in  the  first  acts  of  "La  Boh^me"  and  "Tosca. "  He  has 
done  the  same  thing  in  "  Madam  Butterfly, "  by  the  employ- 
ment of  the  Japanese  theme  already  referred  to,  and  by  the 
crowded  episodes  attending  the  arrival  of  Butterfly  and  the 
performance  of  the  ceremony.  These  episodes  are  full  of 
action  and  colour,  and  distinctly  Japanese  in  the  impression 
they  make.  Moreover,  they  afford  the  only  opportunity 
throughout  the  entire  opera  to  employ  the  chorus  upon  the 
open  stage.  It  is  heard  again  in  the  second  act,  but  only 
behind  the  scenes  and  humming  in  order  to  give  the  effect  of 
distance. 

The  love  scene  "between  Pinkerton  and  Butterfly  is 
extended.  From  its  beginning,  "  Viene  la  sera "  (Evening 
is  falling), 


Photo  by  White 


Farrar  as  Cio-cio-San  in  "Madama  Butterfly" 


Photo  by  White 

Destinn  as  Minnie,  Caruso  as  Johnson,  and  Amato  as  Jack  Ranee  in 
"  The  Girl  of  the  Golden  West " 


Giacomo  Puccini 


669 


to  the  end,  its  interest  never  flags.  It  is  full  of  beautiful 
melody  charged  with  sentiment  and  passion,  yet  varied 
with  lighter  passages,  like  Butterfly s  "I  am  like. the  moon's 
little  goddess";  "I  used  to  think  if  anyone  should  want 
me";  and  the  exquisite,  "Vogliatemi  bene"  (Ah,  love  me  a 
little).  There  is  a  beautiful  melody  for  Pinkerton,  "Love, 
what  fear  holds  you  trembling."  The  climax  of  the  love 
duet  is  reached  in  two  impassioned  phrases: — "  Dolce  notte! 
Quante  stelle"  (Night  of  rapture,  stars  unnumbered), 


and  "Oh!  Quanti  occhi  fisi,  attenti"  (Oh,  kindly  heavens). 


Act  II.  Part  I.  Three  years  have  elapsed.  It  is  a 
long  time  since  Pinkerton  has  left  Butterfly  with  the  promise 
to  return  to  her  "when  the  robins  nest. "  When  the  curtain 
rises,  after  an  introduction,  in  which  another  Japanese 
theme  is  employed,  Suzuki,  although  convinced  that  Pinker- 
ton has  deserted  her  mistress,  is  praying  for  his  return. 
Butterfly  is  full  of  faith  and  trust.  In  chiding  her  devoted 
maid  for  doubting  that  Pinkerton  will  return,  she  draws  in 
language  and  song  a  vivid  picture  of  his  home-coming  and 
of  their  mutual  joy  therein: — "Un  bel  di  vedremo"  (Some 
day  he'll  come) . 


In  point  of  fact,  Pinkerton  really- is  returning  to  Nagasaki, 
but  with  no  idea  of  resuming  relations  with  his  Japanese 
wife.  Indeed,  before  leaving  America  he  has  written  to 
Sharpless  asking  him  to  let  Butterfly  know  that  he  is  married 


670  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

to  an  American  wife,  who  will  join  him  in  Nagasaki.  Sharp- 
less  calls  upon  Butterfly,  and  attempts  to  deliver  his  message, 
but  is  unable  to  do  so  because  of  the  emotions  aroused  in 
Butterfly  by  the  very  sight  of  a  letter  from  Pinker  ton.  It 
throws  her  into  a  transport  of  joy  because,  unable  immedi- 
ately to  grasp  its  contents,  she  believes  that  in  writing  he 
has  remembered  her,  and  must  be  returning  to  her.  Sharp- 
less  endeavours  to  make  the  true  situation  clear  to  her,  but 
is  interrupted  by  a  visit  from  Yamadori,  a  wealthy  Japanese 
suitor,  whom  Goro  urges  Butterfly  to  marry.  For  the  money 
left  by  Pinkerton  with  his  little  Japanese  wife  has  dwindled 
almost  to  nothing,  and  poverty  stares  her  in  the  face.  But 
she  will  not  hear  of  an  alliance  with  Yamadori.  She  protests 
that  she  is  already  married  to  Pinkerton,  and  will  await  his 
return. 

When  Yamadori  has  gone,  Sharpless  makes  one  more 
effort  to  open  her  eyes  to  the  truth.  They  have  a  duet, 
"Ora  a  noi"  (Now  at  last),  in  which  he  again  produces  the 
letter,  and  attempts  to  persuade  her  that  Pinkerton  has  been 
faithless  to  her  and  has  forgotten  her.  Her  only  reply  is  to 
fetch  in  her  baby  boy,  born  since  Pinkerton's  departure. 
Her  argument  is,  that  when  the  boy's  father  hears  what  a 
fine  son  is  waiting  for  him  in  Japan,  he  will  hasten  back. 
She  sings  to  Trouble,  as  the  little  boy  is  called: — "Sai  cos' 
ebbe  cuore"  (Do  you  hear,  my  sweet  one,  what  that  bad 
man  is  saying) .  Sharpless  makes  a  final  effort  to  disillusion 
her,  but  in  vain.  If  Pinkerton  does  not  come  back,  there  are 
two  things,  she  says,  she  can  do — return  to  her  old  life  and 
sing  for  people,  or  die.  She  sings  a  touching  little  lullaby 
to  her  baby  boy,  Suzuki  twice  interrupting  her  with  the 
pathetically  voiced  exclamation,  "Poor  Madam  Butterfiy!" 

A  salute  of  cannon  from  the  harbour  announces  the 
arrival  of  a  man-of-war.  Looking  through  the  telescope, 
Butterfly  and  Suzuki  discover  that  it  is  Pinkerton's  ship,  the 
"Abraham   Lincoln."     Now  Butterfly  is   convinced   that 


Giacomo  Puccini 


671. 


Sharpless  is  wrong.  Her  faith  is  about  to  be  rewarded. 
The  man  she  loves  is  returning  to  her.  The  home  must  be 
decorated  and  made  cheerful  and  attractive  to*  greet  him. 
She  and  Suzuki  distribute  cherry  blossoms  wherever  their 
effect  will  be  most  charming.  The  music  accompanying 
this  is  the  enchanting  duet  of  the  flowers,  "Scuotti  quella 
fronda  diciliegio"  (Shake  that  cherry  tree  till  every  flower). 
Most  effective  is  the  phrase,  "Gettiamo  a  mani  piene 
mammole  e  tuberose"  (In  handfuls  let  us  scatter  violets  and 
white  roses.) 


Butterfly  adorns  herself  and  the  baby  boy.  Then  with 
her  fingers  she  pierces  three  holes  in  the  paper  wall  of  the 
dwelling.  She,  Suzuki,  and  the  baby  peer  through  these, 
watching  for  Pinkerton's  arrival.  Night  falls.  Suzuki  and 
the  boy  drop  off  to  sleep.  Butterfly  rigid,  motionless,  waits 
and  watches,  her  faith  still  unshaken,  for  the  return  of  the 
man  who  has  forsaken  her.  The  pathos  of  the  scene  is 
profound;  the  music,  with  the  hum  of  voices,  borne  upon 
the  night  from  the  distant  harbour,  exquisite. 

Act  II.  Part  II.  When  the  curtain  rises,  night  has 
passed,  dawn  is  breaking.  Suzuki  and  the  baby  are  fast 
asleep,  but  Butterfly  still  is  watching.  Again  Puccini 
employs  a  Japanese  melody  (the  * '  vigil ' '  theme) . 


When  Suzuki  awakes,  she  persuades  the  poor  little  "wife" 
to  go  upstairs  to  rest,  which  Butterfly  does  only  upon  Suzu- 
ki's promise  to  awaken  her  as  soon  as  Pinkerton  arrives. 
Pinkerton  and  Sharpless  appear.  Suzuki  at  first  is  full  of 
joyful  surprise,  which,  however,  soon  gives  way  to  con- 
sternation, when  she  learns  the  truth.    Pinkerton  himself. 


672  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

seeing  about  him  the  proofs  of  Butterfly s  complete  loyalty 
to  him,  realizes  the  heartlessness  of  his  own  conduct. 
There  is  a  dramatic  trio  for  Pinkerton,  Sharpless,  and  Suzuki. 
Pinkerton  who  cannot  bear  to  face  the  situation,  rushes 
away,  leaving  it  to  Sharpless  to  settle  matters  as  best  he 
can. 

Butterfly  has  become  aware  that  people  are  below.  Su- 
zuki tries  to  prevent  her  coming  down,  but  she  appears 
radiantly  happy,  for  she  expects  to  find  her  husband.  The 
pathos  of  the  scene  in  which  she  learns  the  truth  is  difficult 
to  describe.  But  she  does  not  burst  into  lamentations. 
With  a  gentleness  which  has  been  characteristic  of  her 
throughout,  she  bears  the  blow.  She  even  expresses  the 
wish  to  Kate,  Pinkerton's  real  wife,  that  she  may  experience 
all  happiness,  and  sends  word  to  Pinkerton  that,  if  he  will 
come  for  his  son  in  half  an  hour,  he  can  have  him. 

Sharpless  and  Mrs.  Pinkerton  withdraw.  In  a  scene  of 
tragic  power.  Butterfly  mortally  wounds  herself  with  her 
father's  sword,  the  blade  of  which  bears  the  inscription, 
"To  die  with  honour  when  one  can  no  longer  live  with 
honour,"  drags  herself  across  the  floor  to  where  the  boy  is 
playing  with  his  toys  and  waving  a  little  American  flag, 
and  expires  just  as  Pinkerton  enters  to  take  away  the  son 
whom  thus  she  gives  up  to  him. 

From  examples  that  already  have  been  given  of  modern 
Italian  opera,  it  is  clear  that  "atmosphere,  "  local  colour,  and 
character  delineation  are  typical  features  of  the  art  of  Italy's 
lyric  stage  as  it  flourishes  today.  In  ' '  Madama  Butterfly  " 
we  have  exotic  tone  colour  to  a  degree  that  has  been  ap- 
proached but  not  equalled  by  Verdi  in  "Aida. "  Certain 
brief  scenes  in  Verdi's  opera  are  Egyptian  in  tone  colour. 
In  "  Madama  Butterfly  "  Japanese  themes  are  used  in  extenso, 
and  although  the  thrilling  climaxes  in  the  work  are  distinc- 
tively Italian,  the  Japanese  under-current,  dramatic  and 
musical,  always  is  felt.    In  that  respect  compare  "  Madama 


Glacomo  Puccini  673 

Butterfly"  with  a  typical  old  Italian  opera  like  "Lucia  di 
Lammermoor"  the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  Scotland,  but  in 
which  there  is  nothing  Scotch  save  the  costumes — no  "atmos- 
phere,"  no  local  colour.  These  things  are  taken  seriously 
by  modern  Italian  composers,  who  do  not  ignore  melody, 
yet  also  appreciate  the  value  of  an  eloquent  instrumental 
support  to  the  voice  score;  whereas  the  older  Italian  opera 
composers  were  content  to  distribute  melody  with  a  lavish 
hand  and  took  little  else  into  account. 

In  character  delineation  in  the  opera  Butterfly  dominates. 
She  is  a  sweet,  trusting,  pathetic  little  creature — traits 
expressed  in  the  music  as  clearly  as  in  the  drama.  The 
sturdy  devotion  of  Suzuki  is,  if  possible,  brought  out  in  an 
even  stronger  light  in  the  opera  than  in  the  drama,  and 
Sharpless  is  admirably  drawn.  Pinker  ton,  of  course,  can- 
not be  made  sympathetic.  All  that  can  be  expected  of  him 
is  that  he  be  a  tenor,  and  sing  the  beautiful  music  allotted 
to  him  in  the  first  act  with  tender  and  passionate  expression. 

The  use  of  the  "Star-Spangled  Banner"  motif  as  a 
personal  theme  for  Pinkerton,  always  has  had  a  disagreeable 
effect  upon  me,  and  from  now  on  should  be  objected  to  by  all 
Americans.  Some  one  in  authority,  a  manager  like  Gatti- 
Casazza,or  Ricordi  &  Co.'s  American  representatives,  should 
call  Puccini's  attention  to  the  fact  that  his  employment  of 
the  National  Anthem  of  the  United  States  of  America  in 
"Madama  Butterfly"  is  highly  objectionable  and  might, 
in  time,  become  offensive,  although  no  offence  was  meant  by 
him.  

I  "did"  the  first  night  of  David  Belasco's  play  "Madam 
Butterfly"  for  the  New  York  Herald.  The  production 
occurred  at  the  Herald  Square  Theatre,  Broadway  and 
Thirty-fifth  Street,  New  York,  March  5,  1900,  with  Blanche 
Bates  as  Butterfly.  It  was  given  with ' '  Naughty  Anthony, " 
a  farce-comedy  also  by  Belasco,  which  had  been  a  failure. 
The  tragedy  had  been  constructed  with  great  rapidity  from 


674  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

John  Luther  Long's  story,  but  its  success  was  even  swifter. 
At  the  Duke  of  York's  Theatre,  London,  it  was  seen  by 
Francis  Nielsen,  stage-manager  of  Covent  Garden,  who 
immediately  sent  word  to  Puccini  urging  him  to  come  from 
Milan  to  London  to  see  a  play  which,  in  his  hands,  might 
well  become  a  successful  opera.  Puccini  came  at  once, 
with  the  result  that  he  created  a  work  which  has  done  its 
full  share  toward  making  the  modern  Italian  lyric  stage  as 
flourishing  as  all  unprejudiced  critics  concede  it  to  be. 

The  Milan  production  of  "Madama  Butterfly  "  was  an 
utter  failure.  The  audience  hooted,  the  prima  donna  was 
in  tears.  The  only  person  behind  the  scenes  not  discon- 
certed was  the  composer,  whose  faith  in  his  work  was  so 
soon  to  be  justified. 

LA  FANCIULLA  DEL  WEST 

(the  girl  of  the  golden  west) 

opera  in  three  acts  by  Puccini ;  words  by  C.  Zangarini  and  G.  Civini, 
after  the  play  by  David  Belasco.  Produced,  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  New  York,  December  lo,  1910,  with  Destinn,  Mattfeld,  Caruso, 
Amato,  Reiss,  Didur,  Dinh-Gilly,  Pini  Cor  si,  and  De  Segurola. 

Characters 

Minnie Soprano 

Jack  Range,  sheriff Baritone 

Dick  Johnson  (Ramerrez.) Tenor 

Nick,  bartender  at  the  " Polka" Tenor 

AsHBY,  Wells-Fargo  agent Bass 

Sonora 

Trin 

Sid 

Handsome 

Harry 

Joe 

Happy 

Larkens 


Baritone 

Tenor 

Baritone 

T,^.         Baritone 

Miners  _ 

Tenor 

Tenor 

Baritone 

Bass 


Billy  Jackrabbit,  an  Indian  redskin Bass 


Giacomo  Puccini  675 

WowKLE,  Billy's  squaw Mezzo-Soprano 

Jake  Wallace,  a  travelling  camp  minstrel Baritone 

Josfe  Castro,  a  greaser  from  Ramerrez's  gang Bass 

A  PosTiLLON Tenor 

Men  of  the  Camp 

Time — 1 849-1 850,  the  days  of  the  gold  fever.  Place — A 

mining-camp  at  the  foot  of  the  Qoudy  Mountains,  California. 

Successful  in  producing  "atmosphere"  in  "La  Bohdme, " 
"Tosca, "  and  "Madama  Butterfly,"  Puccini  has  utterly- 
failed  in  his  effort  to  do  so  in  his  "  Girl  of  the  Golden  West. " 
Based  upon  an  American  play,  the  scene  laid  in  America 
and  given  in  America  for  the  first  time  on  any  stage,  the 
opera  has  not  been,  the  more's  the  pity,  a  success. 

In  the  first  act,  laid  in  the  "Polka"  bar-room,  after  a 
scene  of  considerable  length  for  the  miners  (intended,  no 
doubt,  to  create  "atmosphere ")  there  is  an  episode  between 
Ranee  and  Minnie,  in  which  it  develops  that  Ranee  wants 
to  marry  her,  but  that  she  does  not  care  for  him.  Johnson 
comes  in.  He  and  Minnie  have  met  but  once  before,  but 
have  been  strongly  attracted  to  each  other.  She  asks  him 
to  visit  her  in  her  cabin,  where  they  will  be  undisturbed  by 
the  crowd,  which  has  gone  off  to  hunt  for  Ramerrez,  head  of 
a  band  of  outlaws,  reported  ^o  be  in  the  vicinity  but  which 
soon  may  be  back. 

The  scene  of  the  second  act  is  Minnie's  cabin,  which  con- 
sists of  a  room  and  loft.  After  a  brief  scene  for  Billy  and 
Wowkle,  Minnie  comes  in.  Through  night  and  a  blizzard 
Johnson  makes  his  way  up  the  mountainside.  There  is  a 
love  scene — then  noises  outside.  People  are  approaching. 
Not  wishing  to  be  found  with  Johnson,  Minnie  forces  him 
to  hide.  Ranee  and  others,  who  are  on  the  trail  of  Ramerrez 
and  hope  to  catch  or  kill  him  any  moment,  come  in  to  warn 
her  that  Johnson  is  Ramerrez.  When  they  have  gone,  and 
Johnson  acknowledges  that  he  is  the  outlaw,  Minnie 
denounces  him  and  sends  him  out  into  the  blizzard.    There 


676  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

is  a  shot.  Johnson  sorely  wounded  staggers  into  the  cabin. 
A  knock  at  the  door.  Ranee's  voice.  With  Minnie's  aid 
the  wounded  man  reaches  the  loft  where  he  collapses. 

Ranee  enters,  expecting  to  find  Johnson.  He  is  almost 
persuaded  by  Minnie  that  the  fugitive  is  not  there,  when, 
through  the  loose  timbers  of  the  loft,  a  drop  of  blood  falls 
on  his  hand.  Minnie  proposes  that  they  play  cards — John- 
son to  live,  or  she  to  marry  the  sheriff.  They  play.  She 
cheats,  and  wins. 

The  third  act  is  laid  in  the  forest.  Johnson,  who  has 
recovered  and  left  Minnie's  cabin,  is  caught,  and  is  to  be 
hung.  But  at  the  critical  moment  Minnie  arrives,  and  her 
pleading  moves  the  men  to  spare  him,  in  spite  of  Ranee's. 
protests.     They  leave  to  begin  a  new  life  elsewhere. 

In  the  score  there  is  much  recitative.  It  is  not  interesting 
in  itself,  nor  is  it  made  so  by  the  insufficiently  varied 
instrumental  accompaniment.  For  the  action  of  the  play, 
is  too  vigorous  to  find  expression  by  means  of  the  Debus-t 
syan  manner  that  predominates  in  the  orchestra.  The 
most  genuinely  inspired  musical  number  is  Johnson's  solo  in 
the  last  act,  when  it  seems  certain  that  he  is  about  to  be 
executed. — "Ch'ella  mi  creda  libero  e  lontano"  (Let  her 
believe  that  I  have  gained  my.  freedom) . 

LA  RONDINE 

THE   SWALLOW 

The  opera  begins  in  Paris  during  the  Second  Empire. 
Magda,  the  heroine,  is  a  demi-mondaine  living  under  the 
protection  of  the  rich  banker  Rambaldo.  Satisfied  with  the 
luxuries  he  lavishes  upon  her,  she  longs  for  true  affection, 
and  is  unable  to  stifle  the  remembrance  of  her  first  love,  a 
poor  young  student.  She  meets  Rugger 0,  who  like  her 
earlier  love,  is  young  and  poor,  and  a  student.  At  Bouil- 
liers,  the  rendezvous  of  the  gay  life  of  Paris,  Rugger 0  declares 


:^r,      Giacomo  Puccini  677 

his  love  for  Magda.  They  leave  Paris  for  Nice,  where  they 
hope  to  lead  an  idyllic  existence. 

Ruggero  looks  forward  to  a  life  of  perfect  happiness. 
He  writes  to  his  parents  asking  their  consent  to  his  marriage 
with  Magda.  The  reply  is  that  if  she  is  virtuous  and 
honourable,  she  will  be  received  with  open  arms.  Magda 
now  considers  herself  (like  Violetta  in  "La  Traviata")  un- 
worthy of  Ruggero' s  love  and  lest  she  shall  bring  dishonour 
upon  the  man  she  loves,  she  parts  with  him.  Other  prin- 
cipal r61es  are  Lisetta  and  Prunia,  and  there  are  ntimerous 
second  parts  requiring  first-rate  artists. 

In  the  second  act  of  "La  Rondine"  is  a  quartet  which,  it 
is  said,  Puccini  believes  will  rival  that  at  the  end  of  the 
third  act  in  "  La  Boh^me. "  "I  have  let  my  pen  run, "  he  is 
reported  to  have  said,  "and  no  other  method  suffices  to  obtain 
good  results,  in  my  opinion.  No  matter  what  marvellous 
technical  effects  may  be  worked  up  by  lengthy  meditation, 
I  believe  in  heart  in  preference  to  head." 

The  opera  was  produced  in  March,  191 7,  in  Monte  Carlo, 
and  during  the  summer  of  the  same  year,  in  Buenos  Aires. 
Puccini  intended  to  compose  it  with  dialogue  as  a  genuine 
opera  comique,  but  finally  substituted  recitative.  The 
work  is  said  to  approach  op^ra  comique  in  style.  Reports 
regarding  its  success  vary. 

After  the  first  Italian  performance,  San  Carlo  Theatre, 
Naples,  February  26,  191 8,  Puccini,  according  to  report, 
decided  to  revise  "  La  Rondine."  Revision,  as  in  the  case 
of  "  Madama  Butterfly,"  may  make  a  great  success  of  it. 

ONE-ACT  OPERAS 

Three  one-act  operas  by  Puccini  have  been  composed 
for  performance  at  one  sitting.  They  are  "Suor  An- 
gelica" (Sister  Angelica),  "II  Tabarro"  (The  Cloak),  and 
"Gianni  Schicchi. "  The  motifs  of  these  operas  are  senti- 
ment, tragedy,  and  humour. 


678  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  scene  of  "Suor  Angelica"  is  laid  within  the  walls 
of  a  mountain  convent,  whither  she  has  retired  to  expiate 
an  unfortunate  past.  Her  first  contact  with  the  outer 
world  is  through  a  visit  from  an  aunt,  who  needs  her  signa- 
ture to  a  document.  Timidly  she  asks  about  the  tiny  mite, 
whom  she  was  constrained  to  abandon  before  she  entered 
the  convent.  Harshly  the  aunt  replies  that  the  child  is 
dead.  Sister  Angelica  decides  to  make  an  end  to  her  life 
amid  the  flowers  she  loves.  Dying,  she  appeals  for  pardon 
for  her  act  of  self-destruction.  The  doors  of  the  convent 
church  open,  and  a  dazzling  light  pours  forth  revealing  the 
Virgin  Mary  on  the  threshold  surrounded  by  angels,  who, 
intoning  a  sweet  chorus,  bear  the  poor,  penitent,  and  weary 
soul  to  eternal  peace.  This  little  work  is  entirely  for  female 
voices. 

The  libretto  of  "  II  Tabarro ' '  is  tragic.  The  great  scene  is 
between  a  husband  and  his  wife.  The  husband  has  killed  her 
lover,  whose  body  he  shows  to  his  unfaithful  wife,  lifting  from 
the  ground  the  cloak  (il  tabarro)  under  which  it  is  hidden. 

The  scene  of  "II  Tabarro"  is  laid  on  the  deck  of  a  Seine 
barge  at  sunset,  when  the  day's  work  is  over,  and  after  dark. 
The  husband  is  Michele,  the  wife  Giogetta,  the  lover,  Luigi, 
and  there  are  two  other  bargemen.  These  latter  go  off 
after  the  day's  work.  Luigi  lingers  in  the  cabin.  He 
persuades  Giogetta  that,  when  all  is  quiet  on  the  barge,  and 
it  will  be  safe  for  him  to  return  to  her,  she  shall  strike  a 
match  as  a  signal.     He  then  goes. 

Michele  has  suspected  his  wife.  He  reminds  her  of  their 
early  love,  when  he  sheltered  her  under  his  cloak.  Giogetta, 
however,  receives  these  reminiscences  coldly,  feigns  weari- 
ness, and  retires  to  the  cabin. 

It  has  grown  dark.  Michele  lights  his  pipe.  Luigi  think- 
ing it  is  Giogetta' s  signal,  clambers  up  the  side  of  the  barge, 
where  he  is  seized  and  choked  to  death  by  Michele,  who  takes 
his  cloak  and  covers  the  corpse  with  it. 


Giacomo  Puccini  679 

Giogetta  has  hear<J  sounds  of  a  struggle.  She  comes  on 
deck  in  alaim,  but  is  somewhat  reassured,  when  she  sees 
Michele  sitting  alone  and  quietly  smoldng.  Still  somewhat 
nervous,  however,  she  endeavours  to  atone  for  hei  frigidity 
toward  him,  but  a  short  time  before,  by  "making  up"  to 
him,  telling  him,  among  other  things,  that  she  well  recalls 
their  early  love  and  wishes  she  could  again  find  shelter  in 
the  folds  of  his  big  cloak.  For  reply,  he  raises  the  cloak, 
and  lets  her  see  Luigi's  corpse. 

I  have  read  another  synopsis  of  this  plot,  in  which  Michele 
forces  his  wife's  face  close  to  that  of  her  dead  lover.  At  the 
same  moment,  one  of  the  other  bargemen,  whose  wife  also 
had  betrayed  him,  returns  brandishing  the  bloody  knife, 
with  which  he  has  slain  her.  The  simpler  version  surely  is 
more  dramatic  than  the  one  of  cimiulative  horrors. 

When  the  action  of  "Gianni  Schicchi"  opens  one  Donati 
has  been  dead  for  two  hours.  His  relations  are  thinking  of 
the  will.  A  young  man  of  the  house  hands  it  to  his  mother 
but  exacts  the  promise  that  he  shall  marry  the  daughter  of 
neighbour  Schicchi.  When  the  will  is  read,  it  is  found 
that  Donati  has  left  his  all  to  charity.  Schicchi  is  called  in, 
and  consulted.  He  plans  a  ruse.  So  far  only  those  in  the 
room  know  of  DonatVs  demise.  The  corpse  is  hidden. 
Schicchi  gets  into  bed,  and,  when  the  Doctor  calls,  imitates 
the  dead  man's  voice  and  pretends  he  wants  to  sleep.  The 
lawyer  is  sent  for.  Schicchi  dictates  a  new  will — in  favour 
of  himself,  and  becomes  the  heir,  in  spite  of  the  anger  of 
the  others. 


Riccardo  Zandonai 
FRANCESCA  DA  RIMINI 

FRANCESCA  OF  RIMINI 

Opera  in  four  acts,  by  Riccardo  Zandonai;  words  by  Tito  Riccordi, 
after  the  drama  of  the  same  title  by  Gabriele  d'Annunzio.  English 
version  from  Arthur  Symons's  translation  of  the  drama.  Produced, 
Reggio  Theatre,  Turin,  February  i,  1914.  Covent  Garden  Theatre, 
London,  July  16,  1914.  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York, 
December  22,  19 16,  with  Alda  {Francesco),  Martinelli  {Paolo),  and 
Amato  {Giovanni) . 

Characters 
Giovanni,  the  lame  )  (  Baritone 

Paolo,  the  beautiful  [      ^°"^  ^^  Malatesta     )  j.^^^^ 

Malatestino,  the  one-eyed  )         ^^  Verrucchio         (  j.^^^^ 

OsTASio,  son  of  Guido  Minore  da  Polenta Baritone 

Ser  Toldo  Berardengo,  a  notary Tenor 

A  Jester Bass 

A  Bowman Tenor 

Tower  Warden Baritone 

FRANCESCA,  daughter  of  Guido  and  sister  of  Ostasio .  .  .  Soprano 

Samaritan  A,  sister  of  Francesca  and  Ostasio Soprano 

BiANCOFiORE  ~)  (  Soprano 

Garsenda       f-  women  of  Francesca •<  Soprano 

Altichiara    3  (  Mezzo-soprano 

DoNELLA Mezzo-soprano 

Smaradi,  a  slave Contralto 

Bowmen,  archers,  and  musicians. 
Tim; — Thirteenth  century.         Place — First  act,  Ravenna,  then  Rimini. 


A 


PRETENTIOUS  but  not  wholly  successful  score  based 
upon  a  somewhat  diffuse  drama — such  is  the  net  im- 
680 


Riccardo  Zandonai  ^T 


m 


pression  made  by  Zandonai 's  opera  "Francesca  da  Rimini." 
The  story  of  Francesca  and  Paolo  is  one  of  the  world's  im- 
mortal tales  of  passion,  and  an  opera  set  to  it  should  be 
inspired  beyond  almost  any  other.  But  as  W.  J.  Hender- 
son vsTote  in  the  New  York  Sun  the  day  after  the  pro- 
duction of  Zandonai's  work  in  New  York,  "In  all  human 
probability  the  full  measure  of  'love  insatiable'  was  never 
taken  in  music  but  once,  and  we  cannot  expect  a  second 
'Tristan  und  Isolde'  so  soon." 

Act  I.  The  scene  is  a  court  in  the  house  of  the  Polentani, 
in  Ravenna,  adjacent  to  a  garden,  whose  bright  colours 
are  seen  through  a  pierced  marble  screen.  A  colloquy 
between  Francesco's  brother  Ostasio  and  the  notary  Ser 
Toldo  Berardengo  informs  us  that  for  reasons  of  state, 
Francesca  is  to  be  married  to  that  one  of  the  three  sons  of 
Malatesta  da  Verrucchio,  who  although  named  Giovanni, 
is  known  as  GiancioUi,  the  Lamester,  because  of  his  deformity 
and  ugliness.  As  Francesca  surely  would  refuse  to  marry 
GiancioUi,  a  plot  has  been  formed  by  which  she  is  intro- 
duced to  his  handsome  younger  brother  Paolo,  with  whom, 
under  the  impression  that  he  is  her  destined  bridegroom,  she 
falls  deeply  in  love  at  first  sight,  a  passion  that  is  fully 
reciprocated  by  him,  although  they  have  only  beheld  each 
other,  and  not  yet  exchanged  a  word. 
,  Such  is  the  procedure  of  the  first  act.  When  Francesca 
and  Paolo  behold  each  other  through  the  marble  screen, 
which  divides  the  court  from  the  garden,  in  which  Paolo 
stands  amid  brightly  coloured  flowers,  the  orchestra  intones 
a  phrase  which  may  properly  be  called  the  love  motif. 


The  act  is  largely  lyric  in  its  musical  effect.     Much 
charm  is  given  to  it  by  the  quartette  of  women  who  attend 


682  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

upon  Francesca.  Almost  at  the  outset  the  composer 
creates  what  might  be  called  the  necessary  love  mood,  by 
a  playful  scene  between  Francesco's  women  and,  a  strolling 
jester,  who  chants  for  them  the  story  of  "Tristan  und 
Isolde."  The  setting  of  the  scene  is  most  picturesque. 
In  fact  everything  in  this  act  tends  to  create  "atmosphere," 
and  were  the  rest  of  the  opera  as  successful,  it  would  be  one 
of  the  finest  works  of  its  kind  to  have  come  out  of  modem 
Italy. 

Act  II.  The  scene  is  the  interior  of  a  round  tower  in  the 
fortified  castle  of  the  Malatestas.  The  summit  of  the  tower 
is  crowned  with  engines  of  war  and  arms.  There  are  heavy 
cross-bows,  balhstas,  a  catapult,  and  other  mediaeval 
machinery  of  battle.  The  castle  is  a  stronghold  of  the 
Guelfs.  In  the  distance,  beyond  the  city  of  Rimini,  are 
seen  the  battlements  of  the  highest  Ghibelline  Tower.  A 
narrow  fortified  window  looks  out  on  the  Adriatic. 

Soon  after  the  act  opens,  an  attack  takes  place.  The 
battle  rages.  Amid  all  this  distracting,  and  therefore  futile 
tumult,  occurs  the  first  meeting  between  Francesca  an  1 
Paolo,  since  the  marriage  into  which  she  was  tricked. 
Their  love  is  obvious  enough.  Paolo  despairingly  seeks 
death,  to  which  Francesca  also  exposes  herself  by  remaining 
on  the  platform  of  the  tower  during  the  combat.  The 
relation  between  these  two  principal  characters  of  the  opera 
is  clearly  enough  set  forth,  and  the  impression  made  by  it 
would  be  forcible,  were  not  attention  distracted  by  the 
fiercely  raging  mediaeval  combat. 

The  Malatestas  are  victorious.  The  attacking  foes  are 
driven  off.  Gianciotto  comes  upon  the  platform  and  brings 
news  to  Paolo  of  his  election  as  Captain  of  the  people  and 
Commune  of  Florence,  for  which  city  Paolo  departs. 

Act  III.  The  scene  is  the  beautiful  apartment  of  Fran- 
cesca, where,  from  an  old  tome,  she  is  reading  to  her  women 
the  story  of  Lancelot  and  Guenevere.     This  episode  has 


Photo  by  White 

Alda  as  Francesca  and  Martinelli  as  Paolo  in  "Franccsca  da  Rimini" 


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Bori  and  Ferrari-Fontana  in  "The  Love  of  Three  Kings' 


Riccardo  Zandonai 


683 


somewhat  of  the  same  charm  as  that  which  pervaded  por- 
tions of  the  first  act.  Especially  is  this  true,  when  to  the 
accompaniment  of  archaic  instruments,  the  women  sing 
their  measures  in  praise  of  spring,  "Marzo  t  giunto,  e 
Febbraio  gito  se  n'h  col  ghiado"  (March  comes,  and 
February  goes  with  the  wind  today). 


The  women  dance  and  sing,  until  on  a  whispered  word 
from  her  slave,  Francesco  dismisses  them.  Paolo  has 
returned.  The  greeting  from  her  to  him  is  simple  enough: 
"Benvenuto,  signoro  mio  cognato"  (Welcome  my  lord 
and  kinsman),  but  the  music  is  charged  with  deeper 
significance. 


Even  more  pronounced  is  the  meaning  in  the  musical 
phrase  at  Francesca's  words,  "Paolo,  datemi  pace"  (Paalo, 
give  me  peace). 


Together  they  read  the  story  which  Francesca  had  begun 
reading  to  her  women.  Their  heads  come  close  together 
over  the  book.  Their  white  faces  bend  over  it  until  their 
cheeks  almost  touch;  and  when  in  the  ancient  love  tale, 


684 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


the  queen  and  her  lover  kiss,  Francesca's  and  Paolo's  lips 
meet  and  linger  in  an  ecstasy  of  passion. 

Act  IV.  This  act  is  divided  into  two  parts.  The  scene  of 
the  first  part  is  an  octagonal  hall  of  gray  stone.  A  grated 
door  leads  to  a  subterranean  prison.  Cries  of  a  prisoner 
from  there  have  disturbed  Francesca.  When  she  complains 
of  this  to  the  youngest  brother  of  Gianciotti,  Malatestino, 
he  goes  down  into  the  prison  and  kills  the  captive.  The 
introduction  to  this  act  is,  appropriately  enough,  based  on 
an  abrupt  phrase. 


Malatestino  is  desperately  in  love  with  Francesca,  urges 
his  suit  upon  her,  and  even  hints  that  he  would  go  to  the 
length  of  poisoning  Gianciotti.  Francesca  repulses  him. 
Out  of  revenge  he  excites  the  jealousy  of  Gianciotti  by 
arousing  his  suspicions  of  Paolo  and  Francesca,  pointing 
out  especially  that  Paolo  has  returned  from  Florence  much 
sooner  than  his  duties  there  would  justify  him  in  doing. 

The  scene  of  part  two  is  laid  in  Francesca' s  chamber.  It 
is  night.  Four  waxen  torches  burn  in  iron  candlesticks. 
Francesca  is  lying  on  the  bed.  From  her  sleep  she  is  roused 
by  a  wild  dream  that  harm  has  come  to  Paolo.  Her  women 
try  to  comfort  her.  After  an  exchange  of  gentle  and 
affectionate  phrases,  she  dismisses  them. 

A  light  knocking  at  the  door,  and  Paolo's  voice  calling, 
"Francesca!"  She  flings  open  the  door  and  throws  herself 
into  the  arms  of  her  lover.  There  is  an  interchange  of 
impassioned  phrases.  Then  a  violent  shock  is  heard  at  the 
door,  followed  by  the  voice  of  Gianciotti,  demanding  admis- 
sion. Paolo  spies  a  trap  door  in  the  floor  of  the  apartment, 
pulls  the  bolt,  and  bids  Francesca  open  the  door  of  the 
room  for  her  husband,  while  he  escapes. 


Riccardo  Zandonai  685 

Gianciotti  rushes  into  the  room.  Paolo's  cloak  has  caught 
in  the  bolt  of  the  trap  door.  He  is  still  standing  head  and 
shoulders  above  the  level  of  the  floor.  Seizing  him  by  the 
hair,  the  Lamester  forces  him  to  come  up.  Paolo  unsheathes 
his  dagger.  Gianciotti  draws  his  sword,  thrusts  at  Paolo. 
Francesca  throws  herself  between  the  two  men,  receives 
the  thrust  of  her  husband's  sword  full  in  the  breast,  and 
falls  into  Paolo's  arms.  Mad  with  rage,  her  deformed 
husband  with  another  deadly  thrust  pierces  his  brother's 
side.  Paolo  and  Francesca  fall  at  full  length  to  the  floor. 
With  a  painful  effort,  Gianciotti  breaks  his  blood-stained 
sword  over  his  knee. 

Where  the  drama  is  lyric  in  character,  and  where  it 
concentrates  upon  the  hot-blooded  love-story,  a  tradition 
in  the  Malatesta  family,  and  narrated  by  a  Malatesta  to 
Dante,  who,  as  is  well  known,  used  it  in  his  "Inferno," 
the  music  is  eloquent.  Where,  however,  the  action  becomes 
diffuse,  and  attention  is  drawn  to  subsidiary  incidents,  as 
is  far  too  often  the  case,  interest  in  the  music  flags.  With 
great  benefit  to  the  score  at  least  a  third  of  the  libretto 
could  be  sacrificed. 

Riccardo  Zandonai  was  born  at  Sacco.  He  studied 
with  Gianferrai  and  at  the  Rossini  Conservatory.  "Con- 
chita, "  another  opera  by  him,  Milan,  1912,  was  produced 
in  this  country  in  Chicago  and  New  York  in  191 3. 


Franco  Leoni 
L'ORACOLO 

THE  SAGE 

Opera  in  one  act  by  Franco  Leoni,  words  by  Camillo  Zanoni,  adapted 
from  the  play,  "The  Cat  and  the  Cherub,"  by  Chester  Bailey  Femald. 
Produced,  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  London,  June  28,  1905.  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  New  York,  February  4,  191 5,  with  Scotti,  as 
Chim-Fen;  Didur,  as  Win-She;  Botta, -as  Win-San-Lui;  and  Bori,  as 
Ah- Joe. 

Characters 

Win-She,  a  wise  man,  called  the  Sage Baritone 

Chim-Fen,  an  opium  den  proprietor Baritone 

Win-San-Lui,  son  of  Win-She Tenor 

Hu-TsiN,  a  rich  merchant Bass 

Hu-Chi,  a  child,  son  of  Hu-Tsin 

Ah-Joe,  niece  of  Hu-Tsin Soprano 

HuA-Qui,  nurse  of  Hu-Chi Contralto 

Four  opium  fiends,  a  policeman,  an  opium  maniac,  a  soothsayer,  distant 

voices,  four  vendors,  Chinese  men,  women,  and  children. 
Time — The  present.  Plau — Chinatown,  San  Francisco. 

C^HIM-FEN  is  about  to  close  up  his  opium  den.     A  man 
half  crazed  by  the  drug  comes  up  its  steps  and  slinks 
away.  * 

Out  of  the  house  of  the  merchant  Hu-Tsin  comes  Hua- 
Qui,  the  nurse  of  Hu-Tsin' s  son,  Hu-Chi.  Chim-Fen  wants 
to  marry  the  merchant's  daughter  Ah-Joe.  The  nurse  is  in 
league  with  him.  She  brings  him  a  fan,  upon  which  Ah. 
Joe's  lover,  San-Lui,  son  of  the  sage,  Win-She,  has  written 
an  avowal  of  love.     Hua-Qui  is  jealous,  because  Chim-Fen 

686 


Franco  Leoni  687 

is  in  love  with  Ah- Joe.  Her  jealousy  annoys  him.  He 
threatens  her  and  drives  her  away. 

Four  gamblers,  drunk  with  opium,  emerge  from  the  den. 
Chim-Fen  looks  after  them  with  contempt.  It  is  now  very 
early  in  the  morning  of  New  Year's  Day.  Win-She  comes 
along.  Chim-Fen  greets  him  obsequiously  and  is  admon- 
ished by  the  sage  to  mend  his  vile  ways. 

San-Lui  sings  a  serenade  to  Ah- Joe,  who  comes  out  on 
her  balcony  to  hear  him.  People  pass  by,  street  venders 
cry  their  wares.  Ah- Joe  withdraws  into  the  house,  San- 
Lui  goes  his  way.  When  Hu-Tsin,  the  rich  merchant, 
comes  out,  he  is  accosted  by  Chim-Fen,  who  asks  for  the 
promise  of  Ah- Joe's  hand.     Hu-Tsin  spurns  the  proposal. 

A  fortune-teller  comes  upon  the  scene.  Chim-Fen  has 
his  fortime  told.  "A  vile  past,  a  future  possessed  of 
the  devil.  Wash  you  of  your  slime."  When  Chim-Fen 
threatens  the  fortune-teller,  the  crowd,  which  has  gathered, 
hoots  him  and  repeats  the  words  of  the  fortune-teller  amid 
howls  and  jeers. 

Hu-Tsin,  with  Ah-Joe,  Huu-Qui,  and  the  baby  boy  come 
into  the  street,  where  Win-She,  gathering  a  group  of  wor- 
shippers about  him,  bids  San-Lui  prevent  the  crowd  from 
creating  a  disturbance,  then,  with  all  the  people  kneeling, 
intones  a  prayer,  from  which  he  finally  passes  into  a  trance. 
When  he  comes  out  of  it,  he  says  that  he  has  seen  two  souls, 
one  aspiring  toward  Nirvana,  the  other  engulfed  in  the 
inferno.  He  also  has  witnessed  the  grief  of  a  father  at  the 
killing  of  a  hope.  At  this  Hu-Tsin  shows  alarm  for  the 
safety  of  Hu-Chi,  and  the  people  join  in  lamentations,  but 
Win-She  prophesies,  "Hu-Chi  is  safe." 

Along  comes  the  procession  of  the  dragon.  In  watching 
this  Hua-Qui  neglects  her  charge.  Utilizing  this  opportun- 
ity Chim-Fen  vSeizes  the  child  and  carries  him  off  into  his 
cellar.  When  Hu-Tsin  discovers  the  loss  and  has  berated 
the  nurse,  he  offers  to  give  the  hand  of  Ah-Joe  in  marriage 


688  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

to  the  finder  of  his  son.  This  is  just  what  Chim-Fen  ex- 
pected. San-Lui,  however,  immediately  takes  up  the 
search,  in  spite  of  Ah- Joe's  protests,  for  the  girl  fears  that 
some  harm  will  come  to  him. 

San-Lui  starts  towards  Chim-Fen' s  den.  Hua-Qui  tries 
to  warn  him,  by  telling  him  how  the  opium  dealer  deceived 
her  and  is  seeking  the  hand  of  Ah- Joe,  in  order  to  obtain 
Hu-Tsin's  money.  San-Lui,  however,  compels  Chim-Fen 
to  descend  with  him  to  the  cellar,  where  he  finds  and  is 
about  to  rescue  Hu-Chi,  when  Chim-Fen  kills  him  with  a 
hatchet.  San  Lui  staggers  up  the  steps  to  the  street,  calls 
Ah- Joe's  name,  and  falls  dead.  She  wails  over  his  body,  a 
crowd  gathers,  and  Hu-Tsin  is  horror-stricken  to  find  that 
the  man  who  has  been  slain  at  his  door  is  San-Lui. 

Win-She,  the  father  of  San-Lui,  tells  the  merchant  to 
wait;  the  death  of  San-Lui  will  be  avenged.  Immediately 
Win-She  goes  over  to  the  opium  den,  hears  the  child's  cry 
in  the  cellar,  finds  Hu-Chi  and  restores  him  to  his  father. 
He  then  goes  to  the  door  of  the  opium  den,  calls  Chim-Fen, 
who  comes  out,  apparently  filled  with  indignation  against 
the  murderer  of  Win-She's  son,  whom  he  says  he  would 
like  to  throttle  with  his  own  hands.  From  the  merchant's 
house  there  is  heard  every  now  and  then  the  voice  of  Ah- 
Joe,  who  has  lost  her  reason  through  grief,  and  is  calling 
her  lover's  name. 

The  two  men  seat  themselves  on  a  bench  near  the  opium 
den.  Win-She  speaks  calmly,  quietly,  and  unperceived  by 
Chim-Fen,  draws  a  knife,  and  plunges  it  into  the  villain's 
back.  Chim-Fen  not  dying  at  once,  Win-She  quietly 
winds  the  man's  own  pigtail  around  his  neck  and  proceeds 
slowly  and  gradually  to  strangle  him,  meanwhile  disclosing 
his  knowledge  of  the  murder,  but  without  raising  his  voice, 
propping  up  Chim-Fen  against  some  cases,  and  speaking 
so  quietly,  that  a  policeman,  who  saunters  by,  thinks  two 
Chinamen  are  in  conversation,  and  turns  the  corner  without 


Franco  Leoni  689 

realizing  that  anything  is  wrong.  Win-She  now  goes  his 
way.     Chim- Fen's  body  falls  to  the  ground. 

It  will  have  been  observed  that  many  incidents  are 
crowded  into  this  one  act,  but  that  the  main  features  of  the 
drama,  the  villainy  of  Chim-Fen,  and  the  calm  clairvoyance 
of  Win-She  are  never  lost  sight  of. 

The  music  consists  mainly  of  descriptive  and  dramatic 
phrases,  with  but  little  attempt  to  give  the  score  definite 
Chinese  colouring.  Ah- Joe's  song  on  her  balcony  to  the 
silvery  dawn  is  the  most  tuneful  passage  in  the  opera. 
Scotti,  whose  Chim-Fen  is  a  performance  of  sinister  power, 
Didur  {Win-She),  and  Bori  {Ah- Joe)  were  in  the  Metro- 
politan production. 

Franco  Leoni  was  bom  at  Milan,  October  24,  1864. 
He  studied  under  Ponchielli  at  the  Conservatory  in  his 
native  city.  Other  works  by  him  are  "Rip  Van  Winkle," 
"Raggio  di  Luna,"  and  "lb  and  Little  Christina." 


Italo  Montemezzi 
L'AMORE  DEI  TRE  RE 

THE  LOVE  OF  THREE  KINGS 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Italo  Montemezzi;  words  by  Sem  Benelli, 
from  his  tragedy  ("tragic  poem")  of  the  same  title,  English  version,  by 
Mrs.  R.  H.  Elkin.  Produced,  La  Scala,  Milan,  April  lo,  1913;  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  New  York,  January  2,  19 14,  with  Didur  (Archi- 
baldo),  Amato  (Manfredo),  Ferrari-Fontana  (Avito),  Bori  (Fiora). 
Covent  Garden  Theatre,  London,  May  27,  19 14.  Theatre  des  Champs 
Elys^es,  Paris,  April  25,  1914.  In  the  Milan  production  Luisa  Villani 
was  Fiora,  and  Ferrari  Fontana  Avito. 

Characters 

Archibaldo,  King  of  Altura Bass 

Manfredo,  son  of  Archibaldo Baritone 

Avito,  a  former  prince  of  Altura Tenor 

Flaminio,  a  castle  guard Tenor 

FlORA,  wife  of  Manfredo Soprano 

A  youth,  a  boy  child  (voice  behind  the  scenes) ,  a  voice  behind  the 

scenes,  a  handmaiden,  a  yoimg  girl,  an  old  woman,  other  people 

of  Altura. 
Time — The  tenth  century.  Place — A  remote  castle  of  Italy,  forty 

years  after  a  Barbarian  invasion, 
led  by  A  rchibaldo. 

THIS  opera  is  justly  considered  one  of  the  finest  products 
of  modem  Italian  genius.  Based  upon  a  powerful 
tragedy,  by  Sem  Benelli,  one  of  the  foremost  of  living  play- 
wrights in  Italy,  it  is  a  combination  of  terse,  swiftly  moving 
drama  with  a  score  which  vividly  depicts  events  progressing 
fatefully  toward  an  inevitable  human  cataclysm.  While  there 
is  little  or  no  set  melody  in  Montemezzi's  score,  neverthe- 

6go 


Italo  Montemezzi 


691 


less  it  is  melodious — a  succession  of  musical  phrases  that 
clothe  the  words,  the  thought  behind  them,  their  significance, 
their  most  subtle  suggestion,  in  the  weft  and  woof  of 
expressive  music.  It  is  a  mediaeval  tapestry,  the  colours 
of  which  have  not  faded,  but  still  glow  with  their  original 
depth  and  opulence.  Of  the  many  scores  that  have  come 
out  of  Italy  since  the  death  of  Verdi,  "L'Amore  dei  Tre 
Re"  is  one  of  the  most  eloquent. 

Act  I.  The  scene  is  a  spacious  hall  open  to  a  terrace. 
A  lantern  employed  as  a  signal  sheds  its  reddish  light  dimly 
through  the  gloom  before  dawn. 

From  the  left  enters  Archibaldo.  He  is  old  with  flowing 
white  hair  and  beard,  and  he  is  blind.  He  is  led  in  by  his 
guide  Flaminio,  who  is  in  the  dress  of  the  castle  guard.  As 
if  he  saw,  the  old  blind  king  points  to  the  door  of  a  chamber 
across  the  hall  and  bids  Flaminio  look  and  tell  him  if  it  is 
quite  shut.  It  is  slightly  open.  Archibaldo  in  a  low  voice 
orders  him  to  shut  it,  but  make  no  noise,  then,  hastily 
changing  his  mind,  to  leave  it  as  it  is. 

In  the  setting  of  the  scene,  in  the  gloom  penetrated  only 
by  the  glow  of  the  red  lantern,  in  the  costtunes  of  the  men, 
in  the  actions  of  the  old  king,  who  cannot  see  but  whose 
sense  of  hearing  is  weirdly  acute,  and  in  the  subtle  suggestion 
of  suspicion  that  all  is  not  well,  indicated  in  his  restlessness, 
the  very  opening  of  this  opera  immediately  casts  a  spell 
of  the  uncanny  over  the  hearer.  This  is  enhanced  by  the 
groping  character  of  the  theme  which  accompanies  the  en- 
trance of  A  rchibaldo  with  his  guide,  depicting  the  searching 
footsteps  of  the  blind  old  man. 


There  is  mention  of  Fiora,  the  wife  of  Archibaldo* s  son, 
ManfredOy  who  is  in  the  north,  laying  siege  to  an  enemy 


692 


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stronghold.  There  also  is  mention  of  Avito,  a  prince  of 
Altura,  to  whom  Flora  was  betrothed  before  Archibaldo 
humbled  Italy,  but  whose  marriage  to  Manfredo,  notwith- 
standing her  previous  betrothal,  was  one  of  the  conditions 
of  peace.  Prestunably — as  is  to  be  gathered  from  the  brief 
colloquy — Archibaldo  has  come  into  the  hall  to  watch 
with  Flaminio  for  the  possible  return  of  Manfredo,  but  the 
restlessness  of  the  old  king,  his  commands  regarding  the 
door  opposite,  and  even  certain  inferences  to  be  drawn 
from  what  he  says,  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  he  suspects 
his  son's  wife  and  Avito.  It  is  also  clear — subtly  conveyed, 
without  being  stated  in  so  many  words — that  Flaminio, 
though  in  the  service  of  Archibaldo,  is  faithful  to  Avito,  like 
himself  a  native  of  the  country,  which  Archibaldo  has 
conquered. 

When  Flaminio  reminds  Archibaldo  that  Avito  was  to 
have  wedded  Fiora,  the  blind  king  bids  his  guide  look  out 
into  the  valle}'-  for  any  sign  of  Manfredo' s  approach.  "  Nes- 
suno,  mio  signore!  Tutto  h  pace!"  is  Flaminio 's  reply. 
(No  one,  my  lord!     All  is  quiet!) 


Archibaldo,  recalling  his  younger  years,  tells  eloquently 
of  his  conquest  of  Italy,  apostrophizing  the  ravishing 
beauty  of  the  country,  when  it  first  met  his  gaze,  before  he 
descended  the  mountains  from  which  he  beheld  it.  He 
then  bids  Flaminio  put  out  the  lantern,  since  Manfredo 
comes  not.  Flaminio  obeys  then,  as  there  is  heard  in  the 
distance  the  sound  of  a  rustic  flute,  he  urges  upon  Archi- 
baldo that  they  go.  It  is  nearly  dawn,  the  flute  appears 
to  have  been  a  signal  which  Flaminio  understands.  He  is 
obviously  uneasy,  as  he  leads  Archibaldo  out  of  the  hall. 


Italo  Montemezzi 


693 


Avito  and  Fiora  come  out  of  her  room.  The  woman's 
hair  hangs  in  disorder  around  her  face,  her  slender  figure  is 
draped  in  a  very  fine  ivory-white  garment.  The  very  quiet 
that  prevails  fills  Avito  with  apprehension.  It  is  the  woman, 
confident  through  love,  that  seeks  to  reassure  him.  "  Dam- 
mi  le  labbra,  e  tanta  to  dard  di  questa  pace!"  (Give  me 
thy  lips,  and  I  will  give  thee  of  this  peace). 


For  the  moment  Avito  is  reassured.  There  is  a  brief  but 
passionate  love  scene.  Then  Avito  perceives  that  the  lan- 
tern has  been  extinguished.  He  is  sure  spmeone  has  been 
there,  and  they  are  spied  upon.  Once  more  Fiora  tries  to 
give  him  confidence.  Then  she  herself  hears  someone 
approaching.  Avito  escapes  from  the  terrace  into  the  dim 
daylight.  The  door  on  the  left  opens  and  Archibaldo 
appears  alone.     He  calls  " Fiora !     Fiora!     Fiora!"  fj 

Concealing  every  movement  from  the  old  man's  ears,  she 
endeavours  to  glide  back  to  her  chamber.  But  he  hears 
her. 

"  I  hear  thee  breathing !  Thou'rt  breathless  and  excited! 
O  Fiora,  say,  with  whom  hast  thou  been  speaking?" 

Deliberately  she  lies  to  him.  She  has  been  speaking  to 
no  one.  His  keen  sense  tells  him  that  she  lies.  For  when 
she  sought  to  escape  from  him,  he  heard  her  "gliding  thro' 
the  shadows  like  a  snowy  wing." 

Flaminio  comes  htirrying  in.  The  gleam  of  armoured 
men  has  been  seen  in  the  distance.  Manfredo  is  returning. 
His  trumpet  is  sounded.  Even  now  he  is  upon  the  battle- 
ment and  embraced  by  his  father.     Longing  for  his  wife. 


^6^  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Flora,  has  led  him  for  a  time  to  forsake  the  siege.  Flora 
greets  him,  but  with  no  more  than  a  semblance  of  kindness. 
With  cunning,  she  taunts  Archlbaldo  by  telling  Manfredo 
that  she  had  come  out  upon  the  terrace  at  dawn  to  watch 
for  him,  the  truth  of  which  assertion  Archlbaldo  can  affirm, 
for  he  found  her  there.  As  they  go  to  their  chamber,  the 
old  man,  troubled,  suspecting,  fearing,  thanks  God  that  he 
is  blind. 

Act  II.  The  scene  is  a  circular  terrace  on  the  high  castle 
walls.  A  single  staircase  leads  up  to  the  battlements.  It 
is  afternoon.  The  sky  is  covered  with  changing,  fleeting 
clouds.  Trumpet  blasts  are  heard  from  the  valley.  From 
the  left  comes  Manfredo  with  his  arms  around  Flora.  He 
pleads  with  her  for  her  love.  As  a  last  boon  before  he 
departs  he  asks  her  that  she  will  mount  the  stairway  and, 
as  he  departs  down  the  valley,  wave  to  him  with  her  scarf. 
Sincerely  moved  to  pity  by  his  plea,  a  request  so  simple 
and  yet  seemingly  meaning  so  much  to  him,  she  promises 
that  this  shall  be  done.  He  bids  her  farewell,  kisses  her, 
and  rushes  off  to  lead  his  men  back  to  the  siege. 

Flora  tries  to  shake  off  the  sensation  of  her  husband's 
embrace.  She  ascends  to  the  battlemented  wall.  A 
handmaid  brings  her  an  inlaid  casket,  from  which  she 
draws  forth  a  long  white  scarf.  The  orchestra  graphically 
depicts  the  departure  of  Manfredo  at  the  head  of  his  caval- 
cade. 


U'^UJlJ^Z^ 


Flora  sees  the  horsemen  disappear  in  the  valley.  As  she 
waves  the  veil,  her  hand  drops  wearily  each  time.  Amto 
comes.  He  tells  her  it  is  to  say  farewell.  At  first,  still 
touched  by  the  pity  which  she  has  felt  for  her  husband, 


Italo  Montemezzi 


695 


Fiora  restrains  her  passionate  longing  for  her  lover,  once  or 
twice  waves  the  scarf,  tries  to  do  so  again,  lets  her  arms 
drop,  her  head  droop,  then,  coming  down  the  steps,  falls 
into  his  arms  open  to  receive  her,  and  they  kiss  each  other 
as  if  dying  of  love.  "Come  tremi,  diletto"  (How  thou 
art  trembling,  beloved !)  whispers  Fiora. 


"Guarda  in  su!     Siamo  in  cielof " 
in  heaven!)  responds  Avito. 


(Look  up!    We  are 


^-J^-r^iiM 


\fii^ 


But  the  avenger  is  nigh.  He  is  old,  he  is  blind,  but  he 
knows.  Avito  is  about  to  throw  himself  upon  him  with  his 
drawn  dagger,  but  is  stopped  by  a  gesture  from  Flaminio, 
who  has  followed  the  king.  Avito  goes.  But  Archibaldo 
has  heard  his  footsteps.  The  king  orders  Flaminio  to 
leave  him  with  Fiora.  Flaminio  bids  him  listen  to  the 
sound  of  horses'  hoofs  in  the  valley.  Manfredo  is  returning. 
Fiora  senses  that  her  husband  has  suddenly  missed  the 
waving  of  the  scarf.  Archibaldo  orders  Flaminio  to  go 
meet  the  prince. 

The  old  king  bluntly  accuses  Fiora  of  having  been  with 
her  lover.  Cowering  on  a  stone  bench  that  runs  around  the 
wall,  she  denies  it.  Archibaldo  seizes  her.  Rearing  like  a 
serpent,  Fiora,  losing  all  fear,  in  the  almost  certainty  of 
death  at  the  hands  of  the  powerful  old  man,  who  holds  her, 
boldly  vaunts  her  lover  to  him.  Archibaldo  demands  his 
name,  that  he  and  his  son  may  be  avenged  upon  him.     She 


696 


The  Complete  Opera  Book 


refuses  to  divulge  it.  He  seizes  her  by  the  throat,  again 
demands  the  name,  and  when  she  again  refuses  to  betray 
her  lover,  throttles  her  to  death.  Manfredo  arrives.  Briefly 
the  old  man  tells  him  of  Fiord's  guilt.  Yet  Manfredo 
cannot  hate  her.  He  is  moved  to  pity  by  the  great  love 
of  which  her  heart  was  capable,  though  it  was  not  for  him. 
He  goes  out  slowly,  vfh\\e  Archihaldo  hoists  the  slender  body 
of  the  dead  woman  across  his  chest,  and  follows  him. 

Act  in.  The  crypt  of  the  castle,  where  Flora  lies  upon 
her  bier  with  white  flowers  all  about  her,  and  tapers  at  her 
head  and  feet.  Around  her,  people  of  her  country,  young 
and  old,  make  their  moan,  while  from  within  the  chapel 
voices  of  a  choir  are  heard. 

Out  of  the  darkness  comes  Avito.  The  others  depart  in 
order  that  he  may  be  alone  with  his  beloved  dead,  for  he 
too  is  of  their  country,  and  they  know.  "  Fiora !  Fiora ! — 
E  silenzio!"  (Fiora!  Fiora! — Silence  surrounds  us)  are 
his  first  words,  as  he  gazes  upon  her. 


Then,  desperately,  he  throws  himself  beside  her  and 
presses  his  lips  on  hers.  A  sudden  chill,  as  of  approaching 
death,  passes  through  him.  He  rises,  takes  a  few  tottering 
steps  toward  the  exit. 

Like  a  shadow,  Manfredo  approaches.  He  has  come  to 
seize  his  wife's  lover,  whose  name  his  father  could  not 
wring  from  her,  but  whom  at  last  they  have  caught.  He 
recognizes  Avito.     Then  it  was  he  whom  she  adored. 

"What  do  you  want?"  asks  Avito.  "Can  you.no.t  see 
that  I  can  scarcely  speak? "  .i  6d  ifuii  »9f/i£fl 


Italo  Montemezzi  697 

Scarcely  speak?  He  might  as  well  be  dead.  Upon 
Flora's  lips  Archibaldo  has  spread  a  virulent  poison,  know- 
ing well  that  her  lover  would  come  into  the  crypt  to  kiss 
her,  and  in  that  very  act  would  drain  the  poison  from  her 
lips  and  die.     Thus  would  they  track  him. 

With  his  last  breath,  Avito  tells  that  she  loved  him  as 
the  life  that  they  took  from  her,  aye,  even  more.  Despite 
the  avowal,  Manfredo  cannot  hate  him;  but  rather  is  he 
moved  to  wonder  at  the  vast  love  Fiora  was  capable  of 
bestowing,  yet  not  upon  himself. 

Avito  is  dead.  Manfredo,  too,  throws  himself  upon 
Flora's  corpse,  and  from  her  lips  draws  in  what  remains 
of  the  poison,  quivers,  while  death  slowly  creeps  through 
his  veins,  then  enters  eternal  darkness,  as  Archibaldo 
gropes  his  way  into  the  crypt. 

The  blind  king  approaches  the  bier,  feels  a  body  lying  by 
it,  believes  he  has  caught  Flora's  lover,  only  to  find  that  the 
corpse  is  that  of  his  son. 

Such  is  the  love  of  three  kings; — of  Archibaldo  for  his  son, 
of  Avito  for  the  woman  who  loved  him,  of  Manfredo  for  the 
woman  who  loved  him  not. 

Or,  if  deeper  meaning  is  looked  for  in  Sem  Benelli's 
powerful  tragedy,  the  three  kings  are  in  love  with  Italy, 
represented  by  Fiora,  who  hates  and  scorns  the  conqueror 
of  her  country,  Archibaldo;  coldly  turns  aside  from  Manfredo, 
his  son  and  heir  apparent  with  whose  hand  he  sought  to  bribe 
her;  hotly  loves,  and  dies  for  a  prince  of  her  own  people, 
Avito.  Tragic  is  the  outcome  of  the  conqueror's  effort  to 
win  and  rule  over  an  unwilling  people.     Truly,  he  is  blind. 

Italo  Montemezzi  was  born  in  1875,  in  Verona.  A 
choral  work  by  him,  "Canti<;o  dei  Cantici,"  was  produced 
at  the  Milan  Conservatory,  1900.  Besides  "L'Amore  dei 
Tre  Re, "  he  has  composed  the  operas  "  Giovanni  Gallurese," 
Turin,  1905,  and  "H^ll^ra,"  Turin,  1909. 


Ermanno  Wolf-Ferrari 

ERMANNO  Wolf-Ferrari  was  bom  in  Venice,  January 
12, 1876,  the  son  of  August  Wolf,  a  German  painter,  and 
an  Italian  mother.  At  first  self-taught  in  music,  he  studied 
later  with  Rheinberger  in  Munich.  From  1902-09  he  was 
director  of  the  conservatory  Licio  Benedetto  Marcello. 
He  composed,  to  words  by  Dante,  the  oratorio  "La  Vita 
Miova."  His  operas,  "Le  Donne  Curiose,"  "II  Segreto  di 
Susanna,"  and  "L'Amore  Medici,"  are  works  of  the  ut- 
most delicacy.  They  had  not,  however,  been  able  to  hold 
their  own  on  the  operatic  stage  of  English  speaking  coun- 
tries. This  may  explain  the  composer's  plunge  into  so 
exaggerated,  and  "manufactured"  a  blood  and  thunder 
work  as  "The  Jewels  of  the  Madonna."  In  American 
opera  this  has  held  its  own  in  the  repertoire  of  the  Chicago 
Opera  Company.  It  has  at  least  some  substance,  some 
approach  to  passion,  even  if  this  appears  worked  up  when 
compared  with  such  spontaneous  productions  as  "Caval- 
leria  Rusticana"  and  "I  Pagliacci, "  which  it  obviously 
seeks  to  outdo  in  sordidness  and  brutality. 

The  failure  of  Wolf-Ferrari's  other  operas  to  hold  the 
stage  in  English  speaking  countries  disappointed  many, 
who  regarded  him  as  next  to  Puccini,  the  most  promising 
contemporary  Italian  composer  of  opera.  The  trouble  is 
that  the  plots  of  his  librettos  are  mere  sketches,  and  his  scores 
delicate  to  the  point  of  tenuity,  so  that  even  with  good  casts, 
they  are  futile  attempts  to  re-invoke  the  Spirit  of  Mozart 
behind  the  mask  of  a  half-suppressed  modern  orchestra. 

698 


Ermanno  Wolf-Ferrari  699 

I  GIOJELLI  DELLA  MADONNA 

(the  jewels  of  the  madonna) 

Opera  in  three  acts  by  Wolf-Ferrari;  plot  by  the  composer,  versifica- 
tion by  C.  Zangarini  and  E.  Golisciani.  Produced  in  German  (Der 
Schmuck  der  Madonna),  at  the  Kurfuersten  Oper,  Berlin,  December  23, 
191 1.  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  London,  March  30,  1912.  Auditorium 
Theatre,  Chicago,  January  16,  19 12;  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New 
York,  March  5,  1912,  both  the  Chicago  and  New  York  productions  by 
the  Chicago  Opera  Company,  conducted  by  Cleopante  Campanini,  with 
Carolina  White,  Louis  Bdrat,  Bassi,  and  Sammares. 

Characters 

Gennaro,  in  love  with  Maliella Tenor 

Maliella,  in  love  with  Rafaele Soprano 

Rafaele,  leader  of  the  Camorrists Baritone 

Carmela,  Gennaro' s  mother Mezzo-Soprano 

Biaiso Tenor 

CiciLLO Tenor 

Stella Soprano 

CoNCETTA Soprano 

Serena Soprano 

Rocco Bass 

Grazia,  a  dancer;  Totonno,  vendors,  monks,  populace. 

Time — ^The  present.  Place — Naples. 

Act  I.  A  small  square  in  Naples,  near  the  sea.  Car- 
mela's  house,  Gennaro' s  smithy,  an  inn,  and  the  little  hut  of 
Biaso,  the  scribe,  among  many  other  details.  "It  is  the 
gorgeous  afternoon  of  the  festival  of  the  Madonna,  and  the 
square  swarms  with  a  noisy  crowd,  rejoicing  and  celebrating 
the  event  with  that  strange  mixture  of  carnival  and  super- 
stition so  characteristic  of  Southern  Italy."  This  describes 
most  aptly  the  gay,  crowded  scene,  and  the  character  of  the 
music  with  which  the  opera  opens.  It  is  quite  kaleidoscopic 
in  its  constant  shifting  of  interest.  At  last  many  in  the 
crowd  follow  a  band,  which  has  crossed  the  square. 

Gennaro  in  his  blacksmith's  shop  is  seen  giving  the  finish- 


700  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

ing  touches  to  a  candalabra  on  which  he  has  been  working. 
He  places  it  on  the  anvil,  as  on  an  altar,  kneels  before  it,  and 
sings  a  prayer  to  the  Madonna — "Madonna,  con  sonspiri" 
(Madonna,  tears  and  sighing). 

Maliella  rushes  out  of  the  house  pursued  by  Carmela. 
She  is  a  restless,  wilful  girl,  possessed  of  the  desire  to  get 
away  from  the  restraint  of  the  household  and  throw  herself 
into  the  life  of  the  city,  however  evil — a  potential  Carmen, 
from  whom  opportunity  has  as  yet  been  withheld.  Strik- 
ing an  attitude  of  bravado,  and  in  spite  of  Gennaro's  pro- 
tests, she  voices  her  rebellious  thoughts  in  the  "Canzone  di 
Cannetella, " — "Diceva  Cannetella  vendendosi  inserata" 
(Thus  sang  poor  Cannetella,  who  yearned  and  sighed  for 
her  freedom) . 

A  crowd  gathers  to  hear  her.  From  the  direction  of  the 
sea  comes  the  chorus  of  the  approaching  Camorrists. 
Maliella  and  the  crowd  dance  wildly.  When  Carmela 
reappears  with  a  pitcher  of  water  on  her  head,  the  wayward 
girl  is  dashing  along  the  quay  screaming  and  laughing. 

Carmela  tells  her  son  the  brief  story  of  Maliella.  Gennaro 
languished,  when  an  infant.  Carmela  vowed  to  the  Madonna 
to  seek  an  infant  girl  of  sin  begotten,  and  adopt  her.  "In 
the  open  street  I  found  her,  and  you  recovered."  There  is  a 
touching  duet  for  mother  and  son,  in  which  Carmela  bids 
him  go  and  pray  to  the  Madonna,  and  Gennaro  asks  for  her 
blessing,  before  he  leaves  to  do  so.  Carmela  then  goes  into 
the  house. 

Maliella  runs  in.  The  Camorrists,  Rafaele  in  the  van, 
are  in  pursuit  of  her.  Rafaele,  the  leader  of  the  band,  is  a 
handsome,  flashy  blackguard.  When  he  advances  to  seize 
and  kiss  her,  she  draws  a  dagger-like  hat  pin.  Laughing, 
he  throws  off  his  coat,  like  a  duellist,  grasps  and  holds  her 
tightly.  She  stabs  his  hand,  making  it  bleed,  then  throws 
away  the  skewer.  Angry  at  first,  he  laughs  disdainfully, 
then    passionately    kisses    the    wound.     While    the    other 


Ermanno  Wolf-Ferrari  701 

Camorrists  buy  flowers  from  a  passing  flower  girl  and 
make  a  carpet  of  them,  Rafaele  picks  up  the  hat  pin,  kneels 
before  Maliella,  and  hands  it  to  her.  Maliella  slowly  re- 
places it  in  her  hair,  and  then  Rafaele,  her  arms  being  up- 
lifted, sticks  a  flower  she  had  previously  refused,  on  her 
breast,  where  she  permits  it  to  remain.  A  few  moments 
later  she  plucks  it  out  and  throws  it  away.  Rafaele  picks 
it  up,  and  carefully  replaces  it  in  his  buttonhole.  A  little 
later  he  goes  to  the  inn,  looks  in  her  direction,  and  raises 
his  filled  glass  to  her,  just  at  the  moment,  when,  although 
her  back  is  toward  him,  a  subtle  influence  compels  her  to 
turn  and  look  at  him. 

Tolling  of  bells,  discharge  of  mortars,  cheers  of  populace, 
announce  the  approach  of  the  procession  of  Madonna. 
While  hymns  to  the  Virgin  are  chanted,  Rafaele  pours 
words  of  passion  into  Maliella' s  ears.  The  image  of  the  Vir- 
gin, bedecked  with  sparkling  jewels — the  jewels  of  the 
Madonna — is  borne  past.  Rafaele  asseverates  that  for  the 
love  of  Maliella  he  would  even  rob  the  sacred  image  of 
the  jewels  and  bedeck  her  with  them.  The  superstitious 
girl  is  terrified. 

Gennaro,  who  returns  at  that  moment,  warns  her  against 
Rafaele  as  "the  most  notorious  blackguard  in  this  quarter, " 
at  the  same  time  he  orders  her  into  the  house.  Rafaele' s 
mocking  laugh  infuriates  him.  The  men  seem  about  to 
fight.  Just  then  the  procession  returns,  and  they  are 
obliged  to  kneel.  Rafaele's  looks,  however,  follow  Maliella, 
who  is  very  deliberately  moving  toward  the  house,  her 
eyes  constantly  turning  in  the  Camorrist's  direction.  He 
tosses  her  the  flower  she  has  previously  despised.  She 
picks  it  up,  puts  it  between  her  lips,  and  flies  indoors. 

Act  II.  The  garden  of  Car  meld' s  house.  On  the  left 
wall  a  wooden  staircase.  Under  this  is  a  gap  in  the  back 
wall  shut  in  by  a  railing.     It  is  late  evening. 

Carmela,  having  cleared  the  table,  goes  into  the  house. 


702  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Gennaro  starts  in  to  warn  Maliella.  She  says  she  will  have 
freedom,  rushes  up  the  staircase  to  her  room,  where  she  is 
seen  putting  her  things  together,  while  she  hums,  "E 
ndringhete,  ndranghete"  (I  long  for  mirth  and  folly). 

She  descends  with  her  bundle  and  is  ready  to  leave.  Gen- 
naro pleads  with  her.  As  if  lost  in  a  reverie,  with  eyes 
half -closed,  she  recalls  how  Rafaele  offered  to  steal  the 
jewels  of  the  Madonna  for  her.  Gennaro,  at  first  shocked 
at  the  sacrilege  in  the  mere  suggestion,  appears  to  yield 
gradually  to  a  desperate  intention.  He  bars  the  way  to 
Maliella,  locks  the  gate,  and  stands  facing  her.  Laughing 
derisively,  she  reascends  the  stairs. 

Her  laugh  still  ringing  in  his  ears,  no  longer  master  of 
himself,  he  goes  to  a  cupboard  under  the  stairs,  takes  out  a 
box,  opens  it  by  the  light  of  the  lamp  at  the  table,  selects 
from  its  contents  several  skeleton  ke3''S  and  files,  wraps 
them  in  a  piece  of  leather,  which  he  hides  under  his  coat, 
takes  a  look  at  Maliella's  window,  crosses  himself,  and 
sneaks  out. 

From  the  direction  of  the  sea  a  chorus  of  men's  voices  is 
heard.  Rafaele  appears  at  the  gate  with  his  Camorrist 
friends.  To  the  accompaniment  of  their  mandolins  and 
guitars  he  sings  to  Maliella  a  lively  waltzlike  serenade. 
The  girl,  in  a  white  wrapper,  a  light  scarlet  shawl  over  her 
shoulders  descends  to  the  garden.  There  is  a  love  duet — 
" in  a  torrent  of  passion,  "according  to  the  libretto,  but  not  so 
torrential  in  the  score: — "T'amo,  si,  t'amo"  (  I  love  you, 
I  love  you) ,  for  Maliella; ' '  Stringimi  forte '  *  (Cling  fast  to  me) 
for  Rafaele;  "Oh!  strette  ardenti"  (Rapture  enthralling)  for 
both.  She  promises  that  on  the  mon-ow  she  will  join  him. 
Then  Rafaele's  comrades  signal  that  someone  approaches. 

Left  to  herself,  she  sees  in  the  moonlight  Gennaro' s  open 
tool  box.  As  if  in  answer  to  her  presentiment  of  what  it 
signifies,  he  appears  with  a  bundle  wrapped  in  red  damask. 
He  is  too  distracted  by  his  purpose  to  question  her  presence 


Ermanno  Wolf-Ferrari  703 

in  the  garden  at  so  late  an  hour  and  so  lightly  clad.  Throw- 
ing back  the  folds  of  the  damask,  he  spreads  out  on  the 
table,  for  Maliella,  the  jewels  of  the  Madonna. 

Maliella,  in  an  ecstacy,  half  mystic,  half  sensual,  and 
seemingly  visioning  in  Gennaro  the  image  of  the  man  who 
promised  her  the  jewels,  Rafaele,  who  has  set  every  chord 
of  evil  passion  in  her  nature  vibrating — no  longer  repulses 
Gennaro,  but,  when,  at  the  foot  of  a  blossoming  orange  tree, 
he  seizes  her,  yields  herself  to  his  embrace; — a  scene  de- 
scribed in  the  Italian  libretto  with  a  realism  that  leaves 
no  doubt  as  to  its  meaning. 

Act  III.  A  haunt  of  the  Camorrists  on  the  outskirts  of 
Naples.  On  the  left  wall  is  a  rough  fresco  of  the  Madonna, 
whose  image  was  borne  in  procession  the  previous  day. 
In  front  of  it  is  a  sort  of  altar. 

The  Camorrists  gather.  They  are  men  and  women, 
all  the  latter  of  doubtful  character.  There  is  singing  with 
dancing — the  "Apache,"  the  "Tarantelle."  Stella,  Con- 
cetla,  Serena,  and  Grazia,  the  dancer,  are  the  principal 
women.  They  do  not  anticipate  Malielln's  expected  arrival 
with  much  pleasure.  When  Rafaele  comes  in,  they  ask 
him  what  he  admires  in  her.  In  his  answer,  "Non  sapete 
.  .  .  di  Maliella"  (know  you  not  of  Maliella),  he  tells 
them  her  chief  charm  is  that  he  will  be  the  first  man  to 
whom  she  has  yielded  herself. 

In  the  midst  of  an  uproar  of  shouting  and  dancing,  while 
Rafaele,  standing  on  a  table,  cracks  a  whip,  Maliella  rushes 
in.  In  an  agony  she  cries  out  that,  in  a  trance,  she  gave 
herself  up  to  Gennaro.  The  women  laugh  derisively  at 
Rafaele,  who  has  just  sung  of  her  as  being  inviolable  to  all 
but  himself.  There  is  not  a  touch  of  mysticism  about 
Rafaele.  That  she  should  have  confused  Gennaro  with  him, 
and  so  have  yielded  herself  to  the  young  blacksmith,  does 
not  appeal  to  him  at  all.  For  him  she  is  a  plucked  rose  to 
be  left  to  wither.    Furiously  he  rejects  her,  flings  her  to  the 


704  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

ground.  The  jewels  of  the  Madonna  fall  from  her  cloak. 
They  are  readily  recognized;  for  they  are  depicted  in  the 
rough  fresco  on  the  wall. 

Gennaro,  who  has  followed  her  to  the  haunt  of  the 
Camorrists,  enters.  He  is  half  mad.  Maliella,  laughing 
hysterically,  flings  the  jewels  at  his  feet,  shrieking  that  he 
stole  them  for  her.  The  crowd,  as  superstitious  as  it  is 
criminal,  recoils  from  both  intruders.  The  women  fall 
to  their  knees.  Rafaele  curses  the  girl.  At  his  command, 
the  band  disperses.  Maliella  goes  out  to  drown  herself 
in  the  sea.  "Madonna  dei  dolor!  Miserere!"  (Madonna 
of  our  pain,  have  pity),  prays  Gennaro.  His  thoughts 
revert  to  his  mother.  "Deh  no  piangere,  0  Mamma  mia" 
(Ah!  Weep  not,  beloved  mother  mine).  Among  the 
debris  he  finds  a  knife  and  plunges  it  into  his  heart. 

"Le  Donne  Curiose"  (Inquisitive  Women),  words  by 
Luigi  Sagana,  after  a  comedy  by  Goldoni,  was  produced  at 
the  Hofoper,  Munich,  November  27,  1903,  in  German. 
It  was  given  for  the  first  time  in  Italian  at  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House,  New  York,  January  3,  1912. 

Several  Venetian  gentlemen,  including  Ottavio,  the  father 
oi  Rosaura,  who  is  betrothed  to  Florindo,  have  formed  a 
club,  to  which  women  are  not  admitted.  The  latter  im- 
mediately have  visions  of  forbidden  pleasures  being  indulged 
in  by  the  men  at  the  club.  By  various  intrigues  the  women 
manage  to  obtain  a  set  of  keys,  and  enter  the  club,  only  to 
find  the  men  enjoying  themselves  harmlessly  at  dinner. 
All  ends  in  laughter  and  dancing. 

The  principal  characters  are  Ottavio,  a  rich  Italian  (Bass) ; 
Beatrice,  his  wife  (Mezzo-Soprano) ;  Rosaura,  his  daughter 
(Soprano);  Florindo,  betrothed  to  Rosaura  (Tenor);  Panta- 
lone,  a  Venetian  merchant  (Buffo-Baritone);  his  friends, 
Lelio  (Baritone),  and Leandro  (Tenor);  Colombina,  Rosatira's 
maid  (Soprano);  Eleanora,  wife  to  Lelio  (Soprano);  Arlec- 


Emrianno  Wolf-Ferrari  705 

chino;  servant  to  Pantalone  {Buffo-Bass).  There  are  serv- 
ants, gondoliers,  and  men  and  women  of  the  populace. 
The  action  is  laid  in  Venice  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century.     There  are  three  acts: 

Act  I,  in  the  Friendship  Club,  and  later  in  Ottavio's 
home;  Act  II,  in  Lelio's  home;  Act  III,  a  street  in  Venice 
near  the  Grand  Canal,  and  later  in  the  club. 

In  the  music  the  club's  motto,  "Bandie  xe  le  Done" 
(No  Women  Admitted)  is  repeated  often  enough  to  pass 
for  a  motif.  The  most  melodious  vocal  passage  is  the  duet 
for  Rosaura  and  Florindo  in  Act  II,  "II  cor  nel  contento" 
(My  heart,  how  it  leaps  in  rejoicing).  In  the  first  scene 
of  Act  III  a  beautiful  effect  is  produced  by  the  composer's 
use  of  the  Venetian  barcarolle,  "La  Biondina  in  Gon- 
doletta, "  which  often,  in  the  earlier  days  of  Rossini's 
Opera,  "II  Barbiere  di  Siviglia, "  was  introduced  by  prima 
donnas  in  the  lesson  scene. 

In  the  Metropolitan  production  Farrar  was  Rosaura, 
Jadloker  Florindo,  and  Scotti  Lelio.  Toscanini  conducted. 
The  roles  of  Colombina  and  Arlecchino  (Harlequin)  are 
survivals  of  old  Italian  comedy,  which  Goldoni  still 
retained  in  some  of  his  plays. 

"II  Segreto  di  Susanna"  (The  Secret  of  Suzanne),  the 
scene  a  drawing-room  in  Piedmont,  time  1840,  is  in  one  act. 
Countess  Suzanne  {Soprano)  smokes  cigarettes.  The  aroma 
left  by  the  smoke  leads  Count  Gil  {Baritone)  to  suspect  his 
wife  of  entertaining  a  lover.  He  discovers  her  secret — and 
all  is  well.  The  third  character,  a  servant,  Sante,  is  an 
acting  part. — A  musical  trifle,  at  the  Hofoper,  Munich, 
November  4,  1909;  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York, 
by  the  Chicago  Opera  Company,  March  14,  191 1,  with 
Carolina  White  and  Sammarco;  Constanzi  Theatre,  Rome, 
November  27,  191 1.  The  "book"  is  by  Enrico  Golisciani, 
from  the  French. 
45 


706  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"L'Amore  Medico,"  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  March 
25,  1 914,  is  another  typical  bit  of  Wolf -Ferrari  musical 
bric-a-brac — slight,  charming,  and  quite  unable  to  hold  its 
own  in  the  hurly-burly  of  modern  verismo.  A  girl  is  love- 
sick. Her  father,  who  does  not  want  her  ever  to  leave  him, 
thinks  her  ailment  physical,  and  vainly  summons  four 
noted  physicians.  Then  the  clever  maid  brings  in  the  girl's 
lover  disguised  as  a  doctor.  He  diagnoses  the  case  as 
love-hallucination,  and  suggests  as  a  remedy  a  mock  mar- 
riage, with  himself  as  bridegroom.  The  father  consents, 
and  an  actual  marriage  takes  place. 

The  scene  of  "L'Amore  Medico"  (Doctor  Cupid),  words 
by  Golisciano  after  Moliere's  "L'Amour  Medecin,"  is  a 
villa  near  Paris,  about  1665  (Louis  XIV).  The  characters 
are  Arnolfo,  a  rich,  elderly  landowner  {Bass);  Lucinda, 
his  daughter  {Soprano) ;  Clitandro,  a  young  cavalier,  {Tenor) ; 
Drs.  Tomes  {Bass);  Desfonandres  {Bass);  Macroton  {Bari- 
tone); Bahis  {Tenor) : Lisetta,  Lucinda'' s  maid  {Soprano);  No- 
tary {Bass).  There  also  are  servants,  peasants  and  peasant 
girls,  musicians,  dancing  girls,  etc.  The  work  is  in  two 
acts,  the  scene  of  the  first  the  villa  garden;  of  the  second  a 
handsome  interior  of  the  villa.  The  original  production,  in 
German,  was  at  the  Dresden  Royal  Opera  House,  December 
4.  1913. 


Umberto  Giordano 

UMBERTO  GIORDANO  was  born  at  Foggia,  August 
26,  1867.  Paolo  Serrao  was  his  teacher  in  music  at 
the  Naples  Conservatory.  With  a  one-act  opera,  "  Marina, " 
he  competed  for  the  Sonzogno  prize,  which  Mascagni  won 
with  "  Cavalleria  Rusticana."  "  Marina, "  however,  secured 
for  him  a  commission  for  the  three-act  opera,  "Mala 
Vita,"  Rome,  1892.  Then  followed  the  operas  which  have 
been  noticed  above. 

MADAME  SANS  GENE 

Opera  in  four  acts  by  Umberto  Giordano,  words  by  Renato  Simoni 
after  the  play  by  Victorien  Sardon  and  E.  Moroau.  Produced,  for 
the  first  time  on  any  stage,  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York 
January  25,  191 5,  with  Farrar  as  Catherine,  and  Amato  as  Napoleon. 

Characters 

Napoleon  Bonaparte Baritone 

Lefebvre,  sergeant  of  the  National  Guards,  later  a  Marshal  of 

France  and  Duke  of  Danzig Tenor 

Fouch6,  officer  of  the  National  Guards,  later  Minister  of  Police  Baritone 

Count  de  Neipperg Tenor 

Vinaigre,  drummer  boy Tenor 

Despr^aux,  dancing  master Tenor 

Gelsomino,  page Baritone 

Leroy,  tailor Baritone 

De  Brigode,  chamberlain Baritone 

RousTAN,  head  of  the  Mamelakes Baritone 

707  : 

i 


7o8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Catherine    Huebscher,  "Madame  Sans-G6ne,"  laundress; 

later  Duchess  of  Danzig Soprano 

ToiNETTE"^ r  Soprano 

Julia         v  laundresses J  Soprano 

La  Rossa  j  [^  Soprano 

Queen  Caroline  )  ,  (  Soprano 

•n^,.,^x-^^  T7,  T^ .      r  sister  of  Napoleon ■{  r.  . 

Princess  Elisa     j  |  Soprano 

Lady  de  Bulow,  matron  of  honour  to  the  Empress Soprano 

Maturino,   Constant   (valet  to  Napoleon),  the  voice  of  the  Empress, 

citizens,  shopkeepers,  villagers,  soldiers,  ladies  of  the  court,  officials, 

diplomats,  academicians,  hunters,  pages,  and  two  Mamelukes. 

Time — August  lo,  1792;  and  September,  181 1.  Place — Paris. 

"Madame  Sans-Gene"  is  an  opera  that  maintains  itself 
in  the  repertoire  largely  because  of  the  play  that  underlies 
it.  The  title  role  is  delightful.  It  has  been  among  the 
successes  of  several  clever  actresses,  including  Ellen  Terry, 
to  whose  Catherine  Henry  Irving  was  the  Napoleon.  Its 
creator  in  the  opera  was  Geraldine  Farrar,  to  whose  vivacity 
in  interesting  the  character,  far  more  than  to  the  musical 
merit  of  the  work  itself,  is  due  the  fact  that  the  opera  has  not 
dropped  out  of  the  repertoire.  In  point  of  fact  the  same 
composer's  "  Andr^  Chenier"  is  of  greater  musical  interest, 
but  the  leading  character  does  not  offer  the  same  scope 
for  acting,  which  accounts  for  its  having  dropped  almost 
entirely  out  of  the  repertoire  in  America. 

In  "Madame  Sans-Gene,"  Catherine  (in  the  Italian 
libretto  Caterina)  is  a  laundress.  The  first  act  opens  in  her 
laundry  in  Paris  during  the  French  Revolution.  The 
nickname  of  Madame  Sans-Gene,  usually  translated 
Madame  Free-and-Easy,  is  given  her  because  of  her 
vivacity,  originality,  straightforwardness  in  speech,  and 
charm. 

Discharge  of  cannon  and  other  sounds  indicate  that 
fighting  is  going  on  in  the  streets.  Three  women  employed 
by  Catherine  are  at  work  in  the  laundry.  Catherine  comes 
in  from  the  street.     She  tells  of  her  adventures  with  a  lot  of 


Umberto  Giordeoio  709 

rough  soldiers.  She  does  this  amazingly,  but  her  experience 
has  cured  her  of  her  curiosity  to  see  what  is  going  on  outside. 
There  is  a  scene  between  Catherine  and  Fouche,  a  time- 
server,  waiting  to  observe  how  matters  go,  before  he  decides 
whether  to  cast  his  fortunes  with  the  Royalists  or  the 
people.  They  gossip  about  a  Corsican  officer,  who  owes 
Catherine  for  laundry,  but  is  so  poor  he  has  been  obliged 
to  pawn  his  watch  for  bread.  Nevertheless,  the  good- 
hearted,  lively  Madame  Sans-Gene  continues  to  do  his 
laundry  work  for  him,  and  trusts  to  the  future  for  the  bill. 

Catherine  is  left  alone.  Rifle  shots  are  heard.  Count 
Neipperg,  a  wounded  Austrian  officer  of  the  Queen's  suite, 
comes  in  and  asks  to  be  hidden.  Although  she  is  of  the 
people,  Catherine  hides  him  in  her  own  room.  His  pursuers 
enter.  It  chances  they  are  led  by  Catherine's  betrothed, 
Sergeant  Lefebvre.  For  a  while  Catherine  diverts  the  squad 
from  its  purpose  by  offering  wine.  Lefebvre  uncorks  the 
bottle,  meanwhile  giving  a  lively  description  of  the  sacking 
of  the  Tuilleries.  There  is  a  scene  of  affection  between 
him  and  Catherine.  He  notices  that  his  hands  are  black 
with  powder  and,  intending  to  wash  them  in  Catherine's 
room,  becomes  violently  suspicious  on  finding  the  door 
locked.  He  wrenches  the  key  from  her,  unlocks  the  door, 
enters  the  room.  Catherine,  expecting  every  moment  to 
hear  him  despatching  the  wounded  man  stops  up  her  ears. 
Lefebvre  comes  out  quietly.  He  tells  her  the  man  in  her 
room  is  dead.  As  she  is  not  at  all  excited,  but  merely 
surprised,  he  knows  that  he  has  no  cause  to  suspect  that 
the  wounded  man  is  her  lover.  He  will  help  her  to  save 
him.  Catherine  throws  herself  into  his  arms.  There  are 
sounds  of  drums  and  of  marching  and  shouting  in  the  street. 
Lefebvre  leads  out  his  squad. 

Like  most  modern  composers  who  do  not  possess  the 
gift  for  sustained  melody,  Giordano  would  make  up  for  it 
by  great  skill  in  the  handling  of  his  orchestra  and  constant 


7IO  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

depiction  of  the  varying  phases  of  the  action.  There  is 
considerable  opportunity  for  a  display  of  this  talent  in  the 
first  act  of  "Madame  Sans-Gene,"  and  the  composer  has 
furnished  a  musical  background,  in  which  the  colours  are 
laid  on  in  short,  quick,  and  crisp  strokes.  "The  Mar- 
seillaise" is  introduced  as  soldiers  and  mob  surge  past 
Catherine's  laundry. 

Act  II.  The  drawing  room  of  the  Chateau  de  Compiegne. 
The  Empire  has  been  established.  Lefebvre  is  a  Marshal 
and  has  been  created  Duke  of  Danzig.  Catherine  is  his 
duchess.  She  scandalizes  the  court  with  her  frequent 
breaches  of  etiquette. 

When  the  act  opens  Despreaux,  the  dancing  master, 
Gelsomino,  the  valet,  and  Leroy,  the  ladies'  tailor,  are  en- 
gaged in  passing  criticisms  upon  her.  She  enters,  is  as 
unconventional  as  ever,  and  amusingly  awkward,  when  she 
tries  on  the  court  train,  or  is  being  taught  by  Despreaux 
how  to  deport  herself,  when  she  receives  the  Emperor's 
sisters,  whom  she  is  expecting.  Lefebvre  comes  in  like  a 
thunder  cloud.  Napoleon,  he  tells  her,  has  heard  how  she 
has  scandalized  the  court  by  her  conduct  and  has  intimated 
that  he  wishes  him  to  divorce  her.  There  is  a  charming 
scene — perhaps  the  most  melodious  in  the  opera — between 
the  couple  who  love  each  other  sincerel5^  Neipperg,  who 
now  is  Austrian  Ambassador,  comes  upon  the  scene  to  bid 
his  old  friends  good-bye.  Napoleon  suspects  that  there 
is  an  intrigue  between  him  and  the  Empress,  and  has  had 
him  recalled.  Fouche,  Minister  of  Police,  announces 
Napoleon's  sisters — Queen  Carolina  and  Princess  Elisa. 
Catherine's  court  train  bothers  her.  She  is  unrestrained  in 
her  language.  The  royal  ladies  and  their  suite  at  first 
laugh  contemptuously,  then  as  Catherine,  in  her  resentment, 
recalls  to  Carolina  that  King  Murat,  her  husband,  once 
was  a  waiter  in  a  tavern,  the  scene  becomes  one  of  growing 
mutual   recrimination,    until,    to   the   measures    of    "The 


Photo  bv  White 


Farrar  as  Catherine  in  "Mme.  Sans  G6ne" 


Photo  o'lpyriyht,  1916,  by  Victor  Georg 

Galli-Curci  as  Lakmeo 


Umberto  Giordano  711 

Marseillaise,"  Catherine  begins  to  recount  her  services  to 
Napoleon's  army  as  Cantinihre.  Enraged,  the  royal  ladies 
and  their  suite  leave.  De  Brigade,  the  court  chamberlain, 
summons  Catherine  to  the  presence  of  the  Emperor.  Not  at 
all  disconcerted,  she  salutes  in  military  fashion  the  men 
who  have  remained  behind,  and  follows  De  Brigade. 

Act  III.  Cabinet  of  the  Emperor.  There  is  a  brief  scene 
between  Napoleon  and  his  sisters,  to  whom  he  announces 
that  there  is  to  be  a  hunt  at  dawn,  at  which  he  desires  their 
presence.     They  withdraw;  Catherine  is  announced. 

Napoleon  brusquely  attacks  her  for  her  behaviour.  She 
recalls  his  own  humble  origin,  tells  of  her  services  to  the 
army,  and  of  the  wound  in  the  arm  she  received  on  the 
battlefield,  maintains  that  his  sisters  in  insulting  her  also 
insulted  his  army,  and,  as  a  climax  draws  out  a  bit  of  yellow 
paper — a  laundry  bill  he  still  owes  her,  for  he  was  the 
impecunious  young  lieutenant  mentioned  in  the  first  act. 
With  much  chicness  she  even  tells  him  that,  when  she 
delivered  his  laundry,  she  tried  to  attract  his  attention,  but 
he  was  always  too  absorbed  in  study  to  take  notice  of  her, 
and  make  love  to  her. 

The  Emperor  is  charmed.  He  kisses  the  scar  left  by  the 
wound  on  her  arm.  Catherine,  bowing,  exclaims,  "The 
Emperor  owes  me  nothing  more!" 

Catherine  is  about  to  go,  Napoleon  ordering  for  her  the 
escort  of  an  officer,  when  Neipperg  is  apprehended,  as  he  is 
approaching  the  Empress's  door.  Infuriated,  Napoleon 
tears  the  string  of  medals  from  the  Ambassador's  breast  and 
appears  about  to  strike  him  in  the  face  with  it.  Neipperg 
draws  his  sword.  Officers  rush  in.  Napoleon  orders  that 
he  be  shot  ere  dawn,  and  that  Fouchi  and  Lefebvre  have 
charge  of  the  execution. 

Act  IV.  The  scene  is  the  same,  but  it  is  far  into  the  night. 
The  candles  are  burning  low,  the  fire  is  dying  out,  Catherine 
and  Lefebvre  have  a  brief  scene  in  which  they  deplore  that 


712  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

they  are  powerless  to  prevent  Neipperg's  execution.  Cath- 
erine cannot  even  inform  the  Empress  and  possibly  obtain 
her  intervention,  for  her  door,  at  Napoleon's  command,  is 
guarded  by  Rous  tan. 

But  Napoleon,  when  he  comes  in,  is  sufficiently  impressed 
by  Catherine's  faith  in  the  Empress's  loyalty  to  put  it  to  the 
test.  At  his  direction,  she  knocks  at  the  Empress's  door, 
and  pretending  to  be  her  Matron  of  Honour,  Mme.  de 
Bulow,  says,  "Majesty,  Neipperg  is  here.  The  Empress 
passes  out  a  letter.  "  Give  this  to  him — and  my  farewell." 
Napoleon  takes  the  letter,  breaks  the  seal.  The  letter  is  to 
the  Empress's  father,  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  whom  she 
asks  to  entertain  Neipperg  in  Vienna  as  his  assiduity 
troubles  her  and  the  Emperor.  Napoleon  orders  Fouche 
to  restore  Neipperg's  sword  and  let  him  depart. 

"As  for  your  divorce,"  he  says  to  Lefebvre,  with  a  savage 
look,  "My  wish  is  this" — playfully  he  tweaks  Catherine 
by  the  ear.  "Hold  her  for  ever  true.  Give  thanks  to 
heaven  for  giving  her  to  you." 

Hunting-horns  and  the  chorus  of  hunters  are  heard 
outside. 

ANDRE  CHENIER 

"Andre  Ch6nier"  was  produced  at  La  Scala,  Milan, 
March  23,  1896.  It  was  given  in  London,  in  English, 
April  26,  1903.  Long  before  that,  November  13,  1896,  New 
York  heard  it  at  the  Academy  of  Music,  under  Mapleson. 
It  had  a  single  performance,  under  the  management  of 
Oscar  Hammerstein,  at  the  Manhattan  Opera  House  in 
1908,  and  eight  years  later  was  given  by,  and  endured 
through  the  season  of,  the  Boston-National  Opera  Com- 
pany, both  in  Boston  and  on  tour. 

Historical  as  a  character  though  Andre  Chenier  be, 
Giordano's  librettist,  Luigi  Illica,  has  turned  his  life  into 
fiction.     Chenier  was  a  poet,  dreamer,  and  patriot.     Bom 


Umberto  Giordano  713;: 

at  Constantinople,  he  went  to  Paris  for  his  education. 
Later  he  became  a  participant  in  and  victim  of  the  French 
Revolution. 

Characters 

Andr£  Ch6nier Tenor 

Charles  Gerard Baritone 

Countess  de  Coigny Soprano 

Madeleine,  her  daughter Soprano 

Bersi,  her  maid Mezzo-Soprano 

Rougher Bass 

Mathieu Baritone 

Madelon Soprano 

Fleville Tenor 

The  Abb6 Tenor 

Schmidt,  jailer  at  St.  Lazare Bass 

A  Spy 

Guests  at  ball,  servants,  pages,  peasants,  soldiers  of  the   Republic, 
masqueraders,  judges,  jurymen,  prisoners,  mob,  etc. 

Time — ^Just  prior  to  and  during  the  French  Revolution.    Plate — Paris. 

Act  I.  Ballroom  in  a  chateau.  Gerard,  a  servant,  but 
also  a  revolutionist,  is  secretly  in  love  with  Madeleine,  the 
Countess's  daughter.  Among  the  guests  at  a  ball  is  AndrS 
Chinier,  a  poet  with  revolutionary  tendencies.  Madeleine 
asks  him  to  improvise  a  poem  on  love.  Instead,  he  sings 
of  the  wrongs  of  the  poor.  Gerard  appears  with  a  crowd  of 
ragged  men  and  women,  but  at  the  Countess's  command 
servants  force  the  intruders  out.  Chinier  and  Madeleine, 
the  latter  weary  of  the  routine  of  fashion,  have  been  at- 
tracted to  each  other. 

Act  II.  Caf^  Hottot  in  Paris,  several  years  later. 
Chinier  has  offended  the  Revolutionists  by  denouncing 
Robespierre.  A  spy  is  watching  Bersi,  Madeleine's  old 
nurse,  and  sees  her  hand  Chinier  a  letter.  It  is  from 
Madeleine.  She  loves  him.  She  is  dogged  by  spies,  begs 
him  come  to  her  aid,  and  arranges  a  meeting. 


714  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Robespierre  passes,  followed  by  a  mob.  Gerard,  now 
high  in  favour,  seeks  to  possess  Madeleine,  who  comes  to 
meet  the  poet.  They  are  about  to  flee,  when  Gerard, 
notified  by  the  spy,  interposes.  Chenier  and  Gerard  fight 
with  swords.     Gerard  is  wounded.     The  lovers  escape. 

Act  III.  Revolutionary  Tribunal.  The  crowd  sings 
the  "Carmagnole."  Chenier  has  been  captured.  Gerard 
writes  the  indictment  for  his  rival.  Madeleine  pleads  for 
her  lover,  finally  promising  to  give  herself  to  Gerard  if 
Chenier  is  spared.  Gerard,  moved  by  the  girl's  love,  agrees 
to  save  Chenier  if  he  can.  At  the  trial  he  declares  that  the 
indictment  against  Chenier  is  false.  But  the  mob,  thirsting 
for  more  blood,  demands  the  poet's  death. 

Act  IV.  Prison  of  Lazare  at  midnight.  Madeleine 
enters  to  Chinier  with  Gerard.  She  has  bribed  the  jailer 
to  allow  her  to  substitute  for  another  woman  prisoner.  If 
she  cannot  live  for  her  lover,  she  can,  at  least,  die  with  him. 
Together  she  and  Chenier  go  to  the  scaffold. 

Two  other  operas  by  Giordano  have  been  heard  in 
America — "Fedora,"  after  Sardou,  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  December  i6,  1906,  with  Cavalieri  and  Caruso; 
and  "Siberia,"  Manhattan  Opera  House,.  February  5, 
1908.     They  have  not  lasted. 


rIT 


Italian  Opera 
ERO  E  LEANDRO 


OPERA  in  three  acts  by  Luigi  Mancinelli ;  libretto  by  Ar- 
rigo  Boito.  First  produced  in  America  at  the  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  March  lo,  1899,  with  the  composer 
conducting  and  the  following  cast:  Hero,  Mme.  Eames; 
Leandro,  Saleza,  and  Plancon  as  Ariofarno. 

In  the  first  act  the  lovers  meet  at  a  festival.  Leandro, 
victor  in  the  Aphrodisian  games  both  as  a  swordsman  and 
cytharist,  is  crowned  hy  Hero.  He  sings  two  odes  borrowed 
from  Anacreon.  Ariofarno,  the  archon,  loves  Hero.  When 
he  seeks  to  turn  her  from  her  sacred  mission  as  priestess  of 
Aphrodite  she  spurns  his  love.  She  invokes  an  omen  from 
a  sea  shell,  on  the  altar  of  the  goddess,  and  hears  in  it  rush- 
ing waters  and  the  surging  sea,  that  will  eventually  turn  her 
romance  to  tragedy.  When  she  kneels  before  the  statue  of 
Apollo  and  pleads  to  know  her  fate,  Ariofarno,  concealed, 
answers: "  Death." 

The  second  act  takes  place  in  the  temple  of  Aphrodite. 
The  archon  claims  that  he  has  been  warned  by  the  oracle 
to  reinstate  a  service  in  a  town  by  the  sea.  He  consecrates 
Hero  to  the  duty  of  giving  warning  of  approaching  storms, 
so  that  the  raging  waters  may  be  appeased  by  priestly  ritual. 
He  offers  to  release  her  from  this  task  if  she  will  return  his 
love.  When  she  again  spurns  him,  Leandro  attempts  to 
attack  him.  For  this,  the  young  man  is  banished  to  the 
shores  of  Asia,  while  Hero  sadly  pledges  herself  to  the  new 
service. 

In  the  third  act  Leandro  has  performed  his  famous  swim- 

715 


7i6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

ming  feat.  The  lovers  sing  their  ecstasy.  Meanwhile  a 
storm  arises  unobserved.  The  trumpet  that  should  have 
been  sounded  by  Hero  is  sounded  from  the  vaults  beneath 
the  tower.  Leandro  throws  himself  into  the  Hellespont 
while  Ariofarno  and  his  priests  chide  Hero  for  her  neglect 
as  they  discover  its  cause.  A  thunderbolt  shatters  a  por- 
tion of  the  tower  wall  and  Leandro's  body  is  disclosed. 
Hero  falls  dying  to  the  ground,  while  the  archon  rages. 

CONCHITA 

Opera  in  four  acts  by  Riccardo  Zandonai;  text  by  Vaucaire  and 
Zangarini,  based  on  Pierre  Louys's  "La  Femme  et  le  Pantin"  (The 
Woman  and  the  Puppet).     Produced,  Milan,  1911. 

Characters 

CoNCHiTA Soprano 

Mateo Tenor 

Conchita's  Mother Mezzo-Soprano 

RuFiNA Mezzo-Soprano 

EsTELLA Mezzo-Soprano 

The  Superintendent Mezzo-Soprano 

The  Inspector Bass 

Garcia,  Dance  Hall  Proprietor Bass 

Tonio,  waiter Bass 

Various  characters  in  a  cigar  factory,  a  dance  hall,  and  a  street.     Dis- 
tant voices. 
Time— The  Present.  P/ace— Seville. 

Act  I.  In  a  cigar  factory.  Among  the  visitors  Conchita, 
one  of  the  cigar  girls,  recognizes  Mateo,  a  wealthy  Spaniard, 
who  rescued  her  from  the  forced  attentions  of  a  policeman. 
She  invites  Mateo  to  her  home.  The  girl's  mother,  delighted 
that  her  daughter  has  attracted  a  wealthy  man,  goes  out  to 
make  some  purchases.  Love  scene  for  Mateo  and  Conchita. 
The  mother  returns,  and,  unseen  by  Conchita,  Mateo  gives 
her  money.  When  Mateo  leaves,  and  Conchita  discovers  he 
has  given  her  mother  money,  she  is  fiirious  and  vows  never 


Italian  Opera  717 

to  see  Mateo  again,  because  she  thinks  he  has  endeavoured  to 
purchase  her  love.     In  her  anger  she  leaves  her  home. 

Act  II.  A  dance  hall,  where  Conchita  earns  a  living  by 
her  risque  dances.  Mateo,  who  finds  her  after  a  long  search, 
is  astounded.  He  begs  her  to  go  away  with  him.  She 
refuses,  and  executes  a  most  daring  dance  for  a  group  of 
visitors.  Mateo,  watching  her  from  outside,  and  wild  with 
jealousy,  breaks  through  the  window.  Conchita,  angry  at 
first,  takes  from  him  the  key  to  a  little  house  he  owns  and 
tells  him  that,  if  he  comes  at  midnight,  she  will  open  her 
lattice  to  him  as  to  a  mysterious  lover. 

Act  III.  A  street  in  Seville.  Mateo  stands  before  the 
house.  But  instead  of  admitting  him,  when  he  pleads  his 
love,  she  turns  and  calls,  as  if  to  someone  within,  "Moren- 
ito!" — the  name  of  a  man  he  saw  her  dancing  with  at  the 
dance  hall.  Mateo  tries  to  break  into  the  house.  Conchita 
taunts  him.     He  staggers  away. 

Act  IV.  Mateo  is  desperate.  Conchita  comes  to  his 
home  and  says  she  certainly  expected  him  to  kill  himself 
for  love  of  her.  Enraged,  he  seizes  her.  She  tries  to  stab 
him.  He  beats  her  without  mercy.  At  last — and  it  seems 
about  time — Conchita  now  sees  how  desperately  he  must 
love  her.  She  declares  that  she  has  loved  him  all  the  time. 
He  takes  her,  radiant,  into  his  arms. 

CRISTOFORO  COLOMBO 

Opera  in  three  acts  and  an  epilogue,  by  Alberto  Franchetti,  text  by 
Luigi  Illica.  Produced,  Genoa,  1892;  in  revised  version,  same  year,  at 
La  Scala,  Milan.  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  Philadelphia,  November 
20,  1913,  with  Titta  Ruffo. 

Characters 

Cristoforo    Colombo Baritone 

Queen  Isabel  of  Spain Soprano 

Don    Fernando   Guevara,    Captain   of   the   Royal 

Guards Tenor 


7i8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Don  Ronaldo  Ximenes,  Spanish  ICnight Bass 

Matheos,  Foreman  of  the  Crew Tenor 

Anacona,  Indian  Queen Mezzo-Soprano 

Iguamota,  her  daughter Soprano 

BoBADiLLA,  False  Messenger  of  the  King  of  Spain Bass 

Time — Before,  during,  and  soon  after  Columbus's  voyage  of  discovery. 
Place — Spain  and  America. 

In  act  first,  on  the  square  in  Salamanca,  Colombo  learns 
that  the  council  has  rejected  his  plans.  In  the  convent  of 
San  Stefano  Queen  Isabella  is  praying.  Colombo  tells  her 
of  the  council's  acts.  She  promises  him  the  ships.  In  act 
second,  on  the  Santa  Maria,  the  sailors  mutiny.  At  the 
critical  moment  Colombo  points  to  a  distant  shore.  In  act 
three,  Ronaldo,  an  enemy  to  Colombo,  has  slain  an  Indian 
king.  The  Indian  queen,  Anacona,  pretends  to  love  her 
husband's  slayer,  hoping  for  opportunity  to  avenge  his 
death.  But  an  Indian  uprising  is  quelled  and  Bobadilla, 
a  false  messenger  arriving  from  Spain,  announces  that 
Colombo  has  been  deposed  from  authority,  and  Ronaldo 
been  made  viceroy  in  his  stead. 

The  epilogue  shows  the  royal  tombs  of  Spain.  Colombo 
— the  librettist  here  stretching  historical  license — learning 
that  Queen  Isabella  has  died  and  is  buried  here,  expires 
upon  her  tomb. 

CRISPING  E  LA  COMARE 

(The  Cobbler  and  the  Fairy) 

Opera  "Bouffe"  in  three  acts  by  Luigi  and  Federigo  Ricci;  text  by 
Francesco  Maria  Piave.     Produced,  Venice,  1850. 

Characters 

Crispino,  a  cobbler Baritone 

Annetta,  his  wife,  a  ballad  singer Soprano 

Count  del  Fiore Tenor 

Febrizio,  a  physician Bass 


Italian  Opera     •^^'^  719 

MlRABOLANO,  an  apothecary Tenor 

Don  Asdrubale,  a  miser Bass 

La  Comare,  a  fairy Mezzo-Soprano 

Bartolo,  a  mason Bass 

LrsETTA,  ward  of  Don  Asdrubale Soprano 

Doctors,  Scholars,  Citizens. 

Place — Venice.  Time — Seventeenth  Century. 

Act  I.  Crispino,  the  cobbler,  and  Annetta,  his  wife,  the 
ballad  singer,  are  in  sore  straits.  Don  Asdrubale,  their 
landlord,  who  is  a  miser,  is  about  to  put  them  out  for  non- 
payment of  rent,  but  hints  that  if  Annetta  will  respond  to 
his  suit  he  may  reconsider.  Crispino,  in  desperation,  runs 
away,  and  is  followed  by  Annetta.  He  is  about  to  drown 
himself  in  a  well  when  a  fairy  appears  to  him.  She 
predicts  that  he  will  be  a  famous  doctor.  Crispino  and 
Annetta  rejoice. 

Act  II.  Cm/>ino  nails  up  a  physician's  sign.  The  neigh- 
bours rail,  but  soon  a  mason  is  brought  in  severely  hurt,  and, 
though  the  doctors  fail  to  bring  him  around,  Crispino  cures 
him. 

Act  III.  Crispino,  overbearing  since  his  good  fortune, 
has  built  a  fine  house.  He  ignores  former  friends  and  even 
is  unkind  to  Annetta.  He  even  berates  the  Fairy.  Sud- 
denly he  is  in  a  cavern.  The  Fairy's  head  has  turned  into 
a  skull.  She  has  become  Death.  Humbled,  he  begs  for 
another  glimpse  of  Annetta  and  the  children.  He  awakes 
to  find  himself  with  them  and  to  hear  a  joyous  song  from 
Annetta. 

LORELEY 

Alfred  Catalani's  "Loreley"  was  presented  by  the  Chi- 
cago Opera  Company  for  the  first  time  in  New  York,  at 
the  Lexington  Theatre,  on  Thursday  evening,  February 
13.   I9i9>  with  Anna  Fitziu,  Florence  Macbeth,  Virgilio 


720  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Lazzari,    Alessandro    Dolci,    and    Giacomo  Rimini.     The 
librettists  are  Messrs.  D'Orinville  and  Zanardini. 

The  legendary  siren  who  sits  combing  her  hair  on  a  rock 
in  the  traditional  manner,  is  in  this  opera  the  reincarnated 
spirit  of  a  young  orphan,  who  has  been  jilted  by  her  fianc^, 
Walter,  Lord  of  Oberwessel.  When  the  faithless  young  man 
is  about  to  marry  another  beautiful  maiden,  Anna,  Loreley 
casts  her  spell  upon  him,  and  Anna,  too,  is  thrown  over. 
Walter  follows  Loreley  to  a  watery  grave,  and  Anna  dies  of 
grief. 

FEDORA 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Umberto  Giordano;  text,  after  the  Sardou 
drama,  by  Colautti.     Produced,  Milan,  1898. 

«  Characters 

Princess  Fedora Soprano 

Count  Loris Tenor 

Countess  Olga Soprano 

De  Siriex,  a  diplomat Baritone 

Grech,  a  police  oflficer Bass 

Dmitri,  a  groom Contralto 

Cyril,  a  coachman Baritone 

BoROV,  a  doctor Baritone 

Baron  Rouvel Baritone 

Time — Present.  Place — Paris  and  Switzerland. 

Act  I.  Home  of  Count  Vladimir,  St.  Petersburg.  While 
the  beautiful  Princess  Fedora  awaits  the  coming  of  her 
betrothed,  Count  Vladimir,  he  is  brought  in,  by  De  Siriex, 
mortally  wounded.  Suspicion  for  the  murder  falls  upon 
Count  Loris.  Fedora  takes  a  Byzantine  jewelled  cross  from 
her  breast  and  swears  by  it  to  avenge  her  betrothed. 

Act  II.  Salon  of  Fedora  in  Paris.  Loris  is  entertained 
by  her.  She  uses  all  her  arts  of  fascination  in  hope  of  secur- 
ing proof  of  his  guilt.  He  falls  desperately  in  love  with  her, 
and  she  succeeds  in  drawing  from  him  a  confession  of  the 


Italian  Opera  721 

murder.  Greek,  a  police  officer,  plans  to  take  Loris  after  all 
the  guests  have  left.  Then,  however,  Loris  tells  her  further 
that  he  killed  the  Count  because  he  betrayed  his  young  wife 
and  brought  about  her  untimely  death.  Fedora,  who  her- 
self has  fallen  in  love  with  Loris,  now  takes  him  into  her 
arms.  But  the  trap  is  ready  to  be  sprung.  She  is,  however, 
able  to  escape  with  him. 

Act  III.  Switzerland.  Loris  and  Fedora  are  married. 
Loris's  footsteps,  however,  are  followed  by  a  spy.  Fedora 
learns  that  because  of  Loris's  act  his  brother  has  been  thrown 
into  prison  and  has  died  there.  Loris's  mother  has  died  of 
shock.  He  discovers  that  it  was  Fedora  who  set  the  secret 
service  on  his  track.  He  is  about  to  kill  her  when,  in  despair, 
she  swallows  poison.  Loris  now  pleads  with  her  to  live,  but 
it  is  too  late.     She  dies  in  his  arms. 

GERMANIA 

Opera  in  a  prologue,  two  acts  and  an  epilogue,  by  Alberto  Franchetti; 

text  by  Luigi  lUica.     Produced,  Milan,  March  1 1,  1902;  in  this  country, 

January  22,  1910. 

< 

Characters 

Frederick  Loewe,  member  of  the  brotherhood Tenor 

Carl  Worms,  member  of  the  brotherhood Baritone 

Giovanni  Palm,  member  of  the  brotherhood Bass 

Crisogono,  member  of  the  brotherhood Baritone 

Stapps,  Protestant  priest Bass 

RiCKE,  a  Nuremberg  maiden Soprano 

Jane,  her  sister Mezzo-Soprano 

Lena  Armuth,  a  peasant  woman Mezzo-Soprano 

Jebbel,  her  nephew Soprano 

LuiGi  LuTZOQ,  an  officer Bass 

Carlo  Korner,  an  officer Tenor 

Peters,  a  herdsman Bass 

SiGNORA  Hedvige Mezzo-Soprano 

Chief  of  Police Bass 

Time — Napoleonic  Wars.  Place — Germany. 

46 


722  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Prologue.  An  Old  Mill  near  Nuremberg.  Students  under 
Palm  are  shipping  out  in  grain-bags  literature  directed 
against  the  invader — Napoleon.  Ricke  tells  Worms,  whose 
mistress  she  has  been,  that  her  sweetheart,  the  poet  Loewe, 
will  soon  return,  and  that  she  must  confess  to  him  her  guilty 
secret.  Worms  dissuades  her.  Loewe  arrives  and  is  joy- 
ously welcomed  by  his  comrades.  The  police  break  in, 
arrest  Palm,  and  take  him  off  to  be  executed. 

Act  I.  A  Hut  in  the  Black  Forest.  Seven  years  are 
supposed  to  have  passed.  Loewe,  his  aged  mother,  and 
Ricke  and  Jane  have  found  refuge  here  from  the  victorious 
troops  of  Napoleon,  Worms  is  thought  to  be  dead.  Loewe 
is  to  be  married  to  Ricke.  But  suddenly  the  voice  of  Worms 
is  heard  in  the  forest.  Loewe  joyously  meets  his  old  friend, 
who,  however,  is  much  disconcerted  at  the  sight  of  Ricke, 
and  goes  away.  Ricke  flees  from  her  husband,  who  con- 
cludes that  she  has  fled  with  Worms. 

Act  II.  Secret  Cellar  at  Koenigsberg.  Worms  and  others 
plot  to  overthrow  Napoleon.  Loewe  challenges  Worms  to  a 
duel.  Worms,  penitent,  asks  Loewe  to  kill  him.  But  the 
preparations  are  stayed  by  Queen  Louise.  She  declares  they 
should  be  fighting  against  Napoleon,  not  against  each  other. 

Epilogue.  Battlefield  of  Leipzig.  Napoleon  has  been 
defeated.  The  great  field  is  strewn  with  dead  and  dying. 
Among  the  latter,  Ricke,  still  loving  Loewe,  finds  him.  He 
asks  her  to  forgive  Worms,  who  lies  dead.  She  forgives  the 
dead  man,  then  lies  down  beside  her  dying  husband.  Dis- 
tant view  of  the  retreat  of  Napoleon's  shattered  legions. 


Modem   French  Opera 

The  contemporaries  and  successors  of  Bizet  wrote  many  charming 
operas  that  for  years  have  given  pleasure  to  large  audiences.  French 
opera  has  had  generous  representation  in  New  York.  Offenbach's 
"Tales  of  Hoffmann,"  Delibes's  " Lakmd, "  Saint-Saens's  " Samson  et 
Dalila,"  Massenet's  "Manon"  are  among  the  most  distinguished 
works  of  this  school. 


"I  ES  CONTES  D'HOFFMANN" ;  a  fanciful  opera  in  four 
•L-<-  acts;  words  by  MM.  Michel  Carr^  and  Jules  Barbier; 
posthumous  music  by  Jacques  Offenbach,  produced  at  the 
Op^ra  Comique  on  February  lo,  1881 .  "  Les  Contes  d'Hoff- 
mann  "  had  been  played  thirty  years  before,  on  March  31, 
1 85 1,  at  the  Od6on,  in  the  shape  of  a  comedy.  Such  as  it 
was  designed  to  be,  the  work  offers  an  excellent  frame  for  the 
music,  bringing  on  the  stage  in  their  fantastic  form  three  of 
the  prettiest  tales  of  the  German  story-teller,  connected 
with  each  other  in  an  ingenious  fashion,  with  the  contrasts 
which  present  themselves.  Lyrical  adaptation  therefore 
appeared  quite  natural  and  it  was  done  with  much  taste. 
Offenbach  had  almost  entirely  finished  its  music  when  death 
came  to  surprise  him.  At  the  same  time  he  had  not  put 
his  score  into  orchestral  form  and  it  was  Ernest  Girard  who 
was  charged  with  finishing  this  and  writing  the  instru- 
mentation, which  it  was  easy  to  perceive  at  hearing  it, 
Girard  being  a  musician  taught  differently  from  the  author 
of  the ' '  Belle  Hel^ne ' '  and ' '  Orph^e  aux  Enf ers. "  It  is  right 
to  say  that  several  passages  of  the  Contes  d'Hoffmann  were 

723 


724  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

welcome  and  testify  to  a  real  effort  by  the  composer.  If  to 
that  be  added  the  interest  that  the  libretto  offers  and  the 
excellence  of  an  interpretation  entrusted  to  Mile.  Adele  Isaac 
{Stella,  Olympia,  Antonio),^ MM.  Talazac  {Hoffmann) ,  Tas- 
kin  {Lindorf,  Coppelius,  Dr. Miracle),  Belhomme  {Crespel), 
Grivot  {Andres,  Cochenille,  Frantz),  Gourdon  {Spallanzani) , 
Collin  ( Wilhelm) ,  Miles.  Marguerite  Ugalde  {Nicklause)  ,Mole 
{the  nurse) ,  one  will  understand  the  success  which  greeted  the 
work.  The  Contes  d'Hoffmann  was  reproduced  in  1 893  at  the 
Renaissance,  during  the  transient  directorship  of  M.  Detroy- 
at,  who  gave  to  this  theatre  the  title  of  Th^dtre  Lyrique. 

LAKME 

Opera  in  three  acts  by  Delibes;  libretto  by  Gille  and 
Gondinet. 

Lakme  is  the  daughter  of  Nikalantha,  a  fanatical  Brahmin 
priest.  While  he  nurses  his  hatred  of  the  British  invader, 
his  daughter  strolls  in  her  garden,  singing  duets  with  her 
slave  Mallika.  An  English  officer,  one  Gerald,  breaks 
through  the  bambou  fence  that  surrounds  Nikalantha's 
retreat,  in  a  ruined  temple  in  the  depths  of  an  Indian  forest. 
He  courts  Lakme  who  immediately  returns  his  love.  Nika- 
lantha seeing  the  broken  fence  at  once  suspects  an  English 
invader.  In  act  two  the  old  man  disguised  as  a  beggar  is 
armed  with  a  dagger.  Lakme  is  disguised  as  a  street  singer. 
Together  they  search  for  the  profaner  of  the  sacred  spot  at  a 
market.  It  is  here  that  she  sings  the  famous  Bell  Song. 
Gerald  recognizes  Lakme  as  Nikalantha  recognizes  the  dis- 
turber of  his  peace.  A  dagger  thrust  lays  Gerald  low. 
Lakme  and  her  slave  carry  him  to  a  hut  hidden  in  the  forest. 
During  his  convalescence  the  time  passes  pleasantly.  The 
lovers  sing  duets  and  exchange  vows  of  undying  love.  But 
Frederick,  a  brother  officer  and  a  slave  to  duty,  informs 
Gerald  that  he  must  march  with  his  regiment.    Lakme  makes 


Modem  French  Opera  725 

the  best  of  the  situation  by  eating  a  poisonous  flower  which 
brings  about  her  death. 

The  story  is  based  by  Gondinet  and  Gille  upon  "  Le  Mar- 
riage de  Loti. "  Ellen,  Rose,  and  Mrs.  Benson,  English- 
women, hover  in  the  background  of  the  romance.  But 
their  parts  are  of  negligible  importance,  and  in  fact  when 
Miss  Van  Zandt  and  a  French  Company  first  gave  the  opera 
in  London  they  were  omitted  altogether,  some  said  wisely. 
The  opera  was  first  presented  in  Paris  at  the  Op^ra  Co- 
mique  with  Miss  Van  Zandt.  It  was  first  sung  in  New 
York  by  the  American  Opera  Company  at  the  Academy 
of  Music,  March  i,  1886.  The  first  Lakme  to  be  heard 
in  New  York  was  Pauline  L'Allemand.  The  second 
Adelina  Patti,  this  time  in  1890  and  at  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House.  Mme.  Sembrich  and  Luisa  Tetrazzini  sang 
it  later. 

SAMSON  ET  DALILA 

Opera  in  three  acts  and  four  scenes.  Music  by  Saint-Saens;  Text  by 
Ferdinand  Lemaire.     Produced:  Weimar,  December  2,  1877. 

Characters 

Dalila Mezzo-Soprano 

Samson Tenor 

High  Priest  of  Dagon Barttone 

Abimelech,  satrap  of  Gaza Bass 

An  Old  Hebrew Bass 

The  Philistines'  War  Messenger Tenor 

Place — Gaza.  Time — 1136  B.C. 

Act  I.  Before  the  curtain  rises  we  hear  of  the  Philistines 
at  Gaza  forcing  the  Israelites  to  work.  When-  the  curtain 
is  raised  we  see  in  the  background  the  temple  of  Dagon, 
god  of  the  Philistines.  With  the  lamentations  of  the  Jews 
is  mixed  the  bitter  scorn  of  Abimelech.  But  Samson  has 
not  yet  expressed  a  hope  of  conquering.  His  drink-inspired 
songs  agitate  his  fellow  countrymen  so  much  that  it  now 


726  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

amounts  to  an  insurrection.  Samson  slays  Abimelech  with 
the  sword  he  has  snatched  from  him  and  Israel's  champion 
starts  out  to  complete  the  work.  Dagon's  high  priest  may- 
curse,  the  Philistines  are  not  able  to  offer  resistance  to  the 
onslaught  of  the  enemy.  Already  the  Hebrews  are  rejoic- 
ing and  gratefully  praise  God  when  there  appear  Philistines' 
most  seductive  maidens,  Dalila  at  their  head,  to  do  homage 
to  the  victorious  Samson.  Of  what  use  is  the  warning  of  an 
old  Hebrew  ?  The  memory  of  the  love  which  she  gave  him 
when  "the  sun  laughed,  the  spring  awoke  and  kissed  the 
ground,  "  the  sight  of  her  ensnaring  beauty,  the  tempting 
dances  ensnare  the  champion  anew. 

Act  n.  The  beautiful  seductress  tarries  in  the  house  of 
her  victim.  Yes,  her  victim.  She  had  never  loved  the 
enemy  of  her  country.  She  hates  him  since  he  left  her. 
And  so  the  exhortation  of  the  high  priest  to  revenge  is  not 
needed.  Samson  has  never  yet  told  her  on  what  his  super- 
human strength  depends.  Now  the  champion  comes,  torn 
by  irresolute  reproaches.  He  is  only  going  to  say  farewell 
to  her.  Her  allurements  in  vain  entice  him,  he  does  not 
disclose  his  secret.  But  he  will  not  suffer  her  scorn  and 
derision;  overcome,  he  pushes  her  into  the  chamber  of  love. 
And  there  destiny  is  fulfilled.  Dalila' s  cry  of  triumph 
summons  the  Philistines.  Deprived  of  his  hair,  the  be- 
trayed champion  is  overcome. 

Act  in.  In  a  dungeon  the  blinded  giant  languishes. 
But  more  tormenting  than  the  corporal  disgrace  or  the 
laments  of  his  companions  are  the  reproaches  in  his  own 
breast.  Now  the  doors  rattle.  Beadles  comes  in  to  drag 
him  to  the  Philistines'  celebration  of  their  victory — (change 
of  scene).  In  Dagon's  temple  the  Philistine  people  are 
rejoicing.  Bitter  scorn  is  poured  forth  on  Samson  whom 
the  high  priest  insultingly  invites  to  sing  a  love  song  to 
Dalila.  The  false  woman  herself  mocks  the  powerless  man. 
But  Samson  prays  to  his  God.     Only  once  again  may  he 


Copyright  photo  by  Mishkin 


Mary  Garden  as  Griselidis 


Modem  French  Opera  727 

have  strength.  And  while  the  intoxication  of  the  festival 
seizes  on  everybody,  he  lets  himself  be  led  between  the 
two  pillars  which  support  the  temple.  He  clasps  them.  A 
terrible  crash — the  fragments  of  the  temple  with  a  roar  bury 
the  Philistine  people  and  their  conqueror. 

LE  ROI  D'YS 

Opera  by  Lalo,  produced  at  the  Op^ra  Comique  in  18P8, 
and  given  in  London  in  1901 .  The  story  is  founded  upon  a 
Breton  legend.  Magared  and  Rozenn,  daughters  of  the 
King  of  Ys,  love  Mylio.  But  the  warrior  has  only  eyes  for 
Rozenn.  In  revenge  Magared  betrays  her  father's  city  to 
Karnac,  a  defeated  enemy.  To  him  she  gives  the  keys  of  the 
sluices  which  stand  between  the  town  and  the  sea.  When 
the  town  and  all  its  inhabitants  are  about  to  be  swept  away, 
the  girl  in  remorse  throws  herself  into  the  sea.  St.  Coren- 
tin,  patron  saint  of  Ys  accepts  her  sacrifice  and  the  sea 
abates. 

GRISELIDIS 

Massenet's  "  Griselidis, "  a  lyric  tale  in  three  acts  and  a 
prologue,  poem  by  Armand  Silvestre  and  Eugene  Morand 
based  on  the  "  Mystery"  in  free  verse  by  the  same  authors, 
produced  at  the  Comedie  Frangaise,  Paris,  May  15,  1891, 
was  given  for  the  first  time  in  America, -January  19,  1910,  at 
the  Manhattan  Opera  House,  New  York.  The  story  of  the 
patient  Griselda  has  been  handed  down  to  posterity  by 
Boccacio  in  the  Decameron,  loth  day,  loth  novel,  and  by 
Chaucer,  who  learned  it,  he  said  from  Petrarch  at  Padua, 
and  then  put  it  into  the  mouth  of  the  Clerk  of  Oxenforde. 

The  old  ballad  of  "Patient  Grissell"  begins  thus: 

A  noble  marquess 
As  he  did  ride  a-hunting. 
Hard  by  a  forest  side. 


728  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

A  fair  and  comely  maiden, 

As  she  did  sit  a-spinning, 
His  gentle  eye  espied. 

Most  fair  and  lovely 

And  was  of  comely  grace  was  she, 

Although  in  simple  attire, 
She  sang  most  sweetly, 
With  pleasant  voice  melodiously. 

Which  set  the  lord's  heart  on  fire. 

An  English  drama  "Patient  Grissel"  was  entered  at 
Stationers'  Hall  in  1599.  The  word  "Grizel,"  the  prover- 
bial type  of  a  meek  and  patient  wife,  crept  into  the  English 
language  through  this  story.     Chaucer  wrote : 

No  wedded  man  so  hardy  be  tassaille 
His  wyves  patience,  in  hope  to  fynde 
Grisildes,  for  in  certain  he  shall  fail. 

Several  operas  ion  this  subject  were  written  before 
Massenet's,  but  the  ballet  "Griseldis:  Les  Cinq  Sens"  by 
Adam  (Paris,  1848),  has  another  story.  So  too  has  Flotow's 
comic  opera,  "Griselda,  I'esclave  du  Camoens. " 

Silvestre  and  Moraud  represented  Griselda  as  tempted 
by  Satan  in  person  that  he  might  win  a  wager  made  with  the 
marquis.  When  the  "  Mystery"  was  given  in  1891  the  cast 
included  Miss  Bartet  as  Griseldis;  Coquelin  cadet  as  Le 
Diable;  Silvain  as  the  Marquis  de  Saluce  and  A.  Lambert, 
fils,  SiS  Alain.  It  was  played  at  fifty-one  consecutive  per- 
formances. According  to  Mr.  Destranges,  Bizet  wrote 
music  for  a  "  Griselidis"  with  a  libretto  by  Sardou,  but  most 
of  this  was  destroyed.  Only  one  air  is  extant,  that  is  the 
air  sung  by  Micaela  in  "  Carmen. "  According  to  the  same 
authority  Massenet's  score  lay  "En  magasin  "  for  nearly  ten 
years.  Thus  the  music  antedated  that  of  "Thais"  (1894), 
"La  Navarraise"  (1894),  "Sapho"  (1897),  "Cendrillon" 
(1899),  and  it  was  not  performed  until  1901. 

"Griselidis"  was  produced  at  the  Op^ra  Comique,  Paris, 


•J'     Modern  French  Opera  729 

November  20,  1901,  with  Lucienne  Breval,  Lucien  Fugere, 
Messrs.  Marechal  and  Dufranne.  Andrd  Messager  con- 
ducted. On  November  23,  1901 ,  the  opera  drew  the  largest 
receipts  known  thus  far  in  the  history  of  the  Op^ra  Comique 
^-9538  francs. 

Mr.  Philip  Hale  tells  the  story  of  the  opera  as  follows: 
"The  scene  is  in  Provence  and  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  Marquis  of  Saluzzo,  strolling  about  in  his  domains,  met 
Griselda,  a  shepherdess,  and  he  loved  her  at  first  sight.  Her 
heart  was  pure;  her  hair  was  ebon  black;  her  eyes  shone 
with  celestial  light.  He  married  her  and  the  boy  Loys  was 
bom  to  them.  The  happy  days  came  to  an  end,  for  the 
Marquis  was  called  to  the  war  against  the  Saracens.  Before 
he  set  out,  he  confided  to  the  prior  his  grief  at  leaving 
Griselda.  The  prior  was  a  Job's  comforter :' Let  my  lord 
look  out  for  the  devil!  When  husbands  are  far  away, 
Satan  tempts  their  wives. '  The  Marquis  protests  for  he 
knew  the  purity  of  Griselda;  but  as  he  protested  he  heard  a 
mocking  laugh,  and  he  saw  at  the  window  an  ape-like 
apparition.  It  was  the  devil  all  in  green.  The  Marquis 
would  drive  him  away,  but  the  devil  proposed  a  wager: he 
bet  that  he  would  tempt  Griselda  to  her  fall,  while  the  Mar- 
quis was  absent.  The  Marquis  confidently  took  up  the  wager, 
and  gave  the  devil  his  ring  as  a  pledge.  The  devil  of  these 
librettists  had  a  wife  who  nagged  her  spouse,  and  he  in 
revenge  sought  to  make  other  husbands  unhappy.  He 
began  to  lay  snares  for  Griselda;  he  appeared  in  the  disguise 
of  a  Byzantine  Jew,  who  came  to  the  castle,  leading  as  a 
captive,  his  own  wife,  Fiamina,  and  he  presented  her:  'This 
slave  belongs  to  the  Marquis.  He  bids  you  to  receive  her, 
to  put  her  in  your  place,  to  serve  her,  to  obey  her  in  all 
things.  Here  is  his  ring."  Griselda  meekly  bowed  her 
head.  The  devil  said  to  himself  that  Griselda  would  now 
surely  seek  vengeance  on  her  cruel  lord.  He  brought  Alain 
by  a  spell  to  the  castle  garden  at  night — Alain,  who  had  so 


730  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

fondly  loved  Griselda.  She  met  him  in  an  odorous  and 
lonely  walk.  He  threw  himself  at  her  feet  and  made  hot 
love.  Griselda  thought  of  her  husband  who  had  wounded 
her  to  the  quick,  and  was  about  to  throw  herself  into  Alain's 
arms,  when  her  little  child  appeared.  Griselda  repulsed 
Alain,  and  the  devil  in  his  rage  bore  away  the  boy,  Loys. 
The  devil  came  again,  this  time  as  a  corsair,  who  told  her 
that  the  pirate  chief  was  enamoured  of  her  beauty ;  she  would 
regain  the  child  if  she  would  only  yield;  she  would  see  him 
if  she  would  go  to  the  vessel.  She  ran  to  the  ship,  but  lo! 
the  Marquis,  home  from  the  East.  And  then  the  devil,  in 
another  disguise,  spoke  foully  of  Griselda' s  behaviour,  and 
the  Marquis  was  about  to  believe  him,  but  he  saw  Griselda 
and  his  suspicions  faded  away.  The  devil  in  the  capital  of 
a  column  declared  that  Loys  belonged  to  him.  Foolish 
devil,  who  did  not  heed  the  patron  saint  before  whom  the 
Marquis  and  Griselda  were  kneeling.  The  cross  on  the 
altar  was  bathed  in  light;  the  triptych  opened;  there,  at 
the  feet  of  St.  Agnes,  was  little  Loys  asleep. 

' '  The  opera  begins  with  a  prologue  which  is  not  to  be  found 
in  the  version  played  at  the  Com^die  Frangaise  in  1891. 
The  prologue  acquaints  us  with  the  hope  of  the  shepherd 
Alain  that  he  may  win  Griselda:  with  the  Marquis  meeting 
Griselda  as  he  returns  from  the  chase,  his  sudden  passion  for 
her,  his  decision  to  take  the  young  peasant  as  his  wife,  the 
despair  of  Alain.  This  prologue,  with  a  fine  use  of  themes 
that  are  used  in  the  opera  as  typical,  is  described  as  one  of 
the  finest  works  of  Massenet,  and  even  his  enemies  among 
the  ultra-moderns  admit  that  the  instrumentation  is  pro- 
digiously skilful  and  truly  poetic. 

"The  first  act  pictures  the  oratory  of  Griselda,  and  ends 
with  the  departure  of  the  Marquis. 

"  The  second  act  passes  before  the  chateau,  on  a  terrace 
adorned  with  three  orange  trees,  with  the  sea  glittering  in 
the  distance.     It  is  preceded  by  an  entr'acte  of  an  idyllic 


Copyright  photo  by  Mishkin 


Mary  Garden  as  Thais 


Modern  French  Opera  73^" 

nature.  It  is  in  this  act  that  the  devil  and  his  wife  enter 
disguised,  the  former  as  a  slave  merchant,  the  latter  as  an 
odalisque.  In  this  act  the  devil,  up  to  his  old  tricks,  orders 
the  flowers  to  pour  madding  perftmies  into  the  air  that  they 
may  aid  in  the  fall  of  Griselda.  And  in  this  act  Alain  again 
woos  his  beloved,  and  the  devil  almost  wins  his  wager. 

"  The  third  act  is  in  Griselda' s  oratory.  At  the  end,  when 
Loys  is  discovered  at  the  feet  of  St.  Agnes,  the  retainers  rush 
in  and  all  intone  the  "Magnificat"  and  through  a  window 
the  devil  is  seen  in  a  hermitage,  wearing  cloak  and  hood. 

"The  passages  that  have  excited  the  warmest  praise  are 
the  prologue,  Griselda' s  scene  in  the  first  act,  'L'Oiseau  qui 
pars  a  tire-d'aile,'  and  the  quiet  ending  of  the  act  after  the 
tumult  of  the  departure  to  the  East;  in  the  second  act,  the 
prelude,  the  song,  '  II  partit  au  printemps,'  the  invocation, 
and  the  duet;  in  the  third  act,  a  song  from  the  Marquis^ 
and  the  final  and  mystic  scene." 

THAIS 

"Thais,"  a  lyric  comedy  in  three  acts  and  seven  scenes, 
libretto  by  M.  Louis  Gallet,  taken  from  the  novel  by  M. 
Anatole  France  which  bears  the  same  title;  music  by 
Massenet;  produced  at  the  Op^ra  on  March  i6,  1894.  It 
had  been,  I  think,  more  than  sixty  years  since  the  Opera  had 
applied  the  designation  of  "lyric  comedy"  to  a  work  pro- 
duced on  its  stage,  which  is  a  little  too  exclusively  solemn. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  there  is  no  question  in  .Thais  of  one 
of  those  powerful  and  passionate  dramas,  rich  iii  incidents 
and  majestic  dramatic  strokes,  or  one  of  those  subjects  pro- 
foundly pathetic  like  those  of  "  Les  Huguenots,"  "  La  Juive," 
or  "  Le  Prophdte. ' '  One  could  extract  from  the  intimate  and 
mystic  novel  of  "Thais"  only  a  unity  and  simplicity  of 
action  without  circumlocutions  or  complications,  develop- 
ing between  two  important  persons  and  leaving  all  the 
others  in  a  sort  of  discreet  shadow,  the  latter  serving  only  to 


732  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

emphasize  the  scenic  movement  and  to  give  to  the  work 
the  necessary  life,  color,  and  variety. 

The  librettist  had  the  idea  of  writing  his  libretto  in  prose, 
rhymed,  if  not  entirely  in  blank  verse,  in  a  measured  prose  to 
which,  in  a  too  long  article  reviewing  it,  he  gave  the  name  of 
"  poesie  melique. ' '  This  explanation  left  the  public  indiffer- 
ent, the  essential  for  them  being  that  the  libretto  be  good 
and  interesting  and  that  it  prove  useful  to  the  musician. 
The  action  of  "Thais"  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century.  The  first  act  shows  us  in  a  corner  of  the  Theban 
plain  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  a  refuge  of  cenobites.  The 
good  fathers  are  finishing  a  modest  repast  at  their  common 
table.  One  place  near  them  remains  empty,  that  of  their 
comrade  Athanael  (Paphnuce  in  the  novel)  who  has  gone  to 
Alexandria.  Soon  he  comes  back,  still  greatly  scandalized 
at  the  sensation  caused  in  the  great  city  by  the  presence  of 
a  shameless  courtesan,  the  famous  actress  and  dancer, 
Thais,  who  seems  to  have  turned  the  sceptical  and  light 
heads  of  its  inhabitants.  Now  in  his  younger  days  Athanael 
had  known  this  Thais,  and  in  Alexandria  too,  which  he 
left  to  consecrate  himself  to  the  Lord  and  to  take  the  robe 
of  a  religious. 

Athanael  is  haunted  by  the  memory  of  Thais.  He  dreams 
that  it  would  be  a  pious  and  meritorious  act  to  snatch  her 
from  her  unworthy  profession  and  from  a  life  of  debauchery 
which  dishonours  her  and  of  which  she  does  not  even  seem  to 
be  conscious.  ■  He  goes  to  bed  and  sleeps  under  the  impress 
of  this  thought,  which  does  not  cease  to  confront  him,  so 
much  so  that  he  sees  her  in  a  dream  on  the  stage  of  the 
theatre  of  Alexandria,  representing  the  Loves  of  Venus. 
He  can  refrain  no  longer  and  on  awaking  he  goes  to  find 
her  again,  firmly  resolved  to  do  everything  to  bring  about 
her  conversion. 

Arrived  at  Alexandria,  Athanael  meets  an  old  friend,  the 
beau  Nicias,  to  whom  he  makes  himself  known  and  who 


Modem  French  Opera  733 

is  the  lover  of  Thais  for  a  day  longer  because  he  has  ptir- 
chased  her  love  for  a  week  which  is  about  to  end.  Athanael 
confides  his  scheme  to  Nicias  who  receives  him  like  a 
brother  and  makes  him  put  on  clothes  which  will  permit  him 
to  attend  a  fdte  and  banquet  which  he  is  to  give  that  very 
night  in  honour  of  Thais.  Soon  he  finds  himself  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  courtesan  who  laughs  at  him  at  his  first  words 
and  who  engages  him  to  come  to  see  her  at  her  house  if 
he  expects  to  convert  her.  He  does  not  fail  to  accept  this 
invitation  and  once  in  Thais' s  house  tells  her  to  be  ashamed 
of  her  disorderly  life  and  with  eloquent  words  reveals  to 
her  the  heavenly  joys  and  the  felicities  of  religion.  Thais 
is  very  much  impressed ;  she  is  on  the  point  of  yielding  to 
his  advice  when  afar  off  in  a  song  are  heard  the  voices 
of  her  companions  in  pleasure.  Then  she  repels  the 
monk,  who,  without  being  discouraged,  goes  away,  saying 
to  her:  "At  thy  threshold  until  daylight  I  will  await  thy 
coming. " 

In  fact  here  we  find  him  at  night  seated  on  the  front  steps 
of  Thais' s  house.  Time  has  done  its  work  and  a  few  hours 
have  sufficed  for  the  young  woman  to  be  touched  by  grace. 
She  goes  out  of  her  house,  having  exchanged  her  rich  gar- 
ments for  a  rough  woollen  dress,  finds  the  monk,  and  begs  him 
to  lead  her  to  a  convent.     The  conversion  is  accomplished. 

But  Athanael  has  deceived  himself.  It  was  not  love  of 
God  but  it  was  jealousy  that  dictated  his  course  without 
his  being  aware  of  it.  When  he  has  returned  to  the  The- 
baid  after  having  conducted  Thais  to  a  convent  and  thinks 
he  has  found  peace  again,  he  perceives  with  horror  that  he 
loves  her  madly.  His  thoughts  without  ceasing  turn  to  her 
and  in  a  new  dream,  a  cruel  dream,  he  seems  to  see  Thais, 
sanctified  and  purified  by  remorse  and  prayer,  on  the  point 
of  dying  in  the  convent  where  she  took  refuge.  On  awak- 
ing, under  the  impression  of  this  sinister  vision,  he  hurries 
to  the  convent  where  Thais  in  fact  is  near  to  breathing  her 


734  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

last  breath.  But  he  does  not  wish  that  she  die;  and  while 
she,  in  ecstasy,  is  only  thinking  of  heaven  and  of  her  puri- 
fication^ he  wants  to  snatch  her  from  death  and  only  talks 
to  her  of  his  love.  The  scene  is  strange  and  of  real  power. 
Thais  dies  at  last  and  Athanael  falls  stricken  down  beside 
her. 

This  subject,  half  mystic,  half  psychological,  was  it  really 
a  favourable  one  for  theatrical  action  ?  Was  it  even  treated 
in  such  a  way  as  to  mitigate  the  defects  it  might  present 
in  this  connection  ?  We  may  doubt  it .  Nevertheless  M .  Mas- 
senet has  written  on  this  libretto  of  "Thais"  a  score  which, 
if  it  does  not  present  the  firm  unity  of  those  of  "Manon" 
and  of  "  Werther,"  certainly  does  not  lack  either  inspiration 
or  colour  or  originality  and  in  which  moreover  are  found 
in  all  their  force  and  all  their  expansion  the  astonishing 
technical  qualities  of  a  master  to  whom  nothing  in  his  art  is 
foreign.  All  the  music  of  the  first  act,  which  shows  us  the 
retreat  of  the  cenobites,  is  of  a  sober  and  severe  colour, 
with  which  will  be  contrasted  the  movement  and  the  grace- 
fulness of  the  scene  at  the  house  of  Nicias.  There  should  be 
noted  the  peaceful  chorus  of  monks,  the  entrance  of  Atha- 
nael, the  fine  phrase  which  follows  his  dream :  "  Toi  qui  mis  la 
pitie  dans  nos  ames,"  and  the  very  curious  effect  of  the  scene 
where  he  goes  away  again  from  his  companions  to  return  to 
Alexandria.  In  the  second  act  the  kind  of  invocation 
placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  same  Athanael:  "Voila  done  la 
terrible  cite,"  written  on  a  powerful  rhythm,  is  followed  by 
a  charming  quartette,  a  passage  with  an  emphasis  full  of 
grace  and  the  end  of  which  especially  is  delightful.  I  would 
indicate  again  in  this  act  the  rapid  and  kindly  dialogue  of 
Nicias  and  of  Thais:  "  Nous  nous  sommes  aimes  une  longue 
s^maine,"  which  seems  to  conceal  under  its  apparent  indif- 
ference a  sort  of  sting  of  melancholy.  I  pass  over  the  air  of 
Thais:  "  Dis-moi  que  je  suis  belle,"  an  air  of  bravado  solely 
destined  to  display  the  finish  of  a  singer,  to  which  I  much 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupunl 


Farrar  as  Thais 


Photo  bv  White 


Farrar  and  Amato  as  Thais  and  Athanael 


Modern  French  Opera  735 

prefer  the  whole  scene  that  follows,  which  is  only  a  long 
duet  in  which  Athanael  tries  to  convert  Thais.  The  severe 
and  stern  accents  of  the  monk  put  in  opposition  to  the 
raillery  and  the  voluptuous  outbreaks  (buoyancy)  of  the 
courtesan  produce  a  striking  contrast  which  the  composer 
has  known  how  to  place  in  relief  with  a  rare  felicity  and  a 
real  power.  The  symphonic  intermezzo  which,  under  the 
name  of  "meditation,"  separates  this  act  from  the  follow- 
ing, is  nothing  but  an  adorable  violin  solo,  supported  by  the 
harps  and  the  development  of  which,  on  the  taking  up  again 
of  the  first  motif  by  the  violin,  brings  about  the  entrance  of 
an  invisible  chorus,  the  effect  of  which  is  purely  exquisite. 
The  curtain  then  rises  on  the  scene  in  which  Thais,  who  has 
put  on  a  rough  woollen  dress,  goes  to  seek  the  monk  to 
flee  with  him.  Here  there  is  a  duet  in  complete  contrast 
with  the  preceding.  Athanael  wants  Thais  to  destroy  and 
bum  whatever  may  preserve  the  memory  of  her  past.  She 
obeys,  demanding  favour  only  for  a  little  statue  of  Eros: 
"L'amour  est  un  vertu  rare."  It  is  a  sort  of  invocation  to 
the  purity  of  love,  written,  if  one  may  say  so,  in  a  sentiment 
of  chaste  melancholy  and  entirely  impressed  with  graceful- 
ness and  poetry.  But  what  should  be  praised  above  all  is 
the  final  scene,  that  of  the  death  of  Thais.  This  scene, 
truly  pathetic  and  powerful,  has  been  treated  by  the  com- 
poser with  a  talent  of  the  first  order  and  an  incontestable 
superiority.  There  again  he  knew  wonderfully  well  how  to 
seize  the  contrast  between  the  pious  thoughts  of  Thais,  who 
at  the  moment  of  quitting  life  begins  to  perceive  eternal 
happiness,  and  the  powerless  rage  of  Athanael,  who,  de- 
voured by  an  impious  love,  reveals  to  her,  without  her  under- 
standing or  comprehending  it,  all  the  ardour  of  a  passion 
that  death  alone  can  extinguish  in  him.  The  touching 
phrases  of  Thais,  the  despairing  accents  of  Athanael,  inter- 
rupted by  the  desolate  chants  of  the  nuns,  companions  of 
the  dying  woman,  provoke  in  the  hearer  a  poignant  and 


736  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

sincere  emotion.  That  is  one  of  the  finest  pages  we  owe  to 
the  pen  of  M.  Massenet.  We  must  point  out  especially  the 
return  of  the  beautiful  violin  phrase  which  constitutes  the 
foundation  of  the  intermezzo  of  the  second  act. 

The  work  has  been  very  well  played  by  Mile.  Sybil 
Sanderson  {Thais),  M.  Delmas  (Athanael),  M.  Alvarez 
{Nicias),  Mmes.  Heglon  and  Marcy,  and  M.  Delpouget. 

MANON 

Opera  in  five  acts  by  Massenet ;  words  by  Henri  Meilhac  and  Philippe 
Gille,  after  the  story  by  Abbe  Prevost.  Produced  Opera  Comique, 
Paris,  January  19,  1884;  Th64tre  de  la  Monnaie,  Brussels,  March  15, 
1884.  In  English,  by  the  Carl  Rosa  Company,  Liverpool,  January 
17,  1885;  and  at  Drury  Lane,  London,  May  7,  1885,  with  Marie  Roze, 
Barton  McGuckin,  and  Ludwig.  In  French,  Covent  Garden,  May 
14,  1894.  Carcano  Theatre,  Milan,  October  19,  1893.  Academy  of 
Music,  New  York,  December  23,  1885,  with  Minnie  Hauck  (Manon), 
Giannini  (Des  Grieux),  and  Del  Puente  (Lescaut);  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  January  16,  1895,  with  Sibyl  Sanderson  and  Jean  de  Reszke. 

Characters 

Chevalier  des  Grieux Tenor 

Count  des  Grieux,  his  father Bass 

Lescaut,  of  the  Royal  Guard,  cousin  to  Manon Baritone 

Guillot  de  Morfontaine,  Minister  of  Finance,  an  old 

beau Bass 

De  Br6tigny,  a  nobleman Baritone 

Manon Soprano 

Pousette,  Javotte,  Rosette,  actresses Sopranos 

Students,  innkeeper,  a  sergeant,  a  soldier,  gamblers,  merchants  and  their 

wives,  croupiers,  sharpers,  guards,  travellers,  ladies,  gentlemen, 

porters,  postilions,  an  attendant  at  the  Monastery  of 

St.  Sulpice,  the  people 

Time — 1821.  Place — Amiens,  Paris,  Havre. 

Act  I.  Courtyard  of  the  inn  at  Amiens.  Guillot  and 
De  Bretigny,  who  have  just   arrived  with   the  actresses 


Modern  French  Opera  737 

Pousette,  Javotte,  and  Rosette,  are  shouting  for  the  innkeeper. 
Townspeople  crowd  about  the  entrance  to  the  inn.  They 
descry  a  coach  approaching.  Lescaut,  who  has  alighted 
from  it,  enters  followed  by  two  guardsmen.  Other  travel- 
lers appear  amid  much  commotion,  amusement,  and  shout- 
ing on  the  part  of  the  townspeople.  He  is  awaiting  his 
cousin  Manon,  whom  he  is  to  conduct  to  a  convent  school, 
and  who  presently  appears  and  gives  a  sample  of  her  char- 
acter, which  is  a  mixture  of  demureness  and  vivacity,  of 
serious  affection  and  meretricious  preferment,  in  her  open- 
ing song,  "  Je  suis  encore  dtourdie"  (A  simple  maiden  fresh 
from  home),  in  which  she  tells  how,  having  left  home  for  the 
first  time  to  travel  to  Amiens,  she  sometimes  wept  and 
sometimes  laughed.     It  is  a  chic  little  song. 

Lescaut  goes  out  to  find  her  luggage.  From  the  balcony 
of  the  inn  the  old  rou^  Guillot  sees  her.  She  is  not  shocked, 
but  laughs  at  his  hints  that  he  is  rich  and  can  give  her 
whatever  she  wants.  De  Bretigny,  who,  accompanied  by 
the  actresses,  comes  out  on  the  balcony  in  search  of  Guillot, 
also  is  much  struck  with  her  beauty.  Guillot,  before  with- 
drawing with  the  others  from  the  balcony,  softly  calls  down 
to  her  that  his  carriage  is  at  her  disposal,  if  she  will  but 
enter  it  and  await  him.  Lescaut  returns  but  at  the  same 
time  his  two  guardsmen  come  after  him.  They  want  him 
to  join  with  them  in  gambling  and  drinking.  He  pretends  to 
Manon  that  he  is  obliged  to  go  to  his  armoury  for  a  short 
time.  Before  leaving  her,  however,  he  warns  her  to  be  care- 
ful of  her  actions.  "Regardez — moi  bien  dans  les  yeux" 
(Now  give  good  heed  to  what  I  say) . 

Left  alone,  Manon  expresses  admiration  for  the  jewels 
and  finery  worn  by  the  actresses.  She  wishes  such  gems 
and  dresses  might  belong  to  her.  The  Chevalier  des  Grieux, 
young,  handsome,  ardent,  comes  upon  the  scene.  He  loves 
Manon  at  first  sight.  Nor  does  she  long  remain  unimpressed 
by  the  wooing  of  the  Chevalier.  Beginning  with  his  words, 
47 


738  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"If  I  knew  but  your  name,"  and  her  reply,  "I  am  called 
Manon, "  the  music  soon  becomes  an  impassioned  love-duA. 
To  him  she  is  an  "enchantress."  As  for  her — "A  vous  ma 
mie  et  mon  ame"  (To  you  my  life  and  my  soul). 

Manon  sees  Guillot's  postilion,  who  has  been  told  by  his 
master  to  take  his  orders  from  Manon.  She  communicates 
to  Des  Grieux  that  they  will  run  away  to  Paris  in  Guillot's 
conveyance.  "Nous  vivrons  k  Paris "  ('Tis  to  Paris  we  go), 
they  shout  in  glad  triumph,  and  are  off.  There  is  much 
confusion  when  the  escape  is  discovered.  Ridicule  is 
heaped  upon  Guillot.  For  is  it  not  in  his  carriage,  in  which 
the  old  roue  hoped  to  find  Manon  awaiting  him,  that  she  has 
driven  off  with  her  young  lover ! 

Act  II.  The  apartment  of  Des  Grieux  and  Manon,  Rue 
Vivienne,  Paris.  Des  Grieux  is  writing  at  his  desk.  Dis- 
covering Manon  looking  over  his  shoulder,  he  reads  her  what 
he  has  written — a  letter  to  his  father  extolling  her  charms 
and  asking  permission  to  marry  her. 

The  scene  is  interrupted  by  knocking  and  voices  without. 
The  maid  servant  announces  that  two  guardsmen  demand 
admission.  She  whispers  to  Manon,  "One  of  them  loves 
you — the  nobleman,  who  lives  near  here."  The  pair  are 
Lescaut  and  De  Bretigny,  the  latter  masquerading  as  a  soldier 
in  Lescaut' s  regiment.  Lescaut  scents  more  profit  for  him- 
self and  for  his  cousin  Manon  in  a  liaison  between  her  and 
the  wealthy  nobleman  than  in  her  relations  with  Des  Grieux. 
Purposely  he  is  gruff  and  demands  "yes"  or  "no"  to  his 
question  as  to  whether  or  not  Des  Grieux  intends  to  marry 
the  girl.  Des  Grieux  shows  the  letter  he  is  about  to  de- 
spatch to  his  father.  Apparently  everything  is  satisfactory. 
But  De  Bretigny  manages  to  convey  to  Manon  the  informa- 
tion that  the  Chevalier's  father  is  incensed  at  his  son's  mode 
of  life,  and  has  arranged  to  have  him  carried  off  that  night. 
If  she  will  keep  quiet  about  it,  he  (De  Bretigny)  will  provide 
for  her  handsomely  and  surround  her  with  the  wealth  and 


Copyright  photo  by  Mishkin 

Caruso  as  Des  Grieux  in  "Manon" 


Copyright  photo  by  Dupont 

Mary  Garden  in  "  Le  Jongleur  de  N6tre  Dame" 


Modern  French  Opera  739 

luxury  she  craves.  She  protests  that  she  loves  Des  Grieux — 
but  is  careful  not  to  warn  him  of  the  impending  abduction. 

Lescaut  and  the  nobleman  depart,  after  Lescaut,  sly 
fellow,  has  blessed  his  "children,"  as  he  calls  Manon  and 
Des  Grieux.  Shortly  afterwards  the  latter  goes  out  to  de- 
spatch the  letter  to  his  father.  Manon,  approaching  the 
table,  which  is  laid  for  supper,  sings  the  charming  air, 
"Adieu,  notre  petite  table"  (Farewell,  dear  little  table). 
This  is  followed  by  the  exquisite  air  with  harp  accompani- 
ment, "Le  R^ve  de  Manon"  (A  vision  of  Manon),  which 
is  sung  by  Des  Grieux,  who  has  re-entered  and  describes  her 
as  he  saw  her  in  a  dream. 

There  is  a  disturbance  outside.  Manon  knows  that  the 
men  who  will  bear  away  her  lover  have  arrived.  She  loves 
Des  Grieux,  but  luxury  means  more  to  her  than  love.  An 
effort  is  made  by  her  to  dissuade  the  Chevalier  from  going 
outside  to  see  who  is  there — but  it  is  a  half-hearted  attempt. 
He  goes.  The  noise  of  a  struggle  is  heard.  Manon,  "over- 
come with  grief, "  exclaims,  "  He  has  gone. " 

Act  III.  Scene  I.  The  Cours  de  la  Reine,  Paris,  on  the 
day  of  a  popular  f^te.  Stalls  of  traders  are  among  the  trees. 
There  is  a  pavilion  for  dancing.  After  some  lively  prelimi- 
nary episodes  between  the  three  actresses  and  Guillot,  De 
Bretigny  enters  with  Manon.  She  sings  a  clever  "  Gavotte." 
It  begins,  "Ob^issons,  quand  leux  voix  appelle"  (List  to 
the  voice  of  Youth  when  it  calleth). 

The  Count  des  Grieux,  father  of  the  Chevalier,  comes  upon 
the  scene.  From  a  conversation  between  him  and  De  Bre- 
tigny, which  Manon  overhears,  she  learns  that  the  Chevalier 
is  about  to  enter  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  and  intends  to 
take  holy  orders.  After  a  duet  between  Manon  and  the 
Count,  who  retires,  the  girl  enters  her  chair,  and  bids  the 
wondering  Lescaut  to  have  her  conveyed  to  the  seminary. 

Scene  II.  Parlour  in  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice.  Nuns 
and  visitors,  who  have  just  attended  religious  service,  are 


740  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

praising  the  sermon  delivered  by  Des  Grieux,  who  enters  a 
little  later  attired  in  the  garb  of  an  abbe.  The  ladies  with- 
draw, leaving  Des  Grieux  with  his  father,  who  has  come  in 
unobserved,  and  now  vainly  endeavours  to  dissuade  his 
son  from  taking  holy  orders.  Left  alone,  Des  Grieux  can- 
not banish  Manon  from  his  thoughts.  "Ah!  fuyez  douce 
image"  (Ah!  depart,  image  fair),  he  sings,  then  slowly  goes 
out. 

Almost  as  if  in  answer  to  his  soliloquy,  the  woman  whose 
image  he  cannot  put  away  enters  the  parlour.  From  the 
chapel  chanting  is  heard.  Summoned  by  the  porter  of  the 
seminary,  Des  Grieux  comes  back.  He  protests  to  Manon 
that  she  has  been  faithless  and  that  he  shall  not  turn  from 
the  peace  of  mind  he  has  sought  in  religious  retreat. 

Gradually,  however,  he  yields  to  the  pleading  of  the  wo- 
man he  loves.  "N'est-ce  plus  ma  main  que  cette  main 
presse?  .  .  .  Ah!  regarde  moi!  N'est-ce  plus  Manon?" 
(Is  it  no  longer  my  hand,  your  own  now  presses?  .  .  .  Ah! 
look  upon  me'  Am  I  no  longer  Manon?")  The  religious 
chanting  continues,  but  now  only  as  a  background  to  an 
impassioned  love  duet — "Ah!  Viens,  Manon,  je  t'aime!" 
(Ah,  Manon,  Manon!     I  love  thee.) 

Act  IV.  A  fashionable  gambling  house  in  Paris.  Play 
is  going  on.  Guillot,  Lescaut,  Poussette,  Javotte,  and  Rosette 
are  of  the  company.  Later  Manon  and  Des  Grieux  come  in. 
Manon,  who  has  run  through  her  lover's  money,  counsels 
the  Chevalier  to  stake  what  he  has  left  on  the  game.  Des 
Grieux  plays  in  amazing  luck  against  Guillot  and  gathers  in 
winning  after  winning.  * '  Faites  vos  jeux.  Messieurs, ' '  cry  the 
croupiers,  while  Manon  joyously  sings,  "Ce  bruit  de  I'or, 
ce  rire,  et  ces  eclats  joyeux"  (Music  of  gold,  of  laughter,  and 
clash  of  joyous  sounds).  The  upshot  of  it  all,  however,  is 
that  Guillot  accuses  the  Chevalier  of  cheating,  and  after  an 
angry  scene  goes  out.  Very  soon  afterwards,  the  police, 
whom  Guillot  has  summoned,  break  in.     Upon  Guillot' s 


Modern  French  Opera  741 

accusation  they  arrest  Manon  and  the  Chevalier.  "O 
douleur,  I'avenir  nous  separe"  (Oh  despair!  Our  lives  are 
divided  for  ever),  sings  Manon,  her  accents  of  grief  being 
echoed  by  those  of  her  lover. 

Act  V,  originally  given  as  a  second  scene  to  the  fourth  act. 
A  lonely  spot  on  the  road  to  Havre.  Des  Grieux  has  been 
freed  through  the  intercession  of  his  father.  Manon,  how- 
ever, with  other  women  of  her  class,  has  been  condemned  to 
deportation  to  the  French  colony  of  Louisiana.  Des  Grieux 
and  Lescaut  are  waiting  for  the  prisoners  to  pass  under  an 
escort  of  soldiers.  Des  Grieux  hopes  to  release  Manon  by 
attacking  the  convoy,  but  Lescaut  restrains  him.  The 
guardsman  finds  little  difficulty  in  bribing  the  sergeant  to 
permit  Manon,  who  already  is  nearly  dead  from  exhaustion, 
to  remain  behind  with  Des  Grieux,  between  whom  the  rest 
of  the  opera  is  a  dolorous  duet,  ending  in  Manon' s  death. 
Even  while  dying  her  dual  nature  asserts  itself.  Feebly 
opening  her  eyes,  almost  at  the  last,  she  imagines  she  sees 
jewels  and  exclaims,  "Oh!  what  lovely  gems!"  She  turns 
to  Des  Grieux :  "  I  love  thee !  Take  thou  this  kiss.  'Tis  my 
farewell  for  ever."  It  is,  of  course,  this  dual  nature  which 
makes  the  character  drawn  by  Ahh6  Prevost  so  interesting. 

"  Manon  "  by  Massenet  is  one  of  the  popular  operas  in  the 
modem  repertoire.  Its  music  has  charm,  and  the  leading 
character,  in  which  Miss  Farrar  appears  with  such  distinc- 
tion, is  both  a  good  singing  and  a  good  acting  r61e,  a  valuable 
asset  to  a  prima  donna.  I  have  an  autograph  letter  of 
Massenet's  written,  presumably  to  Sibyl  Sanderson,  half 
an  hour  before  the  curtain  rose  on  the  premiere  of  "  Manon," 
January  19,  1884.  In  it  he  writes  that  within  that  brief 
space  of  time  they  will  know  whether  their  hopes  are  to  be 
confirmed,  or  their  illusions  dissipated.  In  New  York, 
eleven  years  later.  Miss  Sanderson  failed  to  make  any  impres- 
sion in  the  r61e. 


742  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  beauty  of  Massenet's  score  is  responsible  for  the  fact 
that  audiences  are  not  troubled  over  the  legal  absurdity  in 
the  sentence  of  deportation  pronounced  upon  Manon  for 
being  a  courtesan  and  a  gambler's  accomplice.  In  the  story 
she  also  is  a  thief. 

The  last  act  is  original  with  the  librettists.  In  the 
story  the  final  scene  is  laid  in  Louisiana  (see  Puccini's 
Manon  Lescaut).  The  effective  scene  in  the  convent  of 
St.  Sulpice  was  overlooked  by  Puccini,  as  it  also  was  by 
Scribe,  who  wrote  the  libretto  for  Auber's  "Manon." 
This  latter  work  survives  in  the  laughing  song,  "L'  Eclat  de 
Rire,"  which  Patti  introduced  in  the  lesson  scene  in  "II 
Barbiere  di  Seviglia,"  and  which  Galli-Curci  has  revived 
for  the  same  purpose. 

"Le  Cid";  opera  in  four  acts  and  ten  scenes;  the  poem 
by  MM.  d'Ennery,  Louis  Gallet,  and  Edouard  Blau;  music 
by  Massenet;  produced  at  the  Opera  on  November  30, 
1885.  The  authors  of  the  libretto  of  "  Le  Cid"  declared 
at  the  start  of  it  that  they  had  been  inspired  by  Guillen  de 
Castro  and  by  Corneille.  The  sole  masterpiece  of  Corneille 
which  is  built  about  a  sort  of  psychological  analysis  of  the 
character  of  Chimbne  and  of  the  continual  conflict  of  the  two 
feelings  which  divide  her  heart,  in  fact  would  not  have  given 
them  sufficient  action;  on  the  other  hand  they  would  not 
have  been  able  to  find  in  it  the  pretext  for  adornments, 
for  sumptuousness,  for  the  rich  stage  setting  which  the 
French  opera  house  has  been  accustomed  for  two  centuries 
to  offer  to  its  public. 

This  is  the  way  the  opera  is  arranged:  First  act,  first 
scene :  at  the  house  of  the  Comte  de  Gormas;  scene  between 
Chimene  and  the  Infanta.  Second  scene :  entering  the  cathe- 
dral of  Burgos.  Rodrigo  is  armed  as  a  knight  by  the  King. 
The  King  tells  Don  Diego  that  he  names  him  governor  of 
the  Infant.     Quarrel  of  Don  Diego  and  Don  Gormas.     Scene 


Modern  French  Opera  743 

of  Don  Diego  and  Don  Rodrigo:  "Rodrigue,  as-tu  du  coeur?" 
Second  act,  third  scene:  A  street  in  Burgos  at  night. 
Stanzas  by  Rodrigo:  "Perce  jusques  au  fond  du  coeur." 
Rodrigo  knocks  at  the  door  of  Don  Gormas:  "A  moi,  comte, 
deux  mots!"  Provocation;  duel;  death  of  Don  Gormas. 
Chimhne  discovers  that  Rodrigo  is  the  slayer  of  her  father. 
Fourth  scene:  The  public  square  in  Burgos.  A  popular 
festival.  Ballet.  Chimhne  arrives  to  ask  the  King  for 
justice.  Don  Diego  defends  his  son.  A  Moorish  courier 
arrives  to  declare  war  on  the  King  on  the  part  of  his  master. 
The  King  orders  Rodrigo  to  go  and  fight  the  infidels.  Third 
act,  fifth  scene:  The  chamber  of  Chimhne:  "Pleurez, 
pleurez ,  mes  yeux,  et  fondez-vous  en  eau. ' '  Scene  of  Chimhne 
and  Rodrigo.  Sixth  scene:  the  camp  of  Rodrigo.  Seventh 
scene:  Rodrigo' s  tent.  The  vision.  St.  James  appears  to 
him.  Eighth  scene:  the  camp.  The  battle.  Defeat  of 
the  Moors.  Fourth  act,  ninth  scene:  The  palace  of  the 
Kings  at  Granada.  Rodrigo  is  believed  to  be  dead.  Chi- 
mhne mourns  for  him:  "Eclate  mon  amour,  tu  n'as  plus 
rien  a  craindre. "  Tenth  scene:  A  courtyard  in  the  pal- 
ace. Rodrigo  comes  back  as  a  conqueror.  Chimhne  forgives 
him.     The  end. 

DON  QUICHOTTE 

Opera  in  five  acts  by  Jules  Massenet;  text  by  Henri  Cain,  after  the 
play  by  Jacques  La  Lorrain,  based  on  the  romance  of  Cervantes.  Pro- 
duced, Monte  Carlo,  1910. 

Characters 

La  Belle  Dulcin^e Contralto 

Don  Quichotte Bass 

Sancho Baritone 

Pedro,  burlesquer Soprano 

Garcias,  burlesquer Soprano 


744  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Rodriguez Tenor 

Juan Tenor 

Two  Valets Baritone 

Tenebrun,  chief,  and  other  bandits,  friends  of  Dulcin^e,  and  others. 
Time — The  Middle  Ages.  Place — Spain. 

Act  I.  Square  in  front  of  the  house  of  Dulcinee,  whose 
beauty  people  praise  in  song.  Into  the  midst  of  the  throng 
ride  Don  Quichotte  and  his  comical  companion,  Sancho. 
Night  and  moonlight.  Don  Quichotte  serenades  Dulcinee, 
arousing  the  jealousy  of  Juan,  a  lover  of  the  professional 
beauty,  who  now  appears  and  prevents  a  duel.  She  is 
amused  by  the  avowals  of  Don  Quichotte,  and  promises  to 
become  his  beloved  if  he  will  recover  a  necklace  stolen  from 
her  by  brigands. 

Act  11.  On  the  way  to  the  camp  of  the  brigands.  Here 
occurs  the  fight  with  the  windmill. 

Act  III.  Camp  of  the  brigands.  Don  Quichotte  attacks 
them.  Sancho  retreats.  The  Knight  is  captured.  He 
expects  to  be  put  to  death.  But  his  courage,  his  grave 
courtesy,  and  his  love  for  his  Dulcinee,  deeply  impress  the 
bandits.     They  free  him  and  give  him  the  necklace. 

Act  IV.  Fete  at  Dulcinee's.  To  the  astonishment  of 
all  Don  Quichotte  and  Sancho  put  in  their  appearance.  Dul- 
cinee, overjoyed  at  the  return  of  the  necklace,  embraces  the 
Knight.  He  entreats  her  to  marry  him  at  once.  Touched 
by  his  devotion,  Dulcinee  disillusions  him  as  to  the  kind  of 
woman  she  is. 

Act  V.  A  forest.  Don  Quichotte  is  dying.  He  tells 
Sancho  that  he  has  given  him  the  island  he  promised  him  in 
their  travels;  the  most  beautiful  island  in  the  world — the 
"Island  of  Dreams."  In  his  delirium  he  sees  Dulcinee. 
The  lance  falls  from  his  hand.  The  gaunt  figiu*e  in  its  rusty 
suit  of  armour — no  longer  grotesque,  but  tragic — stiffens 
in  death. 


Modern  French  Opera  745 

CENDRILLON 

Cinderella 

Opera,  in  four  acts,  by  Massenet,  text  by  Henri  Cain.  Produced, 
Op^ra  Comique,  Paris,  May  24,  1899. 

Characters 

Cinderella Soprano 

Mme^de  la  HALTifeRE,  her  stepmother Mezzo-Soprano 

NofeMiE,  her  step-sister Soprano 

Doroth6e,  her  step-sister Soprano 

Pandolfe,  her  father Baritone 

The  Prince  Charming Soprano 

The  Fairy.  . .' Soprano 

The  King Baritone 

Dean  of  the  Faculty Baritone 

Master  of  Ceremonies Tenor 

Prime  Minister Bass 

Time — Period  of  Louis  XIII.  Place — France. 

The  story  follows  almost  entirely  the  familiar  lines  of 
the  fairy  tale.  It  may  differ  from  some  versions  in  includ- 
ing Cinderella's  father,  Pandolfe,  among  the  characters.  In 
the  third  act,  sympathizing  with  her  in  her  unhappiness  with 
her  stepmother  and  stepsisters,  he  plans  to  take  her  back 
to  the  country.  But  she  goes  away  alone,  falls  asleep  under 
the  fairy  oak,  and  in  a  dream  sees  the  Prince,  with  whom 
she  has  danced  at  the  ball.  The  fairy  reveals  them  to  each 
other  and  they  pledge  their  love.  In  the  fourth  act  the 
dream  turns  into  reality. 

As  for  the  music,  it  is  bright,  graceful,  and  pretty,  espe- 
cially in  the  dances,  the  fairy  scenes,  and  the  love  scene 
between  Cinderella  and  Prince  Charming. 

LA  NAVARRAISE 

Opera  in  one  act  by  Massenet ;  libretto  by  Jules  Claretie 
and  Henri  Cain.  It  was  performed  for  the  first  time  at 
Covent  Garden,  June  20,  1894,  by  Mme.  Calv6  and  Messrs. 
Alvarez,  Plangon,  Gilibert,  Bonnard,  and  Dufriche. 


746  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  opera  is  one  of  other  days.  Now  it  is  seldom  given. 
There  were  two  famous  Anitas — Emma  Calve  and  Jeanne 
Gerville-Reache.  The  extraordinary  success  of  "Caval- 
leria  Rusticana"  no  doubt  impelled  Massenet  to  try  his 
hand  at  a  tragic  one-act  opera,  just  as  "Haensel  and  Gre- 
tel"  was  responsible  for  his  "Cendrillon."  It  is  among  the 
best  of  his  works.  The  music  is  intensely  dramatic.  It 
has  colour,  vitality.  The  action  is  swift  and  stirring ,*unin- 
terrupted  by  sentimental  romanzas.  The  libretto  is  based 
on  a  short  story,  "La  Cigarette,"  written  by  Jules  Clare- 
tie  and  published  in  the  Figaro  Illustre  about  1890.  Later 
it  gave  the  title  to  a  collection  of  short  stories. 

The  time  is  during  the  last  days  of  the  Carlist  war.  The 
place  is  Spain.  Araquil,  a  Biscayan  peasant-,  loves  Anita 
madly,  but  her  parents  frown  upon  his  poverty.  No  crime 
seems  too  great  to  win  his  bride.  General  Garrito,  the  Span- 
ish chief,  has  promised  a  reward  to  any  man  who  will 
deliver  up  Zucarraga,  the  Carlist.  When  this  dangerous 
foe  is  injured  in  battle,  Araquil  poisons  the  wound  and 
claims  the  promised  reward.  The  general  pays  the  sum, 
but,  disgusted,  orders  Araquil  to  be  shot.  Anita's  father 
consents  to  the  wedding  before  the  execution.  But  Anita 
refuses  disdainfully,  and  Araquil  is  killed  as  he  puffs  a 
cigarette.  This  is  Claretie's  story.  At  his  suggestion  and 
for  the  purposes  of  opera  the  parts  were  changed.  A  raquil 
became  Anita  and  the  peasant  with  the  cigarette  became 
La  Navarraise. 

LE  JONGLEUR  DE  NOTRE  DAME 

Opera  in  three  acts  by  Jules  Massenet.  Libretto  by 
Maurice  Len^. 

The  opera  was  first  sung  at  Monte  Carlo,  February  18, 
1902,  when  the  part  of  Jean  was  taken  by  Mr.  Marechal,  for 
this  miracle  play  with  music  was  composed  originally  for 


Modem  French  Opera  747 

male  singers.  The  only  two  women  in  the  cast  were  repre- 
sented as  angels.  The  part  of  Boniface  the  cook  was  created 
by  Mr.  Renaud. 

The  story  was  first  published  by  Gaston  Paris  as  "Le 
Tombeor  de  Nostre  Dame"  in  1874-75  ii^  the  review, 
Romania,  and  later  in  his  "Etude  sur  la  Po^sie  Frangaise 
au  Moyen  Age. "  The  story  is  better  known,  however,  by 
Anatole  France's  version,  included  in  his  "Etui  de  Nacre" 
(1912). 

A  poor  juggler  after  performing  in  the  streets  to  earn  his 
bread,  begins  to  think  of  the  future  life  and  enters  a  mon- 
astery. There  he  sees  the  monks  paying  homage  to  the 
Virgin  in  eloquent  prayers.  Unable  in  his  ignorance  to 
imitate  their  pious  learning,  Jean  decides  to  offer  homage 
through  the  only  means  in  his  power.  He  shuts  himself  in 
the  chapel,  turns  somersaults,  and  performs  his  feats  in 
Our  Lady's  honour.  When  the  monks  searching  for  Jean 
rush  in  and  cry  "Sacrilege"  at  his  singing,  dancing,  and 
tumbling,  the  statue  of  the  Virgin  comes  to  life,  smiles,  and 
blesses  the  poor  juggler,  who  dies  in  ecstasy  at  her  feet, 
while  the  monks  chant  the  beatitude  concerning  the 
humble. 

Massenet  was  later  persuaded  to  turn  the  part  of  Jean 
into  a  soprano.  It  is  known  to  New  York  through  Miss 
Mary  Garden.  It  is  said  that  the  libretto  of  this  opera 
was  handed  to  Massenet  by  the  postman,  one  day,  as  he 
was  leaving  for  the  country.  In  the  railway  carriage, 
seeking  distraction,  he  opened  the  registered  package.  He 
was  delighted  with  the  libretto  and  wrote  at  once  to  the 
author,  a  teacher  in  the  university. 

WERTHER 

Opera  in  four  acts  by  Jules  Massenet  with  a  libretto  by 
Edouard   Blau,    Paul    Milliet,  and   G,  Hartmann.     First 


748  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

performance  in  New  York,  April  19,  1894,  with  Mme. 
Eames  and  Sigrid  Arnoldson  and  Jean  de  Reszke. 

In  the  first  act  the  baiUff,  Charlotte  s  father,  is  seen  teach- 
ing his  youngest  children  to  sing  a  Christmas  carol,  while 
Charlotte  dresses  for  a  ball.  Ready  before  the  carriage 
arrives,  she  gives  the  children  their  bread  and  butter  as  she 
has  done  every  day  since  their  mother  died.  She  greets 
Werther,  her  cousin,  who  is  also  invited  to  the  ball,  with  a 
kiss.  After  they  have  gone,  Albert  returns.  He  has  been 
away  six  months.  He  wonders  whether  Charlotte,  his  be- 
trothed, still  cares  for  him  and  is  reasstu-ed  as  to  her 
fidelity  by  her  younger  sister  Sophie.  When  Charlotte  and 
Werther  return  from  the  ball  Werther  d^ecXaxes  his  love.  At 
that  moment  the  bailiff  announces  A Ihert's  retiwn.  Charlotte 
tells  Werther  that  she  had  promised  to  marry  him  only  to 
please  her  mother.  Werther  replies:  "If  you  keep  that 
promise  I  shall  die.  " 

Act  II.  takes  place  three  months  later.  Charlotte  and 
Albert  are  man  and  wife.  Albert  knows  that  Werther  loves 
his  wife  but  trusts  him.  Charlotte  begs  Werther  not  to  try  to 
see  her  again  until  Christmas  day. 

In  Act  III.  Charlotte  is  at  home  alone.  Her  thoughts 
are  with  Werther  and  she  wonders  how  she  could  have  sent 
him  away.  Suddenly  Werther  rettu-ns  and  there  is  a  pas- 
sionate love  scene.  When  Werther  has  gone  Albert  enters, 
and  notices  his  wife's  agitation.  A  servant  brings  a  note 
from  Werther  saying  that  he  is  about  to  go  on  a  long  jour- 
ney and  asking  Albert  to  lend  him  his  pistols.  Charlotte 
has  a  horrible  presentiment  and  hastily  follows  the  servant. 

In  Act  IV.  Charlotte  finds  Werther  dying  in  his  apartments. 
He  is  made  happy  by  her  confession  that  she  has  loved  him 
from  the  moment  when  she  first  saw  him. 

HERODIADE 

Massenet's  "Herodiade,"  with  a  libretto  by  Paul  Milli'^t, 


Modern  French  Opera  749 

had  its  first  performance  in  New  York  at  the  Manhattan 
Opera  House,  November,  1908,  with  Lina  Cavalieri,  Jeanne 
Gerville-Reache,  Charles  Dalmores,  and  Maurice  Renaud  in 
the  principal  roles.  The  scene  is  Jerusalem  and  the  first 
act  shows  Herod's  palace.  Salome  does  not  know  that  she 
is  the  daughter  of  Herodias,  for  she  was  mysteriously  sep- 
arated from  her  mother  in  childhood.  With  a  caravan  of 
Jewish  merchants,  who  bring  gifts  to  Herod,  she  comes  to 
Jerusalem  in  search  of  her  mother.  She  tells  Phanuel,  a 
young  philosopher,  that  she  wishes  to  return  to  the  Prophet 
who  had  been  kind  to  her  in  the  desert. 

As  she  leaves  Herod  enters,  notices  her,  and  is  aroused  by 
her  beauty.  He  calls  upon  her  to  return.  But  instead 
Herodias  enters  demanding  John's  head  for  he  has  publicly 
called  her  Jezebel.  Herod  refuses.  John  appears  and  con- 
tinues his  denunciation.  The  royal  cpuple  flee.  Salome 
returns  and  falls  at  John's  feet  confessing  her  love. 

Herod  in  vain  seeks  to  put  the  thought  of  Salome  from 
him.  Herodias,  mad  with  jealousy,  consults  the  astrologer 
Phanuel  who  tells  her  that  her  daughter  is  her  rival. 

In  the  temple  Herod  offers  his  love  to  Salome,  who  re- 
pulses him  crying:  "I  love  another  who  is  mightier  than 
Cassar,  stronger  than  any  hero. "  In  his  fury  Herod  orders 
both  Salome  and  John,  who  has  been  seized  and  put  in 
chains,  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  executioner.  John 
in  his  dungeon  clasps  Salome  in  his  arms. 

In  the  last  scene  Salome  implores  Herodias  to  save  John, 
but  the  executioner's  sword  is  already  bloodstained.  Sa- 
lome snatches  a  dagger  and  rushes  upon  Herodias  who  cries 
in  terror,  "Have  mercy.  I  am  your  mother."  "Then 
take  back  your  blood  and  my  life,"  cries  Salome,  turning 
the  weapon  upon  herself. 

Massenet's  "Sapho, "  with  a  libretto  by  Henri  Cain  and 
Arthur  Bernede,  based  on  Daudet's  famous  novel,  was  a 


750  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

complete  failure  in  New  York  when  it  was  sung  for  three 
performances  in  1909.  Its  favourable  reception  in  Paris, 
where  it  was  produced  at  the  Opfra  Comique  in  1897, 
was  chiefly  due  to  the  vivid  impersonation  of  Emma  Calve. 
The  story  concerns  an  artist's  model  who  captivates  an 
unsophisticated  young  man  from  the  country  and  wrecks 
his  life  in  attempting  to  rise  above  her  past. 

CLEOPATRE 

Opera  by  J.  Massenet.  Written  for  Lucy  Arbell,  the 
opera  was  produced  by  Raoul  Gunsbourg,  at  Monte  Carlo, 
in  his  season  of  1914-15  with  Marie  Kousnezova  in  the  title 
role.  The  first  performance  in  America  took  place  in  Chi- 
cago, at  the  Auditorium,  January  10,  1916,  with  the  same 
singer.  The  first  performance  in  New  York  was  on  Janu- 
ary 23,  1 91 9,  witl]  Miss  Mary  Garden  as  the  Queen  of 
Egypt  and  Alfred  Maguenat,  who  created  the  role  at  Monte 
Carlo  and  in  Chicago,  as  the  Marc  Anthony.  The  story  is 
the  traditional  one. 

LOUISE 

A  musical  romance  in  four  acts,  libretto  and  music  by  Gustave 
Charpentier. 

Characters 

JULIEN Tenor 

The  Father Baritone 

Louise Soprano 

The  Mother Contralto 

Irma Soprano 

The  opera  was  produced  at  the  Opera  Comique,  Paris, 
February  2,  1900.  The  part  of  Louise  was  created  by 
Miss  Rioton,  who  then  sang  for  the  first  time  in  an  opera 
house;  that  of  Julien  by  Marechal;  that  of  the  father  by 
Fugere,  and  that  of  the  mother  by  Mme.  Deschamps-Jehin. 

The  story  is  simple.  Louise,  a  working  girl,  loves  Julien, 
an  artist.     Her  father  puts  no  trust  in  an  artist  of  irregular 


Photo  by  Mishkin 


Mary  Garden  as  Louise 


Photo  by  Histed 


Lucienne  Breval  as  Salammbo 


Modern  French  Opera  751 

life,  so  Louise  leaves  her  family.  The  lovers  are  happy, 
but  Louise  is  remorseful.  She  grieves  for  her  father  and 
reproaches  herself  for  ingratitude.  Finally  she  returns 
home.  But  free  forgiveness  does  not  make  up  for  the  free- 
dom she  has  lost,  Paris  the  city  of  pleasure  tempts  her 
again,  and  again  she  succimibs.  Her  family  realizes  that 
she  is  for  ever  lost  to  the  home. 

Charpentier  himself  described  his  work  to  F.  de  Menil. 
When  asked  why  he  called  his  opera  a  musical  romance,  he 
replied:  "Because  in  a  romance  there  are  two  entirely  dis- 
tinct sides,  the  drama  and  the  description,  and  in  my 
'Louise'  I  wish  to  treat  these  different  sides.  I  have  a 
descriptive  part,  composed  of  decoration,  scenic  surround- 
ings, and  a  musical  atmosphere  in  which  my  characters 
move ;  then  I  have  the  purely  dramatic  part,  devoted  wholly 
to  the  action.  This  is,  therefore,  a  truly  musical  romance." 
When  asked  whether  the  work  were  naturalistic,  realis- 
tic, or  idealistic,  he  answered:  "I  have  a  horror  of  words 
that  end  in  'istic'  I  am  not  a  man  of  theories.  'Louise,' 
as  everything  that  I  do.  was  made  by  me  instinctively.  I 
leave  to  others,  the  dear  critics,  the  care  of  disengaging  the 
formulas  and  the  tendencies  of  the  work.  I  have  wished 
simply  to  give  on  the  stage  that  which  I  have  given  in 
concert;  the  lyric  impression  of  the  sensations  that  I  reap 
in  our  beautiful,  fairy-like  modern  life.  Perhaps  I  see  this 
as  in  a  fever,  but  that  is  my  right  for  the  street  intoxicates 
me.  The  essential  point  of  the  drama  is  the  coming  to- 
gether, the  clashing  of  two  sentiments  in  the  heart  of 
Louise — ^love,  which  binds  her  to  her  family,  to  her  father, 
the  fear  of  leaving  suffering  behind  her,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  irresistible  longing  for  liberty,  pleasure,  happiness, 
love,  the  cry  of  her  being,  which  demands  to  live  as  she 
wishes.  Passion  will  conquer  because  it  is  served  by  a 
prodigious  and  mysterious  auxiliary,  which  has  little  by 
little  breathed  its  dream  into  her  young  soul — Paris,  the 


752  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

voluptuous  city,  the  great  city  of  light,  pleasure,  and  joy, 
which  calls  her  irresistibly  towards  an  undaunted  future." 

SALAMMBO 

Reyer's  "Salammbo"  received  a  gorgeous  production  at 
the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  on  March  20,  1901,  with  the 
following  cast :  Salammbo,  Lucienrie  Breval ;  Tan  Taanach, 
Miss  Carrie  Bridewell;  Matho,  Albert  Saleza;  Shahabarim, 
Mr.Salignac;  Narr-Havas,  Mr.  ]o\xrnet;Spendius,  Mr.  Sizes; 
Giscon,  Mr.  Gilkbert;  Authorite,  Mr.  Dufriche;  Hamilcar, 
Mr.  Scotti.  Mr.  Mancinellei  conducted.  The  exquisitely 
painted  scenes  were  copies  of  the  Paris  models,  and  the  cos- 
tumes were  gorgeous.  Miss  Breval's  radiant  Semitic  beauty 
shone  in  the  title  role.  Flaubert's  novel  was  made  into  a 
libretto  by  Camilla  du  Locle.  History  supplied  the  back- 
ground for  romance  in  the  shape  of  the  suppression  of  a 
mutiny  among  the  mercenaries  of  the  Carthaginians  in  the 
first  Punic  war.  Against  this  is  outlined  in  bold  relief  the 
story  of  the  rape  of  the  sacred  veil  of  Tanit  by  the  leader 
of  the  revolting  mercenaries,  his  love  ior  Salammbo,  daughter 
of  the  Carthaginian  general;  her  recovery  of  the  veil,  bring- 
ing in  its  train  disaster  to  her  lover  and  death  to  both. 

PELLEAS  ET   MELISANDE 

Opera  in  five  acts  (12  scenes).  Music  by  Debussy;  text  by  Maurice 
Maeterlinck.  Produced:  Paris,  April  30,  1902.  New  York,  February 
19,  1908. 

Characters 

Arkel,  King  of  Allemonde Bass 

Genoveva,  mother  of  Pelleas  and  Golo Alto 

Pell6as  )  King  Arkel's  j Tenor 

Golo  .  . .  \  grandsons      \ Baritone 


Modern  French  Opera  753 

M6LISANDE Soprano 

Little  Yniold,  Golo's  son  by  first  marriage A  child* s  voice 

A  Physician Bass 

Act  I.  Scene  I.  In  a  forest.  Golo  while  hunting  has 
lost  his  way  following  a  wild  boar  and  come  to  a  place 
unknown  to  him.  There  he  sees  a  woman  sitting  by  a 
spring.  She  acts  like  a  figure  in  a  fairy  tale  and  behaves 
like  a  person  stranger  to  and  isolated  from  the  world. 
Finally  Golo  succeeds  in  inducing  Melisande — she  at  last 
tells  him  her  name  after  being  urged — to  follow  him  out 
of  the  dark  woods. 

Scene  II.  A  room  in  the  castle.  Genoveva  is  reading 
to  the  aged,  almost  blind  King  Arkel  a  letter  which  Golo 
has  written  to  his  half  brother  Pellias.  From  this  letter 
we  learn  that  Golo  has  already  been  married  six  months 
to  the  mysterious  Melisande.  He  has  great  love  for  his 
wife,  about  whpm,  however,  he  knows  no  more  today  than 
he  did  at  first  in  the  woods.  So  he  fears  that  his  grand- 
father, the  King,  may  not  forgive  him  for  this  union  and 
asks  Pellias  to  give  him  a  sign  in  case  the  King  is  ready  "to 
honour  the  stranger  as  his  daughter."  Otherwise  he  will 
steer  the  keel  of  his  ship  to  the  most  remote  land.  King 
Arkel  has  arrived  at  that  time  of  life  when  the  wisdom  of 
experience  tends  to  make  one  forgiving  toward  every- 
thing that  happens.  So  he  pardons  Golo  and  commissions 
his  grandson  Pelleas  to  give  his  brother  the  sign  agreed 
upon. 

Scene  III.  Before  the  castle.  The  old  queen  Genoveva 
seeks  to  calm  Melisande' s  distress  at  the  gloominess  of  the 
world  into  which  she  has  wandered.  Pelleas  too  is  there. 
He  would  like  to  go  to  see  a  distant  friend  who  is  ill  but 
fate  holds  him  here.  Or  rather  have  not  chains  been 
wound  about  the  twain  of  which  they  yet  have  no  antici- 
pation ? 

Act  II.  Scene  IV.  A  fountain  in  the  park.  Pelleas 
48 


754  The  Coinplete  Opera  Book 

and  Melisande  have  arrived  at  this  thickly  shaded  spot. 
Is  Melisande  a  Melusine-like  creature?  Water  attracts 
her  wonderfully.  She  bends  over  her  reflection.  Because 
she  cannot  reach  it,  she  is  tempted  to  play  with  the  ring 
that  Golo  sent  her.     It  slips  from  her  hand  and  sinks. 

Scene  V.  There  must  have  been  some  peculiar  condition 
attached  to  the  ring.  At  the  same  hour  that  it  fell  in  the 
fountain  Golo's  horse  shied  while  hunting  so  that  he  was 
hurt  and  now  lies  wounded  in  bed.  Melisande  is  taking 
care  of  him.  She  tells  Golo  that  she  did  not  feel  well  the 
day  before.  She  is  oppressed  by  a  certain  foreboding,  she 
does  not  know  what  it  is.  Golo  seizes  her  hands  to  console 
her  and  sees  that  the  ring  is  missing.  Then  he  drives  her 
out  into  the  night  to  look  for  it.  "Sooner  would  I  give 
away  everything  I  have,  my  fortune  and  goods,  rather 
than  have  lost  the  precious  ring."     Pelleas  will  help  her. 

Scene  VI.  Before  a  grotto  in  the  rocks.  Melisande' 
has  deceived  Golo  by  telling  him  that  the  ring  has  slipped 
from  her  hand  into  the  sea.  So  Pelleas  must  now  lead  her 
to  this  grotto  in  order  that  she  may  know  at  least  the  place 
in  which  she  can  claim  that  she  lost  the  ring.  A  dreadful 
place  in  which  the  shudder  of  death  stalks. 

Act  III.  Scene  VII.  A  tower  in  the  castle.  At  the 
window  of  the  tower  Melisande  is  standing  combing  her  hair 
that  she  has  let  down.  Then  Pelleas  comes  along  the  road 
that  winds  around  under  her  window.  Pelleas  is  coming 
to  say  farewell.  Early  the  next  morning  he  is  going  away. 
So  Melisande  will  at  least  once  more  reach  out  her  hand  to 
him  that  he  may  press  it  to  his  lips.  Love  weaves  a  web 
about  the  twain  with  an  ever  thicker  netting  without  their 
noticing  it.  Their  hands  do  not  touch  but  as  Melisande 
leans  forward  so  far  her  long  hair  falls  over  Pelleas' s  head 
and  fills  the  youth  with  passionate  feelings.  Their  words 
become  warmer — then  Golo  comes  near  and  reproves  their 
"childishness." 


Copyright  photo  by  Davis  &  Sanford  Co. 

Mary  Garden  as  M^lisande  in  "  Pelldas  and  M^lisande  " 


Modern  French  Opera  755 

Scene  VIII.  In  the  vault  under  the  castle.  Like  a 
gloomy  menace  Golo  leads  Pelleas  into  these  underground, 
rooms  where  the  breeze  of  death  blows.  Seized  with 
shuddering  they  go  out.  On  the  terrace  at  the  entrance 
to  the  vault  Golo  in  earnest  words  warns  Pelleas  to  keep 
away  from  Melisande  and  to  refrain  from  confidential 
conversations  with  her. 

Scene  IX.  Before  the  castle.  In  vain  Golo  has  sought 
to  quiet  himself  by  saying  that  it  was  all  only  childishness. 
Jealousy  devours  his  heart.  So  now  he  seeks  with  hypo- 
critical calm  his  little  son  Yniold,  offspring  of  his  first  mar- 
riage, to  inquire  about  the  intimacy  of  Pelleas  and  Melisande. 
The  child  cannot  tell  him  of  anything  improper  yet  Golo 
feels  how  it  is  with  the  couple.  And  he  feels  that  he  him- 
self is  old,  much  older  than  Pellias  and  Melisande. 

Act  IV.  Scene  X.  In  a  room  in  the  castle  Pellias  and 
Melisande  meet.  This  evening  he  must  see  her.  She 
promises  to  go  in  the  park  to  the  old  fountain  where  she 
formerly  lost  the  ring.  It  will  be  their  last  meeting.  Yet 
Melisande  does  not  understand  what  is  driving  the  youth 
away.  The  old  King  Arkel  enters  the  room.  The  aged 
man  has  taken  Melisande  to  his  heart.  He  feels  that  the 
young  wife  is  unhappy.  Now  Golo  also  enters.  He  can 
scarcely  remain  master  of  his  inner  commotion.  The  sight 
of  his  wife,  who  appears  the  picture  of  innocence,  irritates 
him  so  much  that  he  finally  in  a  mad  rage  throws  her  on  her 
knees  and  drags  her  across  the  room  by  her  hair. 

Scene  XI.  By  the  old  spring  in  the  park.  There  is  an 
oppressive  feeling  of  disaster  in  the  air.  Only  little  Yniold 
does  not  suffer  this  gripping  burden.  It  is  already  growing 
dark  when  Melisande  goes  to  Pelleas.  And  yet  in  their 
farewell,  perhaps  also  on  account  of  Golo's  outburst  of 
anger,  the  couple  clearly  see  what  has  caused  their  condi- 
tion. And  there  comes  over  them  something  like  the 
affirmation  of  death  and  the  joy  of  dying.     How  fate  shuts 


-^^  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

the  gates  upon  them;  like  a  fate  they  see  Golo  coming. 
They  rejoice  in  the  idea  of  death.  Pelleas  falls  by  Golo's 
sword,  Melisande  flees  from  her  husband's  pursuit  into  the 
night. 

Act  V.  Scene  XII.  A  room  in  the  castle.  Melisande 
lies  stretched  out  in  bed.  Arkel,  Golo,  and  the  physician 
are  conversing  softly  in  the  room.  No;  Melisande  is  not 
dying  from  the  insignificant  wound  Golo  has  given  her. 
Perhaps  her  life  will  be  saved.  She  awakes  as  if  from 
dreaming.  Everything  that  has  happened  is  like  a  dream 
tQ  her.  Desperately  Golo  rushes  to  her  couch,  begs  her 
pardon,  and  asks  her  for  the  truth.  He  is  willing  to  die  too 
but  before  his  death  he  wants  to  know  whether  she  had 
betrayed  him  with  Pelleas.  She  denies  it.  Golo  presses 
her  so  forcibly  and  makes  her  suffer  so  that  she  is  near  death. 
Then  earthly  things  fall  away  from  her  as  if  her  soul  were 
already  free.  It  is  not  possible  to  bring  her  back  now.  The 
aged  Arkel  offers  the  last  services  for  the  dying  woman, 
to  make  the  way  free  for  her  soul  escaping  from  earthly 
pain  and  the  burden'of  the  tears  of  persons  left  behind. 

APHRODITE 

A  lyric  drama  in  five  acts  and  seven  scenes  after  the  story  by  Pierre 
Louys.  Adapted  by  Louis  de  Gramont.  Music  by  Camille  Erlanger. 
First  given  at  the  Opera  Comique,  Paris,  March  23,  1906,  with  Mary 
Garden  as  Chrysis,  Leon  Beyle  as  Demetrios,  Gustave  Huberdeau  as 
the  Jailor,  Mmes.  Mathieu-Lutz  and  Demellin  as  Myrto  and  Rhodis, 
and  Claire  Friche  as  Bacchis. 

Characters 

Demetrios Tenor 

TiMON Baritone 

Philodme Tenor 

Le  Grand  Pretre Bass 

Callides Bass 

Le  Ge6lier Bass 


Modem  French  Opera  757 

Chrysis Soprano 

Bacchis Mezzo-Soprano 

Myrto Soprano 

Rhodis Mezzo-Soprano 

CHi&t  ARis Mezzo-Soprano 

Seso Soprano 

Act  I.  The  wharf  at  Alexandria.  Act  II.  The  temple 
of  Aphrodite.  Act  III.  At  the  house  of  Bacchis.  Act 
IV.  The  studio  of  Demetrios.  Act  V.  Scene  I.  The 
lighthouse;  Scene  II.  The  prison;  Scene  III.  The 
garden  of  Hermanubis. 

Act  I.  The  throng  moves  back  and  forth  on  the  crowded 
wharf.  There  are  young  people,  courtesans,  philosophers, 
sailors,  beggars,  fruit-sellers.  Rhodis  and  Myrto  play  on 
their  flutes  while  Theano  dances.  Demetrios  the  sculptor 
approaches  and  leans  on  the  parapet  overlooking  the  sea. 
The  Jewess  Chimaris,  a  fortune-teller,  reads  his  hand.  She 
tells  him  that  she  sees  past  happiness  and  love  in  the  future, 
but  that  this  love  will  be  drowned  first  in  the  blood  of  one 
woman,  then  in  that  of  a  second,  and  finally  in  his  own. 
Chrysis,  a  beautiful  cotu*tesan,  appears  on  the  wharf. 
Demetrios  wishes  to  follow  her,  but  she  declines  his  advances. 
To  possess  her  he  must  bring  her  three  gifts,  the  silver 
mirror  of  Bacchis,  the  courtesan,  the  ivory  comb  of  Touni, 
wife  of  the  High  Priest,  and  the  pearl  necklace  clasped 
around  the  neck  of  the  statue  of  the  goddess  Aphrodite  in 
the  temple.  Demetrios  is  appalled  but  swears  to  fulfil  her 
wishes.     She  embraces  him  and  disappears. 

In  Act  II  the  temple  guards  and  eunuchs  perform  their 
sacred  offices.  Demetrios  enters  the  temple.  He  has  com- 
mitted two  of  the  three  crimes.  He  has  stolen  the  mirror 
from  Bacchis  and  stabbed  Touni  to  take  her  comb.  The 
celebration  of  the  first  day  of  the  Aphrodisiacs  begins. 
Coiu"tesans  bring  offerings  to  the  goddess.  Rhodis  and  Myrto 
bring  a  caged  dove.     Chrysis  hands  the  High  Priest  her 


758  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

bronze  mirror,  her  copper  comb,  and  her  emerald  necklace, 
as  offerings.  When  the  crowd  leaves  the  temple,  Demetrios 
snatches  the  necklace  from  the  statue  and  disappears. 

Act  III  shows  the  feast  and  the  bacchanale  at  the  house 
of  Bacchis.  The  theft  of  the  mirror  is  discovered.  Corinna, 
a  slave,  is  accused  and  crucified.  Chrysis  is  inwardly  exult- 
ant that  her  wish  has  been  obeyed. 

In  Act  IV  Chrysis  goes  to  Demetrios  to  receive  the  gifts 
and  to  bestow  the  reward.  Demetrios,  mad  with  passion, 
clasps  her  in  his  embrace.  The  clamour  without  reminds 
him  of  his  misdeed.  In  a  fit  of  disgust  he  demands  that  the 
beautiful  woman  shall  not  hoard  her  treasures  in  secret,  but 
appear  in  public  decked  with  them,  as  an  atonement.  He 
sends  her  away. 

On  the  island  of  the  lighthouse  of  Alexandria  the  crowds 
discuss  the  theft  of  the  mirror  and  the  crucifixion  of  Corinna. 
Timon  announces  the  slaying  of  Touni  and  the  stealing  of 
her  comb.  Chrysis  appears  wrapped  in  a  long  mantle. 
The  sacred  courtesans  and  the  temple  guards  announce 
the  theft  of  the  jewels  from  the  temple.  Suddenly  Chrysis 
appears  on  the  highest  balcony  of  the  lighthouse,  the  stolen 
comb  in  her  hair,  the  mirror  in  her  hand,  and  the  necklace 
about  her  throat.  Disclosed  in  a  flash  of  lightning  the 
crowds  think  it  is  the  goddess  in  person.  Soon  they  realize 
the  truth  and  Chrysis  is  seized  and  taken  to  prison. 

The  Jailor  brings  a  poisoned  goblet  to  her  cell.  She 
drinks — Demetrios  arrives  too  late,  to  find  her  dead. 

Her  friends,  Myrto  and  Rhodis,  bury  her  body  in  the 
Garden  of  Hermanubis. 

L'ATTAQUE  DU  MOULIN 

The   Attack   on   the   Mill 

This  is  a  four-act  music  drama  by  Alfred  Bruneau,  the 
libretto  by  Louis  Gallet,  based  on  a  story  from  Zola's 


Modern  French  Opera  759 

"Soirees  de  Medan."  It  was  produced  at  the  Op^ra 
Comique,  Paris,  November  23,  1893.  and  in  this  country  in 
1908. 

The  tale  is  an  episode  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War.  In 
the  first  act  we  see  the  betrothal  of  Frangoise,  daughter  of 
the  miller,  Merlier,  to  Dominique.  The  Town  Crier  an- 
nounces the  declaration  of  war. 

In  the  second  act  the  mill  is  attacked  and  captured  by 
the  Germans.  Dominique  is  made  a  prisoner  and  locked  in 
the  mill.  Franqoise  gets  a  knife  to  him.  While  (in  the 
third  act)  the  girl  engages  the  attention  of  the  sentinel, 
Dominique  makes  his  way  out  of  the  mill,  kills  the  sentinel, 
and  escapes.  In  the  fourth  act  the  French,  guided  by 
Dominique,  return.  But  just  as  they  enter,  with  Dominique 
at  their  head,  the  Germans  shoot  Merlier  before  his  daugh- 
ter's eyes. 

In  writing  about  his  theories  of  the  lyric  drama,  Bruneau, 
who  was  regarded  as  a  promising  follower  of  Wagner,  used 
these  words:  "It  is  music  uniting  itself  intimately  to  the 
poetry  .  .  .  the  orchestra  comments  upon  the  inward 
thoughts  of  the  different  characters."  Wagnerian — but 
also  requiring  the  genius  of  a  Wagner. 

ARIANE  ET  BARBE-BLEUE 

Ariadne  and  Blue-Beard 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Paul  Dukas;  text  by  Maurice  Maeterlinck. 
Produced  in  New  York,  March  3,  191 1. 

Characters 

Blue-Beard Bass 

Ariane,  wife  of  Blue-Beard Soprano 

The  Nurse Contralto 

Selysette,  wife  of  Blue-Beard Mezzo-Soprano 

Ygraine,  wife  of  Blue-Beard Soprano 


76o  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

MfeLiSANDE,  wife  of  Blue-Beard Soprano 

Bellang^re,  wife  of  Blue-Beard Soprano 

Allaine,  wife  of  Blue-Beard Acting  Role 

An  Old  Peasant Bass 

Peasants  and  Mob 

Time — Middle  Ages.  Place — Blue-Beard's  Castle. 

Act  I.  Hall  in  Blue-Beard's  castle.  Ariane,  sixth  wife 
of  Blue-Beard,  is  warned  by  voices  of  the  crowd  outside  that 
Blue-Beard  has  already  murdered  five  wives.  Ariane  has 
seven  keys — six  of  silver  and  one  of  gold.  When  Ariane, 
intent  only  on  opening  the  forbidden  chamber,  throws 
down  the  six  silver  keys,  her  Nurse  picks  them  up.  With 
one  she  unlocks  the  first  door.  Instantly  amethysts  set  in 
diadems,  bracelets,  rings,  girdles,  fall  down  in  a  shower  on 
Ariane.  And  so,  to  her  joy,  as  door  after  door  swings  open, 
she  is  showered  with  sapphires,  pearls,  emeralds,  rubies,  and 
diamonds.  Now  Ariane  opens,  with  the  golden  key,  the 
seventh  door.  Darkness,  out  of  which  come  the  voices  of 
the  five  lost  wives.  Here  Ariane  is  surprised  by  Blue-Beard, 
who  lays  hold  of  her.  The  crowd,  admitted  by  the  Nurse, 
rush  in  to  kill  Blue-Beard,  but  are  told  by  Ariane  that  he  has 
not  harmed  her. 

Act  II.  A  subterranean  hall.  Ariane  descends  with  the 
Nurse  into  the  depths  of  the  blackness  on  which  the  seventh 
door  opened.  There  she  finds  the  five  wives  still  alive  but 
emaciated  and  in  rags.  She  tells  them  that  she  has  obeyed 
a  higher  law  ithan  Blue-Beard's,  and  that  outside  birds  are 
singing  and  the  sun  is  shining.  A  jet  of  water  extinguishes 
Ariane' s  light,  but  she  is  not  fearful.  She  leads  the  five 
toward  a  radiant  spot  at  the  end  of  the  vault.  She  throws 
herself  against  the  barred  wall.  It  gives  away.  The  sun- 
light streams  in.  Blinded  at  first  by  its  brilliance,  the  five 
wives  finally  come  out  of  the  vault  and  go  off  singing 
joyously. 

Act  III.     Same  as  Act  I.     The  wives  are  adorning  them- 


Modern  French  Opera  761 

selves  with  the  help  of  Ariane.  She  urges  them  to  make 
the  best  use  of  their  gifts.  Blue-Beard  is  approaching.  The 
people  are  lying  in  wait  for  him.  The  wives  watch  his 
capture.  Bound  and  wounded,  he  is  brought  in.  But  to 
the  astonishment  of  all  A  riane  bandages  his  wounds  and  the 
others  help  her.  Then  she  cuts  the  cords  and  frees  him,  but 
herself  departs,  although  Blue-Beard  pleads  with  her  to 
remain.  But  when  she  in  turn  implores  the  five  wives  to 
go  with  her,  they  decline,  and  she  leaves  them  in  the  castle. 
The  allegory  in  this  tale  is  that  five  out  of  six  women 
prefer  captivity  (with  a  man)  to  freedom  without  him. 
The  opera  has  not  been  popular  in  this  country. 

MONNA  VANNA 

Henry  Fevrier's  "Monna  Vanna"  was  first  sung  in  New 
York  in  1914  by  Mary  Garden  and  Lucien  Muratore.  The 
opera  is  based  upon  Maeterlinck's  play  in  which  Monna 
Vanna  to  save  the  starving  Pisans  goes  to  Prinzivalle's  tent 
clad  only  in  a  cloak  and  her  long  hair.  The  commander 
of  the  besieging  army  does  not  profit  by  the  bargain,  but 
treats  her  with  the  utmost  respect  while  he  discourses 
eloquently  of  his  youthful  love.  The  music  is  as  common- 
place as  that  of  this  composer's  other  opera,  "Gismonda." 

GISMONDA 

Opera  in  four  acts  by  Henri  F^vrier  with  a  libretto  based 
on  Sardou's  famous  play  had  its  first  performance  in  Amer- 
ica in  Chicago,  January  14,  1919,  with  Miss  Mary  Garden, 
Charles  Fontaine,  Gustave  Huberdeau,  Marcel  Journet,  and 
other  members  of  the  Chicago  Opera  Company  in  the  lead- 
ing rdles.  The  opera  was  given  on  the  opening  night  of  the 
same  organization's  season  in  New  York,  January  27, 1919, 
at  the  Lexington  Theatre  with  the  same  cast. 

The  story  follows  that  of  the  play.     Gismonda,  Duchess 


762  The  Complete  Opera  Bock 

of  Athens,  promises  to  wed  the  man  who  succeeds  in  rescuing 
her  Httle  son  from  a  tiger's  pit,  into  which  he  has  been  pushed 
by  a  conspirator  who  wishes  to  help  Zacaria  Franco  to  seize 
the  Duchy.  Almerio,  a  young  falconer,  kills  the  beast  and 
saves  the  child.  But  the  proud  though  grateful  Duchess 
will  not  consider  a  peasant  for  her  husband. 

If  Almerio  will  renounce  his  claim  Gismonda  promises  to 
spend  a  night  at  his  hut.  When  she  discovers  that  Zacaria 
has  followed  her  she  slays  him.  Almerio  takes  the  guilt 
for  the  murder  upon  himself  but  Gismonda  makes  public 
confession  of  her  visit  to  his  hut,  hands  over  the  wicked 
Gregorez,  who  had  attempted  to  murder  her  little  son,  to 
justice,  and  proclaims  the  falconer  her  lord  and  husband. 

MAROUF,  THE  COBBLER  OF  CAIRO 

"Marouf"  was  sung  for  the  first  time  in  America  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  December  19,  191 7,  with  Fran- 
ces Alda,  Kathleen  Howard,  Leon  Rothier,  Andres  de 
Segurola,  Thomas  Chalmers,  and  Giuseppe  de  Luca  as  the 
Cobbler,  in  the  cast.     Pierre  Monteux  conducted. 

Marouf  is  unhappy  at  home.  His  wife,  Fatimah  is  ugly 
and  has  a  bad  disposition.  When  she  asked  for  rice  cake, 
sweetened  with  honey,  and  thanks  to  his  friend  the  pastry 
cook,  Marouf  brought  her  cake  sweetened  with  cane  sugar 
instead,  she  flew  into  a  rage  and  ran  to  tell  the  Cadi  that  her 
husband  beat  her.  The  credulous  Cadi  orders  the  Cobbler 
thrashed  by  the  police,  in  spite  of  protesting  neighbours. 
Marouf,  disgusted,  decides  to  disappear.  He  joins  a  party 
of  passing  sailors.  A  tempest  wrecks  the  ship.  He  alone 
is  saved.  Ali,  his  friend,  whom  he  has  not  seen  for  twenty 
years  and  who  has  become  rich  in  the  meantime,  picks 
him  up  on  the  shore  and  takes  him  to  the  great  city  of 
Khaltan,  "somewhere  between  China  and  Morocco." 
Marouf  is  presented  to  the  towns  people  as  the  richest  mer- 
chant in  the  world  who  has  a  wonderful  caravan  on  the  way. 


Modem  French  Opera  763 

He  is  accepted  everywhere  and  in  spite  of  the  doubting 
Vizier  the  Sultan  invites  him  to  his  palace.  Furthermore, 
he  offers  him  his  beautiful  daughter  as  a  bride.  For  forty- 
days  Marouf  lives  in  luxury  with  the  princess.  He  empties 
the  treasury  of  the  Sultan  who  consoles  himself  with 
thoughts  of  the  promised  caravan  which  must  soon  arrive. 
At  last  the  Princess  questions  Marouf  who  tells  the  truth. 
They  decide  upon  flight,  and  the  Princess  disguises  herself 
as  a  boy. 

At  an  oasis  in  the  desert  they  are  sheltered  by  a  poor 
peasant.  Marouf  seeks  to  repay  his  hospitality  by  a  turn 
at  his  plow.  The  implement  strikes  an  iron  ring  attached 
to  the  covering  of  a  subterreanean  chamber.  The  ring 
also  has  magic  power.  When  the  Princess  rubs  it  the  poor 
peasant  is  transformed  into  a  genii,  who  offers  his  services, 
and  discloses  a  hidden  treasure.  When  the  Sultan  and  his 
guards,  in  pursuit  of  the  fugitives,  appear  upon  the  scene, 
the  sounds  of  an  approaching  caravan  are  also  heard  in  the 
distance.  The  ruler  apologizes.  Marouf  and  the  Princess 
triumph.  The  doubting  Vizier  is  punished  with  a  hundred 
lashes. 

Henri  Rabaud,  composer  of  "Marouf,"  is  a  Parisian,  the 
son  of  a  professor  of  the  Conservatoire  of  which  he  is  also 
a  graduate. 

His  second  symphony  has  been  played  in  New  York.  He 
has  to  his  credit  a  string  quartet,  other  smaller  works,  and 
an  opera,  "La  Fille  de  Roland,"  which  was  given  some  years 
ago  at  the  Op^ra  Comique.  "Marouf"  was  produced  at 
that  theatre  in  the  spring  of  1914.  M.  Rabaud,  for  several 
years  conductor  at  the  Grand  Opera  and  the  Op^ra  Comique, 
was  called  to  America  in  191 8  to  be  the  conductor  of  the 
Boston  Symphony  Orchestra,  succeeding  Kark  Muck,  and 
Pierre  Monteux  who  filled  the  vacancy  for  a  few  weeks 
before  M.  Rabaud 's  arrival  from  France. 


764  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

LE   SAUTERIOT 

THE    GRASSHOPPER 

"Le  Sauteriot"  (Grasshopper)  by  Sylvio  Lazzari,  with  a 
libretto  by  Henri  Pierre  Roche  and  Martial  Perrier,  based 
on  E.  de  Keyserling's  drama  "Sacre  de  Printemps, "  is 
the  story  of  a  modern  Cinderella,  Orti,  who  lives  in  Lithu- 
ania. She  is  the  natural  daughter  of  Mikkel,  whose  wife 
Anna^  lies  dying  as  the  curtain  rises.  The  doctor  gives  Orti, 
or  Grasshopper  as  she  is  known ,  some  medicine  to  give 
the  patient  if  she  grows  worse.  Only  ten  drops  though, 
because  the  remedy  is  a  powerful  poison.  Anna's  old 
mother,  Trine,  tells  Orti  the  legend  of  the  mother  who 
prayed  that  she  might  die  in  place  of  her  baby,  and  whose 
prayer  was  granted.  Realizing  herself  despised  and  a 
drudge,  Orti  prays  to  die  instead  of  Anna. 

Grasshopper  is  secretly  in  love  with  Indrik.  But  he  has 
no  eyes  for  her.  All  his  attention  is  fixed  upon  Madda, 
MikkeVs  youngest  sister.  In  the  second  act  at  a  village 
festival,  Indrik,  who  has  quarrelled  with  Madda,  fights 
with  his  successor  in  her  affections,  Josef.  Orti  rushes 
in  and  seizes  Josefs  hand  as  he  is  about  to  slay  Hendrik. 
She  is  the  heroine  of  the  festival.  Hendrik  pays  court  to 
her  and  leads  her  to  believe  that  he  will  marry  her.  When 
a  few  days  later  she  discovers  that  he  has  gone  back  to 
Madda,  Grasshopper  commits  suicide. 

M.  Lazzari  of  Paris  is  by  birth  a  Tyrolean,  whose  father 
was  an  Italian.  But  the  composer  has  spent  most  of  his 
life  in  Paris.  He  entered  the  Conservatoire  at  twenty-four, 
where  his  teachers  were  Guiraud  and  Cesar  Franck.  His 
operas  " L'Ensorcelee "  and  "La  Lepreuse"  were  first  sung 
in  Paris.  "Le  Sauteriot"  would  also  have  had  its  first 
performance  there.     But  the  war  made  it  possible  for  Mr. 


Modem  French  Opera  765 

Campanini  to  acquire  it  for  Chicago.  It  was  presented  there 
on  the  closing  day  of  the  season,  January  19,  1918.  The 
Chicago  Opera  Company  gave  New  York  its  first  oppor- 
tunity to  hear  the  work  on  February  11,  191 8,  when  it  was 
conducted  by  the  composer. 

LA  REINE  FIAMMETTE 

QUEEN   FIAMMETTE 

"La  Reine  Fiammette,"  by  Xavier  Leroux,  with  a  libretto  adapted 
from  his  play  by  Catulle  Mend^s,  had  its  first  performance  in  America 
at  the  Metropohtan  Opera  House,  January  24,  1919.  The  cast  was  as 
follows: 

Characters 

Orlanda Geraldine  Farrar 

Danielo Hipolito  Lazaro 

Giorgio  d'Ast Adamo  Didur 

Cardinal  Sforza Leon  Rothier 

Pantasille Flora  Perini 

Mother  Agramente Kathleen  Howard 

ViOLiNE Kiltie  Beale 

Violette Lenore  Sparkes 

Viola Mary  Ellis 

PoMONE Marie  Tiffany 

MiCHELA Lenore  Sparkes 

Angioletta Mary  Ellis 

Chiarina Marye  Mattfeld 

Mary  Mellish 


I 


Two  Boys ,  _    .,  .    , 

Cecil  Arden 

Luc  AGNOLO Mario  Laurenti 

Castiglione Angelo  Bada 

CoRTEZ Albert  Reiss 

Cesano Giordano  Paltrinieri 

Vasari Pietro  Audisio 

Prosecutor Paolo  Ananian 

Phillis  White 


1 


Two  Novices ,  ^,    .  „,      .  , 

Vent  Warwick 

While  this  was  the  first  operatic  performance  of  Catulle 
Mend^'s  famous  work,  Charles  Dillingham  produced  the 


766  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

play  for  the  first  time  in  America  at  the  Hollis  Street  The- 
atre, Boston,  October  6,  1902,  with  Julia  Marlowe.  Paul 
Kester  made  the  English  adaptation.  The  late  Frank 
Worthing  appeared  as  Danielo.  Others  in  the  cast  were 
Frank  Reicher,  Albert  Bruning,  and  Arthur  Lawrence. 

The  story  takes  place  in  Italy  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
in  an  imaginary  Kingdom  of  Bologna,  whose  ruler  Queen 
Fiammette,  young  and  capricious,  has  chosen  as  her  consort 
Giorgio  d'Ast,  an  adventurer.  It  is  this  very  man  whom 
the  Papal  See  has  determined  to  elevate  to  the  throne  in 
place  of  the  madcap  Orlanda.  But  Cardinal  Sforza  is  not 
satisfied  with  the  mere  dethroning  of  Orlanda.  He  wishes 
her  to  be  assassinated,  and  goes  to  Bologna  to  hatch  the 
plot  for  her  doom.  The  Prince  Consort  agrees  to  play  his 
part  and  to  involve  several  young  courtiers  in  the  scheme. 
It  is  decided  to  slay  the  Queen  during  a  fete  at  her  palace. 

Danielo,  a  young  monk,  is  chosen  to  strike  the  blow.  The 
Cardinal  tells  him  that  after  indulging  in  a  passing  fancy 
for  his  brother,  the  Queen  has  had  the  youth  killed.  The 
monk  is  only  too  eager  for  revenge.  He  has  been  in  the 
habit  of  meeting  a  beautiful  woman,  whose  identity  is  un- 
known, at  a  convent.  This  is  none  other  than  Fiammette 
herself  who  uses  the  convent  for  her  gallantries.  Danielo 
confides  his  mission  of  vengeance  to  the  fair  unknown. 
But  when  he  recognizes  in  the  queen  the  woman  he  adores 
he  is  powerless  to  carry  out  his  intention  of  slaying  her. 
He  is  arrested  by  order  of  the  Cardinal  for  failing  to  keep 
his  pact.  The  Queen  signs  her  abdication  and  hopes  to  fly 
with  her  lover,  but  the  Cardinal  condemns  both  to  the 
headsman's  block. 

LE  CHEMINEAU 

THE    WAYFARER 

Opera  by  Xavier  Leroux  with  a  libretto  by  Jean  Richepin, 


Modern  French  Opera  767 

performed  for  the  first  time  in  Ameripa  at  New  Orleans  in 
1911. 

A  jovial  wayfarer  dallies  with  Toinetle,  one  of  the  pretty 
girls  working  on  a  farm  in  Normandy.  He  loves  her  and 
goes  his  way.  In  despair  Toinette  marries  Frangois.  The 
wayfarer's  child,  Toinet,  is  born.  Years  later  when  Frangois 
has  become  a  hopeless  invalid,  Toinet  woos  Aline  the  daugh- 
ter of  Pierre  a  surly  neighbour,  who  doubting  the  youth's 
origin  refuses  his  consent  to  the  match.  Suddenly  the  way- 
farer reappears.  Frangois  expires,  after  commending  Toin- 
ette to  the  care  of  her  former  lover.  But  the  call  of  the  open 
road  is  too  strong.  The  wayfarer  refuses  to  contemplate 
dbmesticity.  Once  more  he  takes  his  well-worn  hat  and  goes 
out  into  the  storm. 

LE  VIEIL  AIGLE 

THE    OLD   EAGLE 

Raoul  Gunsbourg  wrote  both  the  words  and  the  music 
for  his  one  act  lyric  drama,  "Le  Vieil  Aigle"  (The  Old 
Eagle),  which  was  first  produced  at  the  Opera  House  in 
Monte  Carlo,  February  13,  1909.  The  first  performance 
of  the  opera  in  New  York  was  given  by  the  Chicago  Opera 
Companyat  the  Lexington  Theatre  with  Georges  Baklanoff 
in  the  title  r61e,  supported  by  Yvonne  Gall,  Charles  Fon- 
taine, and  Desire  Defrere,  February  28,  1919. 

The  scene  of  the  story  is  a  rocky  coast  in  the  Crimea. 
The  time,  the  fourteenth  century.  The  Khan  Asvezel  Mos- 
lain  informs  his  son  Tolak,  who  has  just  returned  from  a 
successful  campaign  against  the  Russians,  that  great  pre- 
parations have  been  made  to  celebrate  his  return.  But 
the  young  man  is  sad  and  replies  that  he  only  seeks  forget- 
fulness  in  death.  He  asks  his  father  to  grant  him  the  dear- 
est wish  of  his  heart  and  confesses  his  love  for  the  Khan's 
favotuite  slave  Zina.     The  old  man  consents  to  give  her  to 


768  The  Connplete  Opera  Book 

his  son,  but  when  he  orders  the  girl  to  follow  Tolak  she 
refuses  to  do  so.  The  Khan  wishing  to  retain  his  son's  love 
throws  the  disobedient  slave  into  the  sea,  but  as  this  far 
from  restores  harmony  between  the  generations  the  old 
man  follows  her  to  her  watery  grave. 


Modem  German  and  Bohemian  Opera 

Wagner's  powerful  influence  upon  German  opera  produced  countless 
imitators.  For  some  reason  or  other  it  appeared  to  be  almost  impossible 
for  other  German  composers  to  assimilate  his  ideas  and  yet  impart 
originality  to  their  scores.  Among  those  who  took  his  works  for  a  model 
were  Peter  Cornelius,  Hermann  Goetz,  and  Carl  Goldmark. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  contribution  to  German  opera  during 
the  decade  that  followed  Wagner's  death  was  Humperdinck's  "Haensel 
und  Gretel."  Then  came  Richard  Strauss  with  his  "Feuersnot," 
"Salome,"  "Electra,"  and  "Der  Rosenkavalier." 

The  most  famous  representative  of  the  Bohemian  school  of  opera, 
which  is  closely  allied  to  the  German,  is  Smetana. 

ST.  ELIZABETH 

Operatic  version  of  Liszt's  "  Legend, "  made  by  Artur  Bodanzky,  from 
the  book  of  the  oratorio  by  Otto  Roquette.  Sung  in  English  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  January  3,  1918,  with  the  following  cast: 

Characters 

Elizabeth Florence  Boston 

Landgravine  Sophie Margarete  Matzenauer 

Landgrave  Ludwig Clarence  Whitehill 

Landgrave  Hermann Carl  Schlegel 

A  Hungarian  Magnate Basil  Ruysdael 

Seneschal Robert  Leonhardt 

Conductor,  Artur  Bodanzky 


T 


HE  dramatic  version  of  Liszt's  sacred  work  once  had 
sixty  performances  at  Prague. 
49  769 


770  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Although  the  score  of  "Saint  Elizabeth"  is  dedicated  to 
Wagner's  benefactor,  Ludwig  II.  of  Bavaria,  the  Grand 
Duke  Alexander  of  Weimar  was  responsible  for  the  fact 
that  Liszt  undertook  a  setting  of  a  poem  on  this  subject  by 
Otto  Roquette.  This  poem  was  inspired  by  a  series  of 
frescoes  by  Moritz  Schwind  at  the  Wartburg,  which  tells 
the  story  of  Elizabeth's  sad  life.  The  daughter  of  a  Hun- 
garian king  of  the  thirteenth  century,  she  was  brought  to  the 
Wartburg  at  the  age  of  four  and  betrothed  to  the  boy, 
Ludwig,  son  of  the  Landgrave  of  Thiu-ingia.  The  children 
were  reared  as  brother  and  sister,  and  at  seventeen  Elizabeth 
was  married  to  Ludwig  who  succeeded  to  the  throne. 

A  famine  came  upon  the  land.  Elizabeth  impoverished 
herself  by  helping  the  poor,  and  incurred  the  displeastu*e 
of  her  mother-in-law.  Forbidden  to  give  any  fiu-ther  aid  to 
the  victims  of  the  famine,  she  was  one  day  found  by  her 
husband  carrying  a  basket.  She  declared  that  it  was 
filled  with  flowers.  When  he  tore  it  from  her  hands  a 
miracle  had  happened,  and  the  bread  and  wine  had  changed 
into  roses.  Then  she  confessed  her  deception  which  was 
atoned  for  by  the  miracle.  The  two  after  offering  a  prayer 
of  thanksgiving  renew  their  vows. 

Soon  afterwards  Ludwig  joins  a  passing  procession  of 
crusaders.  He  is  killed  in  battle  with  the  Saracens  and  his 
wife  becomes  ruler  of  the  Wartburg.  Sophie,  her  mother- 
in-law,  plots  with  the  Seneschal  and  drives  Elizabeth  out 
with  her  children  into  a  storm.  She  finds  refuge  in  a  hospi- 
tal she  once  founded.  The  remainder  of  her  life  is  devoted 
to  assisting  the  helpless  and  the  poor.  The  closing  scene 
of  the  opera  shows  her  apotheosis. 

THE  BARBER  OF  BAGDAD 

Opera  in  two  acts.  Words  and  music  by  Peter  Cornelius.  Pro- 
duced: Weimar,  December  15,  1858. 


Modem  German  and  Bohemian  Opera     771 

Characters 

The  Caliph Baritone 

Baba  Mustapha,  a  cadi Tenor 

Margiana,  his  daughter Soprano 

BosTANA,  a  relative  of  the  cadi Mezzo-Soprano 

NuREDDiN Tenor 

The  Barber Bass 


Act  I.  Nureddin  is  ill,  very  ill  his  servants  say.  They 
must  know  very  little  of  such  youthful  illnesses.  Margiana 
calls  the  invalid  in  a  dream.  Margiana  is  the  medicine 
that  can  cure  him,  Margiana,  the  marvellously  glorious 
daughter  of  the  mighty  cadi,  Baba  Mustapha.  And  see 
how  health  reanimates  Nureddin'' s  limbs,  when  Bostana,  a 
relative  of  the  cadi,  approaches  and  brings  the  sweet  news 
that  Margiana  will  wait  for  her  lover  about  noon  when 
her  father  has  gone  to  prayers  in  the  mosque.  But  the 
latter,  in  order  to  appear  properly,  needs  above  everything 
else  a  barber.  And  Bostana  appoints — "O  knowest  thou, 
revered  one,  I  find  for  you  a  learned  one — the  greatest  of 
all  barbers,  Ahdu  Hassan  AH  Ebe  Bekar.  He  is  great  as  a 
barber,  a  giant  as  a  talker,  swift  his  razor,  a  thousand  times 
quicker  his  tongue." 

Act  II.  A  magnificent  room  in  the  cadi's  house.  What  a 
stirring,  harmonious  picture.  Margiana,  Bostana,  and  the 
cadi  rejoice:  "  He  comes!  he  comes!  oh,  delightful  pleasure. " 
Of  course  the  covetous  old  cadi  is  not  thinking  of  young 
Nureddin  but  of  the  rich  old  Selim  who  wants  to  have 
Margiana  for  his  wife.  A  mighty  chest  full  of  rich  gifts,  so 
he  announces.  But  the  cadi  goes  off  full  of  dignity  to 
prayers  in  the  mosqae.  And  now  Nureddin  comes.  How 
happy  the  couple  are.  But  is  not  that  the  barber  approach- 
ing with  his  love-song?  "O  Allah,  save  us  from  the  flood 
of  his  talk  " — no,  rather  save  us  from  the  cadi  who  suddenly 
Come§  back.    The  screams  of  a  servant,  whom  he  is  punish- 


772  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

ing  with  a  bastonade  by  his  own  hand,  announce  his  arrival. 
There  is  only  one  escape.  Quickly  the  chest  is  emptied 
and  Nureddin  gets  in.  Then  the  barber  with  Nureddin's 
servant.  Abdul  Hassan  AH  Ebe  Bekar  leaves  no  customers 
in  the  lurch.  He  who  screamed  can  only  be  Nureddin 
whom  the  furious  cadi  has  murdered.  Bostana  advises 
him  to  drag  forth  the  chest;  the  cadi  opposes.  The  wild 
clamour  brings,  in  crowds,  the  people  of  Bagdad  who  hear 
rumours  of  a  murder.  Finally  the  caliph  comes  too.  What 
is  in  the  chest?  Nureddin' s  corpse,  says  the  barber;  Mar  gl- 
and's dowry,  answers  the  cadi.  The  chest  is  opened.  The 
cadi  is  right,  for  Nureddin  is  not  a  corpse  but  only  in  a  swoon 
because  he  was  nearly  smothered,  but  he  is  without  doubt 
Margiana's  dowry  and  he  will  become  so  publicly.  A  cadi 
cannot  lightly  oppose  the  wish  of  a  caliph.  The  barber 
is  seized  but  is  ordered  by  the  caliph  to  be  taken  to  his 
palace  to  entertain  him  with  stories. 

THE  TAMING  OF  THE  SHREW 

Opera  in  four  acts;  libretto  adapted  by  Victor  Widmann  from  Shake- 
speare's comedy.     Music  by  Herman  Goetz. 

Characters 

Baptista Otto  Goritz 

Katharina •. Magarete  Ober 

BiANCA Marie  Rappold 

HoRTENSio Robert  Leonhardl 

LuCENTio Johannes  Sembach 

Petruchio Clarence  Whitehill 

Grumio Basil  Ruysdael 

.  A  Tailor Albert  Reiss 

Major  Domo Max  Block 

Housekeeper Marie  Mattfeld 

This   opera  was  produced  at  the   Metropolitan   Opera 
House  in  commemoration  of  Shakespeare  in  1 916.     It  was 


Modem  German  and  Bohemian  Opera     773 

first  sung  in  Mannheim  in  1874,  when  it  was  known  as  "  Die 
Widerspenstigen  Zachmung."  Mr.  Bodanzky  came  to 
conduct  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  from  that  city, 
and  the  New  York  performance  was  perhaps  the  result  of  a 
suggestion  made  by  him.  Widmann  in  his  libretto  brings 
into  prominence  the  wooing  of  Bianca  by  rival  suitors. 
This  is  done  to  give  relief  to  Petruchio's  blustering  and  to 
the  exhibitions  of  temper  by  the  Shrew.  The  librettist  also 
provides  his  own  introduction  which  includes  the  rival 
suitors,  a  chorus  of  angry  servants,  interested  women  on 
the  balcony,  and  Petruchio's  entrance.  The  second  act 
represents  Petruchio's  tempestuous  wooing.  In  the  third 
Bianca  is  courted  by  Lucentio  as  a  tutor  and  Hortensio  as  a 
musician.  The  wedding  party  returns  and  Petruchio 
makes  his  hasty  exit  bearing  his  sulky  bride.  Servants  and 
wedding  guests  provide  an  opportunity  for  chorus  music. 
The  tailor  is  introduced  and  Katharina  is  finally  tamed. 

THE  QUEEN  OF  SHEBA 

Opera  in  four  acts:  music  by  Karl  Goldmark;  text  by  G.  H.  Mosen« 
thai.     Produced:  Vienna,  March  lo,  1875. 

Characters 

King  Solomon Baritone 

Baal  Hanau,  the  palace  overseer Baritone 

Assad Tenor 

The  High  Priest Bass 

SuLAMiTH,  his  daughter Tenor 

The  Queen  of  Sheba ; Mezzo-soprano 

AsTAROTH,  her  slave Soprano 

Time — Tenth  Century  B.C.  Place — ^Jerusalem. 

Act  I.  In  Solomon's  magnificent  palace  everybody  is 
preparing  for  the  reception  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba.  But 
nobody  is  more  delighted  than  Sulamith,  the  daughter  of 
the  High  Priest.     Assad,  who  had  gone  to  meet  the  foreign 


774  The  Complete  Opera  Book      ^rit' 

queen,  returns.  Here  he  comes  already  into  the  hall. 
But  Assad,  growing  pale,  draws  back  before  his  betrothed. 
He  confesses  to  King  Solomon  that  he  has  not  yet  seen  the 
Queen  of  Sheba  but  at  a  certain  well  a  wonderful  woman 
favoured  him  with  her  love  and  since  then  his  mind  has  been 
confused.  The  King  consoles  the  young  man  by  telling  him 
that  God  will  permit  him  to  find  her  again.  Now  the  queen's 
train  approaches;  she  greets  Solomon  and  unveils  herself. 
Assad  rushes  toward  her.  What  does  the  young  man  want 
of  her?     She  does  not  know  him. 

Act  II.  The  queen  did  not  want  to  recognize  Assad 
but  the  woman  in  her  is  consumed  with  longing  for  him. 
He  comes  and  happy  love  unites  them.  Then  the  scene 
changes  and  shows  the  interior  of  the  Temple.  The  wed 
ding  of  A  ssad  and  Sulamith  is  about  to  be  solemnized.  Then, 
at  a  decisive  moment  the  queen  appears,  and  Assad  throws 
the  ring  on  the  floor  and  hurries  to  the  queen  as  if  the  deceit 
were  making  a  fool  of  him.  She  has  never  seen  him,  she 
declares  a  second  time.  Assad,  however,  who  has  offended 
the  Almighty,  has  incurred  the  penalty  of  death.  In  the 
meantime  Solomon,  who  is  examining  the  affair,  defers 
sentence. 

Act  III.  Solomon  is  alone  with  the  queen.  She  has  one 
request  to  make  of  him,  that  he  shall  release  Assad.  Why? 
He  is  nothing  to  her  but  she  wants  to  see  whether  the  king 
has  regard  for  his  guest.  And  Solomon  refuses  the  request 
of  the  deceitful  woman  who,  breathing  vengeance,  strides 
out  of  the  palace.  But  when  Sulamith  complains,  Solomon 
consoles  her.  Assad  will  shake  off  the  unworthy  chains. 
Far  away  on  the  borders  of  the  desert,  she  will  find  peace 
with  Assad. 

Act  IV.  Again  the  scene  changes.  On  the  border  of  the 
desert  stands  the  asylum  of  the  young  women  consecrated 
to  God  in  which  Sulamith  has  found  rest  from  the  deceitful 
world.     Assad  staggers  hither;  a  weary,   banished  man. 


Modem  German  and  Bohennian  Opera      775 

And  again  the  Queen  of  Sheba  appears  before  him  offering 
him  her  love.  But  he  flees  from  the  false  woman  for  whom 
he  had  sacrificed  Sulamith,  the  noble  one.  A  desert  storm 
arises,  burying  Assad  in  the  sand.  When  the  sky  becomes 
clear  again  Sulamith,  taking  a  walk  with  her  maidens,  finds 
her  lover.  She  pardons  the  dying  man  and  points  out  to 
him  the  eternal  joys  which  they  will  taste  together. 

THE  CRICKET  ON  THE  HEARTH 

Opera  in  three  acts,  by  Carl  Goldmark,  text  by  M.  Willner,  after  the 
story  by  Charles  Dickens.  Produced,  Berlin,  1896;  in  this  country, 
1910. 

Characters 

John Baritone 

Dot,  his  wife Soprano 

May Soprano 

Edward  Plummer Tenor 

Tackleton Basso 

The  Cricket Soprano 

Time — Early  Part  of  19th  Century :  Place — An  English  Village. 

Act  I.  Room  in  John's  house.  Invisible  chorus  of  elves. 
To  the  Cricket,  the  guiding  spirit  of  the  house,  Dot  confides 
her  secret.  She  hopes  soon  to  have  a  child,  May,  a  pretty 
young  girl,  a  toy  maker,  is  to  be  married  the  next  day  to 
Tackleton,  her  employer.  She  bemoans  her  fate.  She  still 
loves  Edward  Plummer,  who  disappeared  several  years 
before.  After  May's  departure  John  appears  with  Edward, 
disguised  as  a  sailor,  and  is  not  recognized  either  by  John 
or  the  villagers. 

Act  II.  A  garden.  May  and  Tackleton  are  supping 
together.  John  makes  Tackleton  jealous  of  the  stranger, 
Edward,  who,  seeing  that  May  is  only  marrying  Tackleton 
because  his  wealth  will  save  her  old  foster-father  from  want, 


776  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

reveals  his  identity  to  Dot.  Tackleton  now  makes  John 
jealous  of  Edward,  but  John  is  lulled  to  sleep  by  the  Cricket, 
and  dreams  of  himself  as  a  happy  father. 

Act  III.  May  resolves  to  be  true  to  Edward.  Recog- 
nizing him  (after  his  song,  " Hulla,  list  to  the  Seas"),  they 
drive  off  in  Tackleton' s  carriage.  John  is  told  of  Dot's 
secret.  Reconciliation,  with  the  Cricket  chirping  merrily. 
There  is  much  pretty  music  (for  instance,  the  quintet  on  the 
hearth  in  the  second  act,  and  Edward's  song),  which,  how- 
ever, has  not  sufficed  to  keep  the  piece  in  the  repertoire  in 
this  country. 

KONIGSKINDER 

kings'  children 

Opera  by  Engelbert  Humperdinck  with  a  libretto  by  Ernst  Rosmer. 
The  first  performance  on  any  stage  was  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  December  28,  1910,  with  the  following  cast: 

Der  Konigssohn Herman  Jadlowker 

Die  Gansemagd Geraldine  Farrar 

Der  Spielmann Otto  Goritz 

Die  Hexe Louise  Homer 

Der  Holzhacker Adamo  Didur 

Der  Besenbinder Albert  Reiss 

ZwEi  Kinder Edna  Walter  and  Lotta  Engel 

Der  Ratsalteste Marcel  Reiner 

Der  Wirt Antonio  Pini-Corsi 

Die  Wirtstochter Florence  Wickham 

Der  Schneider Julius  Bayer 

Die  Stallmagd Marie  Mattfeld 

Zwei  Torwachter Ernst  Mar  an  and  William  Hinshaw 

A  king's  daughter  forced  to  act  as  a  goose-girl  in  a  forest, 
by  an  old  witch  who  has  cast  a  spell  upon  her,  is  discovered 
and  loved  by  a  king's  son.  Though  she  returned  his  love 
and  would  gladly  go  with  him  she  finds  that  she  cannot 


Copyright  I  lupont 

\'aa  lJ\ck:  and  Mattfelt  as  Hansel  and  Gretel 


Modern  German  and  Bohemian  Opera    777 

break  the  spell  which  holds  her  a  prisoner  in  the  forest. 
Leaving  the  crown  at  her  feet  the  prince  continues  his 
wanderings.  No  sooner  has  he  gone  than  a  broom-maker 
and  a  wood-chopper  guided  by  a  wandering  minstrel  come 
to  the  witch's  hut.  They  are  ambassadors  from  the  city 
of  Hellabrunn  which  has  been  so  long  without  a  sovereign 
that  the  people  themselves  feel  sadly  in  need  of  a  govern- 
ment. The  ambassadors  ask  the  witch  who  this  ruler  shall 
be  and  by  what  signs  the  people  may  recognize  him.  The 
witch  answers  that  their  ruler  will  be  the  first  person  who 
enters  the  gates  of  the  city  after  the  bells  have  rung  the  hour 
of  noon  on  the  following  day,  which  is  the  day  of  the  festival 
of  Hella.  The  minstrel  notices  the  beautiful  goose-girl  and 
recognizes  her  to  be  of  royal  birth.  He  breaks  the  spell  of 
the  witch  and  forces  her  to  give  the  lovely  maiden  into  his 
keeping.  He  persuades  her  to  break  the  enchantment  and 
defy  the  evil  powers  by  which  she  has  been  bound. 

The  prince,  meanwhile,  is  at  Hellabrunn,  acting  as  a 
swineherd.  The  innkeeper's  daughter  loves  the  handsome 
young  man  but  he  proudly  repulses  her  advances.  He 
dreams  of  the  goose-girl.  The  innkeeper's  daughter  re- 
venges herself  by  proclaiming  him  a  thief.  As  he  is  about 
to  be  led  away  to  prison  the  bells  announce  the  hour  of  the 
festival,  and  the  gates  are  thrown  open  in  expectation  of 
the  new  ruler.  Through  the  gates  comes  the  goose-girl, 
wearing  her  wreath  of  flowers  and  followed  by  her  geese  and 
the  minstrel.  The  lovers  embrace.  But  only  the  minstrel 
and  a  little  child  recognize  their  royal  rank.  The  towns- 
people, thinking  that  their  sovereign  would  appear  in  royal 
regalia,  drive  the  kings'  children  from  the  city,  burn  the 
witch,  and  break  the  minstrel's  leg  on  a  wheel. 

The  two  lovers  lose  their  way  in  a  forest  as  the  snow  falls. 
They  both  die  of  a  poisoned  loaf  made  by  the  witch.  The 
children  of  Hellabrunn,  guided  by  a  bird,  find  them  buried 
under  the  same  tree  under  which  they  had  first  met. 


778       ^-qoThe  Complete  Opera  Book 

HAENSEL  UND  GRETEL 

A  fairy  opera  in  three  acts.  Music  by  Engelbert  Humperdinck. 
Book  by  Adelheid  Wette. 

The  first  act  represents  the  hut  of  a  broom-maker.  Haen- 
sel  is  binding  brooms  and  Gretel  is  knitting.  The  children 
romp,  quarrel,  and  make  up.  When  their  mother,  Gertrude, 
enters  she  is  angry  to  see  them  idle,  but  wishing  to  strike 
them,  she  upsets  a  pitcher  of  milk  instead.  With  all  hope 
of  supper  banished  she  sends  the  children  out  into  the  woods 
with  little  baskets  to  look  for  strawberries,  while  she  her- 
self, bemoaning  their  poverty,  sinks  exhausted  upon  a  chair 
and  falls  asleep.  A  riotous  song  announces  the  approach 
of  her  husband,  drunk  as  usual.  She  is  about  to  utter 
reproaches  when  she  notices  that  he  has  brought  sausages, 
bread  and  butter,  coffee — enough  for  a  feast.  He  tells  her 
that  he  has  had  good  luck  at  the  Kirmes  and  bids  her  pre- 
pare supper.  When  he  asks  for  the  children  he  is  horrified 
to  hear  that  they  have  been  sent  into  the  woods,  for  a  wicked 
fairy  lives  near  the  Ilsenstein  who  entices  children  to  bake 
them  in  her  oven  and  devour  them.  Both  parents  rush  off 
in  search  of  Haensel  and  Gretel. 

The  second  act  takes  place  near  the  Ilsenstein.  Haensel 
has  filled  his  basket  with  berries  and  Gretel  has  made  a 
wreath  with  which  her  brother  crowns  her.  Before  they 
realise  what  they  are  doing  the  children  eat  all  the  berries. 
Then  they  see  that  it  is  both  too  dark  to  look  for  any 
more  or  to  find  their  way  home.  Gretel  weeps  with  fear 
Haensel  comforts  her.  They  grow  sleepy.  The  sandman 
sprinkles  sand  into  their  eyes,  but  before  going  to  sleep  the 
children  are  careful  not  to  forget  their  evening  prayer. 
Fourteen  guardian  angels  are  seen  descending  the  heavenly 
ladder  to  protect  them. 

Morning  comes  with  the  third  act.  The  dew  fairy 
sprinkles  dew  on  the  children.     Suddenly  they  notice  a  little 


Modem  German  and  Bohemian  Opera    779 

house  made  of  cake  and  sugar.  They  start  to  break  off 
little  bits  when  a  voice  cries  out  from  within  and  the  witch 
opens  the  door.  She  throws  a  rope  around  Haensel's  throat, 
urging  them  both  to  enter.  Frightened,  they  try  to  escape, 
but  after  binding  them  with  a  magic  spell  she  imprisons 
Haensel  in  a  kennel,  she  forces  Gretel  to  go  into  the  house. 

When  sh»  believes  Haensel  to  be  asleep  she  turns  her 
attention  to  the  oven,  then  rides  around  the  house  on  her 
broom-stick.  When  she  alights  she  orders  Haensel  to  show 
her  his  finger.  But  it  is  still  thin  and  the  witch  orders  more 
food  for  him.  While  she  turns  her  back,  Gretel  seizing  the 
juniper  bough,  speaks  the  magic  words  and  breaks  her 
brother's  enchantment.  Then  the  witch  tells  Gretel  to  get 
into  the  oven  and  see  if  the  honey  cakes  are  done.  But 
Gretel  pretends  to  be  stupid  and  asks  her  to  show  her  how 
to  get  in.  Together  the  children  push  the  old  witch  into 
the  oven  and  slam  the  door.  The  oven  soon  falls  to  pieces. 
The  children  then  see  a  row  of  boys  and  girls  standing  stiffly 
against  the  house.  Gretel  breaks  the  spell  for  them  as  she 
had  done  for  Haensel.  There  is  general  rejoicing.  Ger- 
trude  and  Peter  now  appear,  the  old  witch  is  pulled  out  of 
the  ruined  oven  as  gigantic  honey  cake  and  everyone  on  the 
stage  joins  in  a  hymn  of  thanksgiving. 

THE  GOLDEN  CROSS 

Opera  in  two  acts.     Music  by  Brull;  text  by  H.  Mosenthal,  after  the 
French.     Produced:  Berlin,  December  22,  1875. 

Characters 

GoNTRAN  DE  l'Anery,  a  young  nobleman Tenor 

Colas,  an  innkeeper Baritone 

Christine,  his  sister Soprano 

Th^r^se,  his  bride Soprano 

Bombardon,  a  sergeant Bass 

Time — 1812.  Place — Melun,  near  Paris. 


78o  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Act  I.  The  town  of  Melun  is  suffering  heavily  from  the 
great  campaign  which  Napoleon  is  undertaking  against 
Russia  in  1812,  so  many  of  the  young  men  must  take  the 
field.  Among  the  hardest  hit  are  Therkse  and  Christine, 
the  first  a  bride,  the  other  a  beloved  sister.  Their  Colas  has 
been  taken  away ;  if  he  can  find  no  substitute  he  must  go  to 
the  war.  Sergeant  Bombardon,  who  is  to  tak^  away  the 
drafted  men,  is  already  in  town  with  his  soldiers.  At  the 
same  time  as  the  sergeant,  a  young  nobleman,  Gontran  de 
VAnery,  arrives.  He  hears  that  Christine  has  promised 
her  hand  to  the  man  who  goes  to  war  in  place  of  her 
brother.  She  will  give  him  a  golden  cross  and  when  he 
brings  it  back  will  be  his  bride.  But  no  one  has  the  de- 
sire to  expose  himself  to  the  hazards  of  war.  Then 
Gontran,  seized  by  a  violent  love,  decides  to  take 
Colas'  place.  Through  the  sergeant  he  sends  for  the  cross. 
Christine  does  not  know  who  has  offered  himself  for  her 
brother. 

Act  II.  Three  years  have  passed.  In  the  house  of  the 
inn  keeper  Colas,  now  as  brave  as  before,  having  been 
wounded  in  battle  with  the  invading  enemy,  Captain  Gon- 
tran finds  himself  received  as  a  severely  wounded  person. 
He  loves  his  nurse  Christine  with  all  his  heart  and  she  also  is 
attached  to  him.  He  even  has  a  claim  upon  her  as  having 
been  once  a  substitute  for  her  brother,  but  he  will  not  force 
her  affections,  and  besides,  he  no  longer  has  "the  golden 
cross. "  Christine  too  dare  not  follow  her  inclinations  for, 
as  Gontran  tells  her  that  it  was  he  who  went  to  the  war,  she 
would  offend  him  very  much  if  she,  true  to  her  oath,  should 
ask  for  the  cross.  This  also  reappears.  A  cripple,  in  whom 
one  would  scarcely  recognize  the  former  stalwart  Sergeant 
Bombardon,  is  the  bearer.  Christine's  heart  nearly  breaks, 
but  she  does  not  hesitate  to  keep  her  word.  But  no! 
Bombardon  is  not  an  impostor.  He  got  the  cross  from  a 
dying  man.     Yet,  who  is  this?     Dare  he  trust  his  eyes? 


Modem  German  and  Bohemisui  Opera    781 

The  man  whom  he  believed  dead  comes  out  of  the  house. 
It  is  Gontran.     What  happiness  for  the  two  lovers! 

VERSIEGELT 

SEALED   IN 

Opera  in  one  act  after  Raupach.  Music  by  Blech.  Words  by 
Richard  Batka  and  Pordes-Milo.  Produced:  Hamburg,  November 
4, 1908. 

Characters 

Braun,  a  burgomaster Baritone 

Else,  his  daughter Soprano 

Frau  Gertrud,  a  young  widow Mezzo-soprano 

Frau  Willmers Alto 

Bertel,  her  son,  a  court  clerk Tenor 

Lampe,  a  bailiflf Bass 

Time — 1830.  Place — A  small  German  town. 

In  the  centre  of  the  whole  scene  stands  a  sideboard. 
This  same  sideboard  belongs  to  Frau  Willmers  who  now 
comes  running  to  the  apartment  of  the  pretty  young  widow, 
Gertrud,  with  every  sign  of  agitation,  to  tell  her  that  the 
bailiff,  Lampe,  intends  to  seize  her  sideboard,  an  old  and 
valuable  heirloom.  The  biirgomaster  bears  her  ill  will 
because  her  son  Bertel  has  been  casting  eyes  at  his  daughter 
Else,  and  now  takes  occasion  to  inflict  on  her  this  dis- 
grace. To  escape  this  she  begs  her  lodger  the  favour  of 
taking  in  the  sideboard  for  her.  Frau  Gertrud  is  very  will- 
ing. She  has  a  grudge  against  the  burgomaster.  He  used 
to  call  on  her  almost  every  day,  and  Frau  Gertrud  allowed 
herself  to  hope  that  sometime  she  would  become  the  Frau 
burgomistress.  Nevertheless,  she  would  very  willingly 
accelerate  his  decision.  Scarcely  is  the  sideboard,  with  the 
help  of  a  neighbour,  happily  installed  at  Frau  Gertrudes 
than  Bertel,  Frau  Willmers'  son  and  the  burgomaster's 
daughter  Else  enter.     They  have  made  every  effort  to 


782  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

make  the  burgomaster  kindly  disposed  but  it  was  in  vain, 
But  as  the  couple  have  decided  not  to  give  up  each  other, 
they  have  come  to  Frau  Gertrud  to  beg  her  influence  with 
the  burgomaster.  When  she  thus  receives  confirmation  of 
her  suspicion  of  the  burgomaster's  liking  for  her,  she  natu- 
rally is  not  averse  to  the  role  of  match-maker.  Out  of  her 
beautiful  dreams  of  the  future  the  young  woman,  left  alone 
by  her  neighbours,  is  aroused  by  a  knock.  But  it  is  not  the 
burgomaster,  whom  she  secretly  expected,  but  the  bailiff, 
Lampe.  Loquacious,  conceited,  and  intrusive,  he  begins  by 
telling  her  all  his  merits  and  his  skill,  brings  greetings  to  the 
widow,  as  the  burgomaster  has  commissioned  him.  The 
sideboard  seems  to  him  very  suspicious.  So  now  he  will  go 
only  to  Frau  Willmers'  to  convince  himself  whether  his  sus- 
picion is  well  founded.  As  soon  as  he  has  gone  the  burgo- 
master comes.  He  also  makes  use  of  evasions  and  then 
,  confides  to  his  gentle  friend  the  anxieties  of  a  father.  It 
grieves  him  very  much  that  his  Else  loves  this  Bertel,  son  of 
his  bitterest  enemy,  who  is  now  dead.  Frau  Gertrud,  how- 
ever, interests  her  self  bravely  in  favour  of  her  proteges.  Her 
remark  that  the  burgomaster  surely  has  not  a  heart  of  stone, 
brings  him  nearer  to  realizing  his  own  condition.  Instead 
of  the  children  he  now  talks  of  himself.  First  he  is  seek- 
ing for  a  sign  that  she  means  well  by  him  with  her  advice. 
Soon  she  has  led  him  so  far  that  he  confesses  his  love  for 
her  and  begs  a  kiss.  The  twilight  that  has  begun  favours 
the  idyll.  Then  again  comes  the  trouble-maker  Lampe. 
Nothing  worse  can  happen  to  the  couple  than  to  be  dis- 
covered by  this  gossiper.  So  the  btirgomaster  must  hide  in 
order  to  save  his  own  and  Frau  Gertrudes  reputation.  But 
where?  There  is  nothing  better  than  the  empty  sideboard. 
Scarcely  has  the  somewhat  corpulent  burgomaster  fortu- 
nately concealed  himself  in  it  than  Lampe  enters  the  apart- 
ment and,  "In  the  name  of  the  authorities"  seals  up  the 
sideboard.     Unfortunately  the  burgomaster  in  his  hiding- 


Modem  German  and  Bohemiain  Opera    783 

place  finds  himself  not  so  quiet  as  caution  demanded.  The 
sound  does  not  escape  Lampe  and  his  evil  thoughts  scent 
here  something  very  improper.  Surely  there  is  a  lover  con- 
cealed in  the  sideboard,  and  he  goes  away  with  the  malicious 
idea  of  finding  the  burgomaster  to  tell  him  that  Frau  Ger- 
trud  is  not  the  right  sort  of  woman  for  him.  But  Frau 
Gertrud  is  sure  of  her  point  and,  as  Bertel  and  Else  also  come 
in  with  Frau  Willmers,  a  plot  is  soon  concocted  by  the  four 
so  that  the  happiness  of  everybody  will  result  from  this 
favovu-able  accident.  The  two  women  leave  the  young 
couple  alone  so  that  through  a  put-up  game  on  the  father 
ever},'thing  will  be  obtained.  Else  plays  the  lovesick  girl, 
Bertel  on  the  other  hand  the  virtuous  one  whose  respect  for 
the  burgomaster  knows  no  bounds.  So  he  refuses  to  accept 
Else's  love  against  the  will  of  her  father  and  she,  desperate, 
wants  to  run  away  when  a  voice  proceeds  from  the  side- 
board. Now  the  father  and  burgomaster  must  humbly 
beg  of  his  clerk  that  he  take  upon  himself  the  offence  of 
breaking  the  seal  and  letting  him  out  of  the  sideboard. 
Naturally,  the  first  takes  place  after  Else  has  dictated  the 
marriage  contract.  The  burgomaster,  who  at  all  hazards 
must  get  out  before  Lampe  comes  back,  consents  to  every- 
thing. Bertel  employs  his  profession  in  writing  out  the 
whole  contract  and  through  a  peephole  in  the  sideboard  the 
burgomaster  has  to  sign  it  before  the  door  is  finally  opened 
to  him.  But  he  makes  his  terms.  In  place  of  himself, 
Bertel  and  Else  must  enter  the  sideboard.  Naturally  they 
do  not  hesitate  long  and  they  are  for  the  first  time  together 
undisturbed  within  it.  The  burgomaster  has  concealed 
himself  in  the  next  room  when  the  two  women  come  back 
with  a  gay  company.  (The  following  very  indelicate  pas- 
sage, which  endangers  all  the  sympathy  of  the  audience  for 
Frau  Gertrud,  might  easily  be  cut  out.)  Frau  Gertrud  has 
brought  people  from  a  near-by  shooters'  festival  to  show 
them    the    trapped   burgomaster,    evidently    because   she 


784  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

believes  her  scheme  more  assvired  thus.  All  the  greater  is 
the  astonishment  when  the  young  couple  step  out  of 
the  opened  sideboard.  But  the  burgomaster  all  of  a 
sudden  appears  in  the  background.  Then  Frau  Gertrud 
cleverly  takes  everything  on  herself.  She  had  shut  up  the 
young  couple  in  it  and  had  spread  the  report  that  the  burgo- 
master was  concealed  in  it  in  order  that  he  might  be  affected 
by  it  and  could  no  longer  oppose  the  union  of  the  two  young 
people.  Surely  everything  is  solved  satisfactorily  when 
Lampe  arrives  with  every  sign  of  agitation.  He  has  not 
found  the  burgomaster,  and  Else  and  the  clerk  of  the  covut 
have  disappeared.  The  burgomaster  must  certainly  have 
been  murdered  by  the  clerk.  Lampe  rages  so  long  in  the 
excessive  indignation  of  his  official  power  that  he  himself  is 
shut  up  in  the  sideboard  and  the  others,  now  undisturbed, 
seal  their  compact  and  reseal  it. 

DER  TROMPETER  VON  SAKKINGEN 

THE    TRUMPETER    OF    SAKKINGEN 

Opera  in  three  acts  and  a  Prologue;  music  by  Viktor  E.  Nessler;  text 
by  Rudolf  Bunge  after  Viktor  von  Scheffel's  poem  with  the  same  title. 
Produced:  Leipzig,  May  4,  1884. 

Characters 

Werner  Kirchhofer Baritone 

K0NR.A.DIN,  a  peasant Bass 

The  Stewart Tenor 

The  Rector Bass 

Baron  von  Schonau Bass 

Maria,  his  daughter Soprano 

Count  von  Wildenstein Bass 

His  Divorced  Wife Alto 

Damian,  Count  von  Wildenstein's  son Tenor 

Prologue.  In  the  Heidelberg  palace  courtyard  there  is  a 
merry  company  of  students  and  peasants  gathered  in  a  drink- 


Modem  German  and  Bohemiain  Opera    785 

ing  bout.  The  enthusiasm  for  "Old  Heidelberg  the  fine" 
and  for  the  gay  life  of  a  cavalier  takes  on  such  a  noisy 
expression  that  the  steward  of  the  Rector's  wife  orders  them 
to  be  quiet.  Werner  Kirchhofer,  a  law  student,  leaps  on  a 
table,  the  peasant  Konradin  lends  him  his  trumpet  and  now 
there  echoes  forth  the  sweet  song  "which  once  the  Pals- 
grave Friedrich  sang"  in  honour  of  the  "Palsgravin,  the 
most  beautiful  of  women."  But  the  Rector  and  the  Senate 
entertain  other  views  of  the  nightly  noise  of  trumpets  and 
the  entire  body  of  students  is  expelled.  So  they  all  seek  to 
become  cavaliers. 

Act  I.  In  Sakkingen  a  great  festival  is  being  held, 
Fridolin's  day.  Peasants  from  the  suburbs  have  come  to 
town  for  it.  There  is  a  suspicious  agitation  among  them. 
Konradin  who  is  now  in  the  service  of  the  state  has  his 
hands  full  keeping  order.  What  happiness  when  he  sees 
his  old  comrade  Werner.  But  now  as  Maria,  daughter  of 
the  Baron  von  Schonau,  together  with  her  haughty  aunt, 
the  divorced  wife  of  Count  von  Wildenstein,  arrive  at  the 
church,  insurrection  breaks  out.  Who  knows  what  the 
peasants  would  not  have  done  to  the  ladies  had  not  Werner 
as  knightly  protector  sprung  between  them.  Love  at  first 
sight  seized  the  two  young  people.  (Change  of  scene.) 
Above  in  Schonau  castle  the  old  baron  is  again  tormented 
by  chills.  Serving  as  a  means  of  lessening  his  pain  comes  a 
letter  from  his  brother-in-law,  Count  von  Wildenstein,  who 
announces  that  he  is  coming  to  visit  him.  He  has  a  son, 
Damian,  who  would  be  just  the  right  husband  for  Schonau' s 
daughter  Maria.  Moreover  that  would  be  an  opportunity 
to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  between  the  count  and  his 
divorced  wife,  none  other  than  Maria's  aunt.  The  marri- 
age was  dissolved  and  their  son  was  once  stolen  by  gypsies. 
Damian  is  a  son  of  the  second  wife  of  Count  Von  Wilden- 
stein, who  is  dead.  Out  of  his  pleasant  thoughts  about  his 
future  son-in-law  and  protector  of  the  castle  in  these  evil 


786  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

days  the  Baron  is  frightened  by  the  reports  of  his  women 
about  the  uprising  of  the  peasants.  In  the  praise  that 
Maria  gives  to  the  brave  trumpeter  is  echoed  his  playing 
from  the  Rhine  to  here.  That  stirs  the  old  baron  like  an 
elixir  of  youth  in  his  bones.  The  trumpeter  is  summoned 
and  a  look  in  Maria's  love-warmed  eyes  is  enough  for  him  to 
accept  the  Baron's  offer  to  become  trumpeter  of  the  castle. 
Of  course  the  proximity  of  the  young  people  will  not  please 
the  aunt. 

Act  II.  That  they  love  each  other  both  already  long 
know  but  the  acknowledgment  nevertheless  would  be  very 
beautiful.  But  the  old  aunt  is  always  at  hand  especially  at 
the  music  lessons  which  Werner  gives  to  the  young  woman. 
A  real  piece  of  luck  that  Konradin  is  coming  to-day  to  the 
castle  to  bring  wine  for  the  May  festival.  He  knows  how 
to  arrange  it  so  that  the  old  woman  must  go  to  the  wine 
cellar.  Now  it  is  all  over  with  pride.  Maria  lies  in  the 
arms  of  the  humble  trumpeter.  Unfortunately,  the  old 
aunt  comes  back.  She  is  not  moved  by  their  prayers,  but 
tells  all  about  it  to  the  excited  Baron.  Nothing  helps,  the 
trumpeter  must  leave  the  house.  Maria's  bridegroom  is 
already  chosen.  At  to-day's  May  festival  he  will  take  part. 
Damian  is  certainly  stupid  enough  but  that  does  not  help 
the  lovers.  "Would  to  God  that  it  had  not  been  so  beauti- 
ful, would  to  God  it  had  not  been!" 

Act  III.  But  Damian  is  not  only  stupid,  he  is  also  a 
miserable  coward.  That  is  shown  as  it  now  behooves  him 
to  defend  Baron  von  Schonau's  castle  against  the  revolted 
peasants.  The  knights  there  would  have  been  lost  had  not 
relief  suddenly  come.  It  is  Werner  who  arrives  with  a  troop 
of  country  people.  Maria  flees  to  her  lover's  arms.  But 
alas,  he  is  wounded  in  the  arm.  And  what  is  that?  That 
mole?  The  old  Countess  Wildenstein  recognizes  in  the 
trumpeter  her  son,  whom  the  gypsies  once  stole.  Now 
naturally  there  is  nothing  in  the  way  of  the  union.     Now 


Modem  GermeLn  and  Bohemian  Opera    787 

"young  Werner  is  the  happiest  man"  and  who  can  deny 
that  "Love  and  trumpet  sounds  are  very  useful,  good 
things. " 

DER  EVANGELIMANN 

THE   EVANGELIST 

Music-drama  in  two  acts  by  Wilhelm  Kienzl;  text  by  the  composer 
after  a  tale  by  L.  F.  Meissner.     Produced:  Berlin,  May  4,  1895. 

Characters 

Friedrich  Engel Bass 

Martha,  his  niece Soprano 

Magdalena,  her  friend Alto 

Johannes  Freudhofer,  teacher  at  St.  Othmar's Baritone 

Matthias  Freudhofer,  his  brother,  actuary  in  a  monastery .  . .  Tenor 
ZiTTERBART,  a  tailor  and  other  artisans Tenor 

Act  I.  The  feelings  in  the  breast  of  Johannes  Freud- 
hofer, the  teacher,  do  not  correspond  to  the  peaceful  spec- 
tacle of  the  monastery  of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St. 
Othmar.  He  is  filled  "with  a  savage  jealousy  of  his  own 
brother,  Matthias,  who  is  actuary  in  the  monastery,  because 
he  sees  that  the  affections  of  Martha,  the  beautiful  niece  of 
Engel,  the  steward  of  the  monastery,  are  denied  him.  He 
thinks  to  injure  his  brother  when  he  betrays  the  latter's 
love  to  the  haughty  steward.  And  the  latter  actually 
dismisses  Matthias  from  his  office.  But  with  this  Johannes 
has  not  attained  his  object.  For  he  himself  can  spy  on 
them  and  see  the  two  plighting  eternal  faithfulness  on  his 
secret  departure.  So  the  treacherous  man  resolved  upon  the 
complete  ruin  of  the  lovers.  He  sets  fire  to  the  monastery. 
Matthias,  who  is  tarrying  in  the  arbour  beside  his  sweetheart 
hiuries  out  to  get  help,  but  is  seized  by  the  other  as  the 
incendiary  out  of  revenge 

Act  II.  Thirty  years  have  elapsed.  In  the  courtyard  of  a 
house  in  Vienna,  Magdalena  meets  an  evangelist  in  whom 


788  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

she  recognizes  Matthias,  the  friend  of  her  youth.  She  her- 
self is  here  caring  for  Johannes  who  is  ill.  How  has  Mat- 
thias become  an  evangelist?  He  tells  her  his  sad  history. 
He  had  been  sentenced  to  prison  for  twenty  years.  When 
he  had  finished  his  punishment  he  learned  that  his  sweet- 
heart Martha  out  of  grief  had  sought  death  in  the  water. 
Then  he  had  become  a  wandering,  singing  preacher. 

Second  Part.  In  the  sitting-room,  Johannes  lies  ill. 
But  more  than  pain  disturbs  his  mind.  Then  he  hears 
outside  the  voice  of  the  evangelist.  Magdalena  must  call 
him  in.  Without  recognizing  him  Johannes  tells  his 
brother  of  the  infamous  action  through  which  he  had 
ruined  the  other's  life.  And  Matthias  not  only  preaches 
love  but  practices  it  too.  He  forgives  his  brother  who  now 
can  die  in  peace. 

DER  KUHREIGEN 

RANZ    DES    VACHES 

Music-drama  in  three  acts;  music  by  Wilhelm  Kienzl;  poem  by  Rich- 
ard Batka. 

Characters 

The  King Bass 

Marquis  Massimelle,  commandant Bass 

Bl.anchefleur,  his  wife Soprano 

Cleo,  their  lady  at  court Mezzo-soprano 

Captain  Brayole Tenor 

Primus  Thallus Tenor 

Dursel  {Bass)  and  under  officers  in  a  Swiss  regiment 

Favart,  under-officer  of  Chasseurs Baritone 

Doris,  daughter  of  the  keeper  of  a  canteen  in  the  St. 

Honore  barracks Soprano 

Time — 1792-3  Place — Paris  and  Versailles. 

Act  I.  Barracks  of  St.  Honor^.  Under  penalty  of  death 
the  Swiss  soldiers  have  been  forbidden  to  sing  their  native 


Modem  German  and  Bohemiaoi  Opera    789 

songs  especially  the  Kuhreigen  or ' '  Ranz  des  Vaches , ' '  because 
songs  of  their  native  land  always  awakened  homesickness 
and  had  led  to  desertions.  But  a  quarrel  between  Primus 
Thallus,  of  the  Swiss,  and  Favart,  of  the  Chasseurs,  excites 
the  Swiss  and  they  sing  "In  the  fort  at  Strassburg* '  (Zu  Strass- 
burg  auf  der  Schanz)  the  song  of  the  Swiss  who  became  a 
deserter  through  homesickness,  the  song  which  was  for- 
bidden by  such  a  severe  decree,  especially  because  it  intro- 
duced the  Kuhreigen  or  "  Ranz  des  Vaches."  Then  Favart 
believed  the  moment  had  come  to  be  able  to  avenge  himself. 
He  quickly  called  an  officer  to  hear  the  forbidden  song.  The 
officer  first  wants  to  arrest  all  the  Swiss,  but  Primus  Thallus 
takes  all  the  blame  on  himself;  he  is  glad  to  prevent  the 
others  being  imprisoned. 

Act  II.  In  the  King's  bedroom  at  Versailles  the  cere- 
mony of  the  royal  levee  is  taking  place.  This  medley  of 
laughable  ceremonial  and  the  practice  of  the  highest  refine- 
ment makes  a  sharp  contrast  with  the  wild  ferment  and 
discontent  among  the  people,  of  which,  however,  no  one 
hears  anything  in  these  rooms  and  will  know  nothing.  So 
the  commandant  Massimelle  is  among  those  waiting  because 
he  has  to  lay  before  the  King  the  death  sentence  on  the 
unsubdued  Swiss.  Naturally  the  King  thinks  nothing 
about  bringing  an  obsolete  law  into  force  again,  and  leaves 
the  decision  to  Massimelle' s  wife,  Blanchefleur .  She  begs 
Thallus' s  life  for  herself  and  wants  to  learn  the  fellow  man- 
ners in  her  service.  Silly  as  are  the  thoughts  of  this  whole 
company,  so  also  are  those  of  Blanchefleur.  Through  a 
whim  she  has  obtained  the  release  of  the  young  Swiss,  now 
she  wants  as  a  reward  to  have  diversion  with  him.  The 
high  authorities  already  are  glad  to  play  shepherds  and 
shepherdesses;  what  would  happen  if  they  could  have  a  real 
Swiss  as  a  shepherd!  Cleo,  the  court  lady,  is  perfectly 
delighted  with  the  idea  and  awaits  with  enjoyment  the  play 
in  which  Primus  Thallus  shall  appear  with  Blanchefleur. 


790  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

But  the  play  takes  a  serious  turn,  Primus  Thallus  sees  no 
joke  in  the  thing.  To  him,  Blanchefleur  appears  as  the 
image  of  his  dreams,  and  yet  he  knows  that  this  dream 
never  can  be  a  reality,  at  least  not  for  a  man  to  whom,  as 
to  this  Swiss,  love  is  not  merely  a  form  of  amusement  in 
life.  So  Blanchefleur  has  to  give  up  her  shepherd's  dream 
and  let  Primus  Thallus  withdraw. 

Act  III.  The  earnest  man  is  very  quickly  drawn  in. 
In  the  ruined  dining-hall  of  the  palace  of  Massimelle,  the 
sans-culottes  are  lodged.  Favart,  under  whose  direction  the 
castle  has  been  stormed,  is  vexed  at  his  report  for  which 
Doris,  his  sweetheart,  and  the  others  with  their  wild  drink- 
ing and  quarrelling  scarcely  leave  him  the  possibility.  By 
chance  the  half-drunken  men  discover  a  secret  door.  They 
go  down  into  the  passage  and  drag  out  Blanchefleur  who 
had  concealed  herself  there.  Favart  wants  her  to  play  for 
the  men,  but  he  cannot  prevail  upon  her  to  do  it.  With  her 
graceful,  distinguished  air  she  refuses  to  have  anything  to  do 
with  the  dirty,  uncivilized  men  and  smilingly  allows  herself 
to  be  condemned  to  death  and  led  away  to  the  frightful 
prison  of  the  Temple.  Hardly  has  she  gone  than  Primus 
Thallus  enters.  He  has  been  promoted  by  the  Directory  to 
be  a  captain  as  a  reward  because  he  has  often  been  threat- 
ened with  death  by  the  royalists.  His  great  courage  cer- 
tainly makes  an  impression  on  these  savage  troops,  but  as 
Massimelle  outside  is  being  led  to  the  scaffold  and  he  learns 
of  the  arrest  of  Blanchefleur  only  one  thought  rules  him — to 
save  the  beautiful  woman. 

The  scene  changes  to  the  underground  prison  of  the 
Temple.  One  can  hardly  recognize  the  figure  of  Primus 
Thallus  who  presents  himself  here,  but  one  must  admit  of 
these  aristocrats  that  while  they  know  how  to  live  laugh- 
ingly they  also  know  how  to  die  with  a  smile.  While 
without  the  guillotine  is  fulfilling  its  awful  task  uninter- 
ruptedly, they  are  dancing  and  playing  here  underneath 


Modern  Gerxnaoi  eind  Bohemiein  Opera    791 

as  though  these  were  still  the  gayest  days  of  the  King's 
delights  at  Versailles.  In  vain  Primus  Thallus  uses  all  his 
eloquence  to  persuade  Blanchefleur  to  flee  or  to  give  him  her 
hand  because  then  he  could  obtain  a  pardon.  She  has  only 
one  reward  for  his  faithfulness:  a  dance.  Then  when  her 
name  is  called  she  dances  with  a  light  minuet  step  to  the 
scaffold. 

LOBETANZ 

Opera  in  three  acts;  music  by  Ludwig  Thuille;  text  by  Otto  Julius 
Bierbaum.     Produced:  Carlsruhe,  February  6,  1898. 

Characters 

LoBETANZ Tenor 

The  Princess Mezzo-soprano 

The  King Bass 

The  Forester,  the  executioner,  the  judge Speaking  parts 

A  Travelling  Student Tenor 

Act  I.  This  play  takes  place  somewhere  and  somewhen 
but  begins  in  a  blooming  garden  in  spring.  And  the  most 
fragrant  flowers  in  the  garden  are  the  lovely  girls  that  play  in 
it.  Take  care,  Lobetanz;  take  care!  Now  that  you  have 
leaped  over  the  wall  into  the  garden,  still  take  care !  You 
are  a  travelling  singer,  your  clothes  are  tattered;  but  you 
are  a  magnificent  fellow  and  sing  as  only  a  bird  can  sing  or  a 
fellow  who  knows  nothing  about  the  illness  of  the  Princess. 
What  is  the  matter  with  her  then?  She  no  longer  laughs 
as  she  once  did,  her  cheeks  are  pale,  she  no  longer  sings 
but  sighs.  "Alas!"  Oh,  the  maidens  know  what  is  the 
matter  with  her  but  no  one  asks  the  maidens.  The  poet 
laiu-eate  today  at  the  festival  of  the  Early  Rose  Day  will 
announce  what  is  the  matter  with  the  child  of  the  King. 
And  the  King  is  coming,  the  princess  and  the  people.  And 
the  poets  proudly  strut  in  and  make  known  their  wisdom. 


792     r-iciO  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

But  that  does  not  help.  Now  the  sound  of  a  violin  is  heard. 
How  the  Princess  listens  and  now  the  player  comes 
before  her  and  fiddles  and  sings  and  the  maid  revives. 
Roses  bloom  on  her  cheeks;  her  eyes  shine  in  looking  at 
the  violinist  who  is  singing  of  the  morning  in  May  when 
they  kissed  each  other,  innocently  dear,  and  played  "bride- 
groom and  bride."  You  must  flee,  Lobetanz,  flee;  that 
is  magic  with  which  you  are  subduing  the  child  of  the 
King. 

Act  II.  Spring  has  awakened  your  heart,  you  happy 
singer,  and  has  brought  to  life  what  was  asleep  deep  within 
you.  Now  you  may  dream  of  what  will  be.  And  see,  she 
comes  to  you,  the  sick  Princess,  to  be  restored  to  health  by 
you.  And  she  sits  there  by  you  in  the  branch  of  a  linden 
tree.  But  alas,  alas !  The  King  and  his  hunting  train  are 
suddenly  there  and  all  things  have  an  end. 

Act  III.  In  a  dungeon  sits  the  bird  once  so  gay.  For 
"dead,  dead,  dead  must  he  be  and  so  slip  with  hurrahs  into 
the  infernal  abode. "  And  they  lead  you  to  the  gallows  and 
tell  you  your  sentence.  And  the  King  and  the  people,  the 
envious  singers  and  the  Princess  sick  unto  death  on  her  bier 
are  all  there.  Now  choose  your  last  present,  you  poor 
gallows  bird.  So  let  me  once  more  sing.  And,  "see,  Oh 
see,  how  the  delicate  face  is  covered  with  a  rosy  glow. "  He 
is  singing  her  back  to  life,  the  lovely  Princess,  until  finally 
she  flees  to  his  arms:  "Thou  art  mine!"  Now  leave  the 
gallows,  there  is  a  wedding  today.  "A  great  magician  is 
Lobetanz,  let  the  couple  only  look,  the  gallows  shine  with 
luck  and  lustre;  spring  has  done  wonders." 

DER  CORREGIDOR 

THE   MAGISTRATE 

Opera  in  four  acts;  music  by  Hu§o  Wolf;  text  by  Rosa  Mayreder- 
Obermayer.     Produced:  Mannheim,  June  7,  1896. 


Modem  German  askd  Bohemiaoi  Opera    793 

Characters 

The  Corregidor  (magistrate) Tenor 

Dona  Mercedes,  his  wife Soprano 

Repela,  his  valet Bass 

Tio  Lucas,  a  miller Baritone 

Frasquita,  his  wife Mezzo-soprano 

Juan  Lopez,  the  alcalde Bass 

Pedro,  his  secretary Tenor 

Manuela,  a  maid Mezzo-soprano 

ToNUELO,  a  court  messenger Bass 

Act  I.  The  miller,  Tio  Lucas,  is  living  a  happy  life  with 
his  beautiful  wife,  Frasquita.  Her  love  is  so  true  that 
jealousy,  to  which  he  is  inclined,  cannot  thrive.  Jealous? 
Yes,  he  has  a  bump  of  jealousy.  True,  the  Corregidor,  who 
eagerly  concerns  him  about  the  miller's  pretty  wife,  has  one 
too.  But  no  matter,  he  is  a  high,  very  influential  function- 
ary. Meanwhile  Frasquita  loves  her  Tio  Lucas  so  truly 
that  she  can  even  allow  herself  a  dance  with  the  Corregidor. 
Perhaps  she  will  cure  him  so,  perhaps  she  will  obtain  in 
addition  the  wished-for  official  place  for  her  nephew.  The 
Corregidor  too  does  not  keep  her  waiting  long  and  Frasquita 
makes  him  so  much  in  love  with  her  that  he  becomes  very 
impetuous.  Thereupon  he  loses  his  balance  and  the  worthy 
official  falls  in  the  dust,  out  of  which  the  miller,  without 
suspecting  anything,  raises  him  up.  But  the  Corregidor 
swears  revenge. 

Act  II.  The  opportunity  for  this  comes  very  quickly. 
As  the  miller  one  evening  is  sitting  with  his  wife  in  their 
cozy  room,  there  comes  a  knock  at  the  door.  It  is  the 
drunken  court  messenger,  Tonuelo,  who  produces  a  warrant 
of  arrest.  Tio  Lucas  must  follow  him  without  delay  to 
the  alcalde  who  has  lent  himself  as  a  willing  instrument  to 
the  Corregidor.  Frasquita  is  trying  to  calm  her  anxiety 
with  a  song  when  outside  there  is  a  cry  for  help.  She  opens 
the  door  and  before  it  stands  the  Corregidor  dripping  with 


794  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

water.  He  had  fallen  in  the  brook.  Now  he  begs  admis- 
sion from  Frasquita  who  is  raging  with  anger.  He  has 
also  brought  with  him  the  appointment  of  the  nephew. 
But  the  angry  woman  will  pay  no  attention  and  sends  the 
Corregidor  away  from  her  threshold.  Then  he  falls  in  a 
swoon.  His  own  servant  now  comes  along.  Frasquita 
admits  both  of  them  to  the  house  and  herself  goes  into 
town  to  look  for  her  Tio  Lucas.  When  the  Corregidor, 
awakened  out  of  his  swoon,  hears  this,  full  of  anxiety,  he 
sends  his  valet  after  her ;  he  himself,  however,  hangs  his  wet 
clothes  before  the  fire  and  goes  to  bed  in  the  miller's  bed- 
room. 

(Change  of  scene.)  In  the  meantime  Tio  Lucas  has  drunk 
under  the  table  the  alcalde  and  his  fine  comrades  and  seizes 
the  occasion  to  flee. 

Act  III.  In  the  darkness  of  the  night,  Tio  Lu^as  and 
Frasquita  pass  by  without  seeing  each  other.  The  miller 
comes  to  his  mill.  (Change  of  scene.)  Everything  is  open. 
In  the  dust  lies  the  appointment  of  the  nephew;  before  the 
fire  hang  the  Corregidor' s  clothes.  A  frightful  suspicion 
arises  in  Tio  Lucas's  mind  which  becomes  certainty  when 
through  the  keyhole  he  sees  the  Corregidor  in  his  own  bed. 
He  is  already  groping  for  his  rifle  to  shoot  the  seducer  and 
the  faithless  woman  when  another  thought  strikes  him. 
The  Corregidor  also  has  a  wife,  a  beautiful  wife.  Here  the 
Corregidor' s  clothes  are  hanging.  He  quickly  slips  into 
them  and  goes  back  to  town.  In  the  meantime  the  Cor- 
regidor has  awakened.  He  wants  to  go  back  home  now. 
But  he  does  not  find  his  clothes  and  so  he  crawls  into  those 
of  the  miller.  Thus  he  is  almost  arrested  by  the  alcalde 
who  now  enters  with  his  companions  and  Frasquita.  When 
the  misunderstanding  is  cleared  up,  they  all  go  with  different 
feelings  into  the  town  after  the  miller. 

Act  IV.  Now  comes  the  explanation  and  the  punish- 
ment of  the  Corregidor,  at  least  in  so  far  as  he  receives  a 


Modem  German  and  Bohemiain  Opera    795 

sound  thrashing  and  becomes  really  humbled.  In  reality 
the  miller  also  has  not  yet  had  his  "revenge,"  but  he  is 
recognized  and  likewise  is  beaten  blue.  That  he  must 
suffer  in  reparation  for  his  doubt  of  the  faithful  Frasquita. 
and  he  hears  it  willingly  for  they  have  now  come  to  a  good 
understanding  about  everything. 


Richard  Strauss 

RICHARD  STRAUSS  was  born  at  Munich,  June  ii, 
1864.  His  father,  Franz  Strauss,  was  a  distin- 
guished horn  player  in  the  Royal  Opera  orchestra.  From 
him  Richard  received  rigid  instruction  in  music.  His 
teacher  in  composition  was  the  orchestral  conductor,  W.  Mey- 
er. At  school  he  wrote  music  on  the  margins  of  his  books. 
He  was  so  young  at  the  first  public  performance  of  a  work 
by  him,  that  when  he  appeared  and  bowed  in  response  to  the 
applause,  some  one  asked,  "What  has  that  boy  to  do  with 
it  ? "  "  Nothing,  except  that  he  composed  it,  "  was  the  reply. 
Strauss  is  best  known  as  the  composer  of  many  beautiful 
songs  and  of  the  orchestral  works  Tod  und  Verklaerung 
(Death  and  Transfiguration),  and  Till  EulenspiegeV s  Lustige 
Streiche  (Till  Eulenspiegel's  Merry  Pranks).  The  latter  is 
a  veritable  tour  de  force  of  orchestral  scoring  and  a  test  of 
the  virtuosity  of  a  modern  orchestra.  Thus  Spake  Zara- 
ihustra,  Don  Quixote,  and  Ein  Heldenlehen  (A  Hero's  Life)  are 
other  well-known  orchestral  works  by  him.  They  are  of 
large  proportions.  To  the  symphony,  and  the  symphonic 
poem,  Strauss  has  added  the  tone  poem  as  a  form  of  instru- 
mental music  even  freer  in  its  development  than  the  sym- 
phonic poem,  which  was  Liszt's  legacy  to  music. 

FEUERSNOT 

FIRE    FAMINE 

Opera  in  one  act.     Music  by  Richard  Strauss;  text  by  Ernst  von  Wol- 
zogen.     Produced:  Dresden,  November  21,  1901. 

796 


Richard  Strauss  797 

Characters 

SCHWEiKER  VON  GuhfDELFiNGEN,  keeper  of  the  castle Tenor 

Ortolf  Sentlinger,  burgomaster Bass 

DiEMUT,  his  daughter Soprano 

KuNRAD,  the  leveller Baritone 

Time — 13th  Century.  Place — Munich. 

The  action  takes  place  in  Munich  on  the  day  of  the 
winter  solstice  in  olden  times.  At  the  time  of  the  represen- 
tation the  twelfth  century  has  just  passed.  A  big  crowd 
of  children,  followed  by  grown-ups,  is  going  in  whimsical 
wantonness  from  house  to  house  to  collect  wood  for  the 
solstitial  fire  ("Subendfeuer").  After  they  have  collected 
rich  booty  at  the  burgomaster's  they  go  over  to  the  house 
opposite.  It  appears  strangely  gloomy.  Shutters  and 
doors  are  closed  as  though  it  were  empty.  Yet  a  short 
time  ago  young  Herr  Kunrad  lived  there.  It  is  his  legal 
inheritance  and  property,  a  legacy  from  his  ancestor  who 
was  an  "excellent  sorcerer"  and  now  taken  possession  of 
after  a  long  absence.  Nevertheless,  the  superstition  of  the 
masses  had  been  much  concerned  with  the  house.  The 
most  reasonable  was  that  its  occupant  was  a  strange  fellow, 
the  majority  thought  him  a  gloomy  magician.  In  reality 
the  young  man  sat  in  the  house  poring  over  books.  The 
noise  of  the  children  calls  him  forth.  When  he  hears  that  it 
is  the  solstice,  the  great  festival  of  his  profession,  an  agi- 
tation seizes  him  in  which  he  tells  the  children  to  take  away 
all  the  wood  from  his  house.  This  destruction  stirs  the 
townsmen  but  Kunrad  is  so  struck  at  sight  of  Diemut,  who 
seems  to  him  like  a  revelation  of  life,  that  he  dashes  through 
the  townsmen  and  kisses  the  girl  on  the  mouth.  The  agi- 
tation of  the  townsmen  is  silenced  sooner  than  Diemui's 
who  plans  revenge  for  this  outrage. 

Now  the  townsmen  are  all  out  of  doors  on  account  of  the 
solstitial  holiday.     But  in  Kunrad's  heart  the  promptings  of 


798  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

love  are  blazing  like  a  fire.  A  mad  longing  for  Diemut  seizes 
him,  and  as  she  now  appears  on  her  balcony  he  begs  for  her 
love  with  warm  words.  The  spark  has  also  been  well 
kindled  in  her  heart,  but  still  she  only  thinks  of  revenge.  So 
she  lures  him  toward  the  side  street  where  the  order  basket 
still  stands  on  the  ground.  Kunrad  steps  into  it  and  Diemut 
hauls  him  upward.  But  half-way  up  she  lets  him  hang 
suspended.  So  Kunrad  becomes  a  laughing-stock  for  the 
townsmen  returning  home.  Then  a  fearful  rage  seizes 
upon  him ;  he  makes  use  of  his  magic  art :  "May  an  ice-cold 
everlasting  night  surround  you  because  you  have  laughed 
at  the  might  of  love."  Every  light  is  extinguished  and  a 
deep  darkness  covers  the  town  and  its  inhabitants.  Now 
Kunrad  from  the  balcony,  addresses  the  townsmen,  furious 
with  rage  in  a  speech  filled  with  personal  references  whose 
basic  idea  is  that  the  people  always  recognize  and  follow 
their  great  masters.  So  they  have  sadly  mistaken  his  pur- 
pose and  the  maid  whom  he  had  chosen  had  mocked  him. 
For  punishment  their  light  is  now  extinguished.  Let  all  the 
warmth  leave  the  women,  all  the  light  of  love  depart  from 
ardent  young  maidens,  until  the  fire  burns  anew.  Now  the 
tables  are  turned.  All  recognize  in  Xwwmc?  a  great  man.  In 
their  self-reproaches  are  mingled  complaints  about  the  dark- 
ness and  an  imploring  cry  to  Diemut  by  her  love  to  make  an 
end  of  the  lack  of  fire.  But  Diemut  in  the  meantime  has 
changed  her  mind;  love  in  her  too  gets  the  upper  hand  as 
the  sudden  rekindling  of  every  light  makes  known. 

GUNTRAM 

Music-drama  in  three  acts;  music  and  words  by  Richard  Strauss. 
Produced:  Weimar,  May  lo,  1894. 

Characters 

The  Old  Duke Bass 

Freihild,  his  daughter SoprattQ 


Richard  Strauss  799 

Duke  Robert,  her  betrothed Baritone 

GuNTRAM,  a  singer Tenor 

Friedhold,  a  singer Bass 

The  Duke's  Clown Tenor 

Time — Thirteenth  Century.  Place — ^A  German  duchy. 

Act  I.  Guntram  has  been  brought  up  to  manhood  as 
pupil  of  the  religious  knightly  Band  of  the  Good.  This 
band  has  set  for  itself  the  realization  of  the  Christian  idea 
of  love  for  the  soul.  The  brotherly  union  of  all  men,  who 
shall  be  brought  through  love  to  world  peace  is  the  aim  of 
the  band,  the  noble  art  of  song  its  means  of  obtaining  re- 
cruits. Guntram  seems  to  his  teacher  Friedhold  ready  for 
the  great  work  and  so  he  is  assigned  to  a  difficult  task.  The 
Old  Duke  has  given  the  hand  of  his  daughter  Freihild,  and 
also  his  estate,  to  Duke  Robert.  The  latter,  the  only  one  of 
the  powerful  tyrants  left,  through  his  oppression  had  so 
stirred  up  the  peaceful  people  that  they  rose  against  his  rule. 
Then  he  had  put  down  the  rising  cruelly  and  had  burdened 
the  unfortunate  people  so  heavily  that  they  were  thinking  of 
leaving  their  homes.  Freihild  most  deeply  sympathizes 
with  the  people  and  had  given  her  hand  to  the  Duke  only 
unwillingly,  and  she  seeks  in  the  happiness  of  the  people 
consolation  for  her  loveless  life.  But  the  Duke  has  forbid 
den  her  this  work  of  love  and  she  seeks  release  from  life  in 
a  voluntary  death  in  the  waters  of  the  lake.  Gufitram  res- 
cues her.  The  Old  Duke,  out  of  gratitude  for  saving  his 
daughter,  promises  pardon  to  the  rebels  and  invites  the 
singer  to  the  feast  that  is  to  be  given  in  the  ducal  palace  in 
celebration  of  the  putting  down  of  the  rebellion. 

Act  II.  At  the  festive  banquet  Guntram,  relying  upon  the 
power  of  the  thought  of  love  as  presented  by  him,  will  make 
use  of  the  occasion  to  win  the  Duke's  heart  for  peace.  The 
Duke,  whose  clown  has  just  irritated  him,  in  a  rage  interrupts 
Guntram.  But  the  latter  is  protected  by  the  vassals  all  of 
whom  at  heart  are  angry  at  the  cruel  ruler.     When  a  mes- 


8oo  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

senger  brings  news  of  a  new  revolt,  a  vote  is  taken  and  they 
all  decide  for  war.  Then  Guntram  reminds  them  anew  of 
peace  in  inspired  songs.  In  a  rage  the  Duke  scorns  him  as  a 
rebel,  assaults  him  and,  after  a  brief  wrestle,  Guntram  strikes 
down  the  tyrant.  Then  the  Old  Duke  has  him  thrown 
into  a  dungeon  and  goes  off  with  the  vassals  to  put  down 
the  rebellion  again.  But  Freihild,  whose  heart  is  inflamed 
with  love  for  the  bold,  noble  singer,  conspires  with  the 
clown  to  save  him  and  flee  with  him. 

Act  III.  In  the  gloomy  dungeon  in  which  Guntram  is 
awaiting  his  punishment,  the  young  hero  has  plenty  of 
leisure  to  meditate  on  his  deeds  and  their  motives.  The 
Band  of  the  Good  has  sent  Friedhold  to  him  in  order  that  he 
may  ask  of  him  an  account  of  his  sinful  deed.  For  such  an 
act  is  considered  as  murder  in  every  case.  Guntram  feels 
that  he  is  not  guilty  in  the  opinion  of  the  Band  but  is  self- 
convicted  in  the  opinion  of  the  highest  humanity.  For  he 
cannot  conceal  from  himself  that  the  passionate  love  for 
Freihild,  wife  of  the  Duke,  which  burns  in  his  heart,  led  him 
to  his  deed.  Therefore,  he  can  certainly  reject  the  reproach 
of  the  Band,  but  he  charges  himself  with  renunciation  as 
expiation  for  his  deed.  He  has  taught  himself  that  true 
freedom  cannot  be  attained  unless  it  is  acquired  by  one's 
own  power  and  victory  over  one's  self.  So  the  Band  of  the 
Good  is  taught  in  an  error  and  Guntram  renounces  his 
connection  with  them.  But  Freihild,  who  has  succeeded 
to  the  duchy  since  the  Old  Duke  has  fallen  on  the  field,  he 
refers  to  the  godly  message  which  calls  her  to  promote  the 
happiness  of  the  people.  In  this  noble  task  she  will  find 
indemnification  for  the  personal  sacrifice  of  her  lost  love. 
The  singer  withdraws  thence  into  solitude. 

SALOME 

Opera  in  one  act  by  Richard  Strauss;  words  after  Oscar  Wilde's  poem 
of  the  same  title,  translated  into  German  by  Hedwig  Lachmann.     Pro- 


Richard  Strauss  8oT 

duced  at  the  Court  Opera,  Dresden,  December  9,  1905.  Metropolitan 
Opera  House,  New  York,  1907,  with  Olive  Fremstad;  Manhattan  Opera 
House,  New  York,  with  Mary  Garden. 

Characters 

Herod  Antipas,  Tetrarch  of  Judea Tenor 

Herodias,  wife  of  Herod Mezzo-soprano 

Salome,  daughter  of  Herodias Soprano 

JoKANAAN  (John  the  Baptist) Baritone 

Narraboth,  a  young  Syrian,  Captain  of  the  Guard Tenor 

A  Page Alto 

A  young  Roman,  the  executioner,  five  Jews,  two  Nazarenes,  two 
soldiers,  a  Cappadocian  and  a  slave. 
Time — About  30  a.d. 

Place — The  great  terrace  in  the  palace  of  Herod  at  Tiberias,  Galilee, 
the  capital  of  his  kingdom. 

On  the  great  terrace  of  Herod's  palace,  off  the  banquet 
hall,  is  his  body-guard.  The  ardent  looks  of  the  young 
captain,  Narraboth,  a  Syrian,  are  directed  toward  the  ban- 
quet hall  where  Salome  is  seated.  In  vain  the  Page,  who  is 
aware  of  the  neurotic  taint  in  the  woman,  warns  him.  The 
young  captain  is  consumed  with  ardent  desires. 

The  night  is  sultry.  The  soldiers'  talk  is  interrupted  by 
the  sounds  from  the  hall.  Suddenly  there  is  heard  a  loud 
and  deep  voice,  as  from  a  tomb.  Dread  seizes  even  upon 
the  rough  soldiers.  He  who  calls  is  a  madman  accordingr 
to  some,  a  prophet  according  to  others,  in  either  case,  a  man 
of  indomitable  courage  who  with  terrifying  directness  of 
speech  brings  the  ruling  powers  face  to  face  with  their 
sins  and  bids  them  repent.  This  is  Jokanaan.  His  voice 
sounds  so  reverberant  because  it  issues  from  the  gloomy  cis- 
tern in  which  he  is  held  a  captive. 

Suddenly  Salome,  in  great  commotion,  steps  out  on  the 
terrace.  The  greedy  looks  with  which  the  Herod,  her  step- 
father, has  regarded  her,  as  well  as  the  talk  and  noisy  dis- 
putes of  the  gluttons  and  degenerates  within  have  driven 

SI 


8o2  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

her  out.  In  her  stirs  the  sinful  blood  of  her  mother,  who,  in 
order  that  she  might  marry  Herod,  slew  her  husband. 
Depraved  surroundings,  a  court  at  which  the  satiating  of  all 
desires  is  the  main  theme  of  the  day,  have  poisoned  her 
thoughts.  She  seeks  new  pleasures,  as  yet  untasted  enjoy- 
ments. Now,  as  she  hears  the  voice  of  the  Prophet,  there 
arises  in  her  the  lust  to  see  this  man,  whom  she  has  heard  her 
mother  curse,  because  he  has  stigmatized  her  shame,  and 
whom  she  knows  the  Tetrarch  fears,  although  a  captive. 
What  she  desires  is  strictly  forbidden,  but  Narraboth  cannot 
resist  her  blandishments.  The  strange,  gloomy  figure  of  the 
Jokanaan,  fantastically  noble  in  the  rags  of  his  captivity, 
stirs  Salome's  morbid  desires.  Her  abandoned  arts  are 
brought  into  full  play  in  her  efforts  to  tempt  him,  but  with 
the  sole  result  that  he  bids  her  do  penance.  This  but  adds 
fuel  to  the  flame.  When  Narraboth,  in  despair  over  her 
actions,  kills  himself  on  his  own  sword,  she  does  not  so  much 
as  notice  it.  Appalled  by  the  wickedness  of  the  young 
woman,  the  Prophet  warns  her  to  seek  for  the  only  one 
in  whom  she  can  find  redemption,  the  Man  of  Galilee. 
But  realizing  that  his  words  fall  on  deaf  ears,  he  curses  her, 
and  retreats  into  his  cistern. 

Herod,  Herodias,  and  their  suite  come  out  on  the  terrace. 
Herod  is  suffering  under  the  weight  of  his  crimes,  but  the 
infamous  Herodias  is  as  cold  as  a  serpent.  Herod's  sinful 
desire  for  his  step-daughter  is  the  only  thing  that  can  stir 
his  blood.  But  Salome  is  weary  and  indifferent;  Herodias 
full  of  bitter  scorn  for  him  and  for  her  daughter.  Against 
the  Prophet,  whose  voice  terrifies  the  abandoned  gatherings 
at  table,  her  hatred  is  fierce.  But  Herod  stands  in  mysteri- 
ous awe  of  the  Prophet.  It  is  almost  because  of  his  dread 
of  the  futiire,  which  Jokanaan  proclaims  so  terribly,  that 
Herod  asks  as  a  diversion  for  Salome's  dance  in  order  that 
life  may  flow  warm  again  in  his  chilled  veins.  Salome 
demurs,  until  he  swears  that  he  will  grant  any  request  she 


Copyright  photo  by  Mishkin 

Mary  Garden  as  Salome 


Richard  Strauss  803 

may  make  of  him.  She  then  executes  the  "Dance  of  the 
Seven  Veils,"  casting  one  veil  after  another  from  her.  Herod 
asks  what  her  reward  shall  be.  In  part  prompted  by 
Herodias,  but  also  by  her  own  mad  desire  to  have  vengeance 
for  her  rejected  passion,  she  demands  the  head  of  the 
Prophet.  Herod  offers  her  everything  else  he  can  name 
that  is  most  precious,  but  Salome  refuses  to  release  him 
from  his  promise.^  The  executioner  descends  into  the  cis- 
tern. Jokanaan  is  slain  and  his  severed  head  presented  to 
Salome  upon  a  silver  charger.  Alive  he  refused  her  his  lips. 
Now,  in  a  frenzy  of  lust,  she  presses  hers  upon  them.  Even 
Herod  shudders,  and  turns  from  her  revolted.  "Kill  that 
woman!"  he  commands  his  guards,  who  crush  her  under 
their  shields. 

Regarding  the  score  of  "Salome,"  Strauss  himself  re- 
marked that  he  had  paid  no  consideration  whatever  to  the 
singers.  There  is  a  passage  for  quarrelling  Jews  that  is 
amusing;  and,  for  a  brief  spell,  in  the  passage  in  which 
Salome  gives  vent  to  her  lust  for  Jokanaan,  the  music  is 
molten  fire.  But  considered  as  a  whole,  the  singers  are  like 
actors,  who  intone  instead  of  speaking.  Whatever  the  drama 
suggests,  whatever  is  said  or  done  upon  the  stage — a  word, 
a  look,  a  gesture — is  minutely  and  realistically  set  forth 
in  the  orchestra,  which  should  consist  of  a  hundred  and 
twelve  pieces.  The  real  musical  climax  is  "The  Dance  of 
the  Seven  Veils,"  a  superb  orchestral  composition. 

Strauss  calls  the  work  a  drama.  As  many  as  forty  motifs 
have  been  enumerated  in  it.  But  they  lack  the  compact* 
pregnant  qualities  of  the  motifs  in  the  Wagner  music  dramas' 
which  are  so  individual,  so  melodically  eloquent  that  their 
significance  is  readily  recognized  not  only  when  they  are 
first  heard,  but  also  when  they  recur.  Nevertheless,  the 
"Salome"  of  Richard  Strauss  is  an  effective  work — so  effect- 
ive in  the  setting  forth  of  its  offensive  theme  that  it  was 
banished  from  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  although 


8o4  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Olive  Fremstad  lavished  her  art  upon  the  title  r61e;  nor  have 
the  personal  fascination  and  histrionic  gifts  of  Mary  Garden 
been  able  to  keep  it  alive. 

At  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  then  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Heinrich  Conried,  it  was  heard  at  a  full-dress  rehear- 
sal, which  I  attended,  and  at  one  performance.  It  was  then 
withdrawn,  practically  on  command  of  the  board  of  direc- 
tors of  the  opera  company,  although  the  initial  impulse 
is  said  to  have  come  from  a  woman  who  sensed  the  brutal- 
ity of  the  work  under  its  mask  of  "culture.  " 

ELEKTRA 

Opera  in  one  act  by  Richard  Strauss;  words  by  Hugo  von  Hofmann- 
sthal.  Produced:  Dresden,  January  25,  1909.  Manhattan  Opera  House, 
New  York,  in  a  French  version  by  Henry  Gauthier-Villars,  and  with 
Mazarin  as  Elektra. 

Characters 

Clytemnestra,  wife  of  Aegisthus Mezzo-soprano 

Elektra  ]  ^f"  daughters  by     ^  ^^^^^^^ 

Chrysothemis  I  ^^^  m^J-dered  king  k  ^^^^^^^ 

Agamemnon 

Aegisthus Tenor 

OresteSi Baritone 

Preceptor  of  Orestes,  a  confidant,  a  train  bearer,  an  overseer  of  servants, 

five  serving  women,  other  servants,  both  men  and  women,  old 
and  young 

Time — Antiquity.  Place — Mycenae. 

Storck,  in  his  Opera  Book,  has  this  to  say  of  Von  Hofmann- 
sthal's  libretto:  "The  powerful  subject  of  the  ancient  myth 
is  here  dragged  down  from  the  lofty  realm  of  tragedy,  to 
which  Sophocles  raised  it,  to  that  of  the  pathologically 
perverse.  With  a  gloomy  logic  the  strain  of  blood-madness 
and  unbridled  lust  is  exploited  by  the  poet  so  that  the  over- 
whelming effect  of  its  consequences  becomes  comprehensible. 


Richard  Strauss  805 

None  the  less,  there  is  the  fact,  of  no  little  importance,  that 
through  its  treatment  from  this  point  of  view,  a  classical 
work  has  been  dragged  from  its  pedestal." 

The  inner  court  of  the  palace  in  Mycenae  is  the  scene 
of  the  drama.  Since  Clytemnestra,  in  league  with  her  para- 
mour, Aegisthus,  has  compassed  the  murder  of  her  husband, 
Agamemnon,  her  daughter  Eleklra  lives  only  with  the 
thought  of  vengeance.  She  exists  like  a  wild  beast,  ban- 
ished from  the  society  of  human  beings,  a  butt  of  ridicule  to 
the  servants,  a  horror  to  all,  only  desirous  of  the  blood  of  her 
mother  and  Aegisthus  in  atonement  for  that  of  her  father. 
The  murderers  too  have  no  rest.     Fear  haunts  them. 

Elektra's  sister,  Chrysothemis,  is  entirely  unlike  her.  She 
craves  marriage.  But  it  is  in  a  disordered  way  that  her 
desire  for  husband  and  child  is  expressed.  Clytemnestra  also 
is  morbidly  ill.  Deeply  she  deplores  her  misdeed,  but  for  this 
very  reason  has  completely  surrendered  herself  to  the 
unworthy  Aegisthus.  So  frightfully  do  her  dreams  torment 
her  that  she  even  comes  to  seek  help  from  the  hated  Elektra 
in  her  hovel  in  the  inner  court.  It  is  the  latter's  first  triumph 
in  all  her  years  of  suffering.  But  it  is  short-lived,  for 
Clytemnestra  mocks  her  with  the  news  that  Orestes  has  died 
in  a  distant  land.  A  terrible  blow  this  for  Elektra,  who  had 
hoped  that  Orestes  would  retiu-n  and  wreak  vengeance  on 
the  queen  and  Aegisthus.  Now  the  daughters  must  be  the 
instruments  of  vengeance.  And  as  Chrysothemis,  shocked, 
recoils  from  the  task,  Elektra  determines  to  complete  it 
alone.  She  digs  up  in  the  courtyard  the  very  axe  with 
which  her  father  was  slain  and  which  she  had  buried  in 
order  to  give  it  to  her  brother  on  his  return. 

But  the  message  regarding  the  death  of  Orestes  was 
false.  It  was  disseminated  by  her  brother  in  order  to 
allay  the  fears  of  the  murderers  of  his  father  and  put  them 
off  their  guard.  The  stranger,  who  now  enters  the  court, 
and  at  first  cannot  believe  that  the  half-demented  woman . 


8o6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

in  rags  is  his  sister,  finally  is  recognized  by  her  as  Orestes, 
and  receives  from  her  the  axe.  He  enters  the  palace,  slays 
Clytemnestra  and,  upon  the  return  of  Aegisthus,  pursues 
him  from  room  to  room  and  kills  him.  Elektra,  her  thirst 
for  vengeance  satisfied,  under  the  spell  of  a  blood-madness, 
dances,  beginning  weirdly,  increasing  to  frenzy,  and  ending 
in  her  collapse,  dead,  upon  the  ground,  where,  since  her 
father's  death,  she  had  grovelled  waiting  for  the  avenger. 

As  in  "Salome, "  so  in  "Elektra "  there  is  a  weft  and  woof 
of  leading  motifs  which,  lacking  the  compactness,  firmness, 
and  unmistakable  raisons  d'etre  of  the  leading  motives  in 
the  Wagner  music-dramas,  crawl,  twist,  and  wind  them- 
selves in  spineless  convolutions  about  the  characters  and 
the  action  of  the  piece.  In  " Salome"  the  score  worked  up 
to  one  set  climax,  the  "Dance  of  the  Seven  Veils."  In 
"Elektra "  there  also  is  a  set  composition.  It  is  a  summing 
up  of  emotions,  in  one  eloquent  burst  of  song,  which  occurs 
when  Elektra  recognizes  Orestes.  It  may  be  because  it  came 
in  the  midst  of  so  much  cacophony  that  its  effect  was  en- 
hanced. But  at  the  production  of  the  work  in  the  Man- 
hattan Opera  House,  it  seemed  to  me  not  only  one  of 
Strauss's  most  spontaneous  lyrical  outgivings,  but  also  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  I  had  ever  heard.  Several  times  every 
year  since  then,  I  have  been  impelled  to  go  to  the  pianoforte 
and  play  it  over,  although  forced  to  the  unsatisfactory 
makeshift  of  playing-in  the  voice  part  with  what  already 
was  a  pianoforte  transcription  of  the  orchestral  accom- 
paniment. 

Mme.  Schumann-Heink,  the  Clytemnestra  of  the  original 
production  in  Dresden,  said :  "  I  will  never  sing  the  role  again- 
It  was  frightful.  We  were  a  set  of  mad  women.  .  .  . 
There  is  nothing  beyond  'Elektra.'  We  have  lived  and 
reached  the  furthest  boundary  in  dramatic  writing  for  the 
voice  with  Wagner.  But  Richard  Strauss  goes  beyond 
him.     His  singing  voices  are  lost.     We  have  come  to  a  full 


Richard  Strauss  9oj 

stop.  I  believe  Strauss  himself  sees  it. " — ^And,  indeed,  in 
his  next  opera,  "Der  Rosenkavalier, "  the  composer  shows 
far  more  consideration  for  the  voice,  and  has  produced  a 
score  in  which  the  melodious  elements  are  many. 

DER  ROSENKAVALIER 

The  Knight  of  the  Rose 

Opera  in  three  acts  by  Richard  Strauss;  words  by  Hugo  von  Hofmann- 
sthal.  Produced:  Royal  Opera  House,  Dresden,  January  26,  191 1; 
Covent  Garden,  London,  January  i,  1913;  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
New  York,  by  Gatti-Casazza,  December  9,  1913,  with  Hempel  (Princess 
Werdmberg),  Ober  (Ociavian),  Anna  Case  (Sophie),  Fomia  (Marianne), 
Mattfeld  (Annina),  Goritz  (Lerchenan),  Weil  (Faninal),  and  Reiss 
(Valzacchi). 

Characters 

Baron  Ochs  of  Lerchenan Bass 

Von  Faninal,  a  wealthy  parvenu,  recently  ennobled Baritone 

Valzacchi,  an  intriguer Tenor 

OcTAViAN,  Count  Rofrano,  known  as  "Quin-Quin" Mezzo-soprano 

Princess  von  Werdenbero Soprano 

Sophie,  daughter  of  Faninal Soprano 

Marianne,  duenna  of  Sophie Soprano 

Annina,  companion  of  Valzacchi Alto 

A  singer  (tenor),  a  flutist,  a  notary,  commissary  of  police,  four  lackeys 
of  Faninal,  a  master  of  ceremonies,  an  innkeeper,  a  milliner,  a 
noble  widow  and  three  noble  orphans,  a  hair-dresser  and 
his  assistants,  four  waiters,  musicians,  guests,  two 
watchmen,  kitchen  maids  and  several  apparitions 
Time — Eighteenth  century  during  the  reign  of  Maria  Theresa. 
Place — Vienna. 

With  the  exception  of  Humperdinck's  "Hansel  tmd  Gre- 
tel,"  "Der  Rosenkavalier,"  by  Richard  Strauss,  is  the 
only  opera  that  has  come  out  of  Germany  since  the  death  of 
Wagner,  which  has  appeared  to  secure  a  definite  hold  upon 
the  repertoire.     Up  to  the  season  of  19 17-18,  when  it  was 


8o8  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

taken  out  of  the  repertoire  on  account  of  the  war  in 
Europe,  it  had  been  given  twenty-two  times  at  the  Metro- 
poHtan  Opera  House,  since  its  production  there  late  in  1913. 

The  work  is  called  a  "comedy  for  music, "  which  is  men- 
tioned here  simply  as  a  fact,  since  it  makes  not  the  slightest 
difference  to  the  public  what  the  composer  of  an  opera 
chooses  to  call  it,  the  proof  of  an  opera  being  in  the  hearing 
just  as  the  proof  of  a  pudding  always  is  in  the  eating.  So 
far  it  is  the  one  opera  by  Richard  Strauss  which,  after  being 
heralded  as  a  sensation,  has  not  disappeared  through 
indifference. 

To  those  who  know  both  works,  the  libretto  of  "Der 
Rosenkavalier  "  which  has  been  violently  attacked,  goes  no 
further  in  suggestiveness  than  that  of  "  Le  Nozze  di  Figaro.  " 
But  it  is  very  long,  and  unquestionably  the  opera  would 
gain  by  condensation,  although  the  score  is  a  treasiire 
house  of  orchestration,  a  virtuosity  in  the  choice  of  instru- 
ments and  manner  of  using  them  which  amounts  to  inspira- 
tion. An  examination  of  the  full  orchestral  score  shows 
that  114  instruments  are  required,  seventeen  of  them  for 
an  orchestra  on  the  stage.  The  composer  demands  for  his 
main  orchestra  32  violins,  12  violas,  10  violoncellos,  8  double 
basses,  3  flutes,  3  oboes,  2  clarinets,  i  bass  clarinet,  3  bas- 
soons, 4  horns,  3  trumpets,  3  trombones,  i  tuba,  2  harps, 
glockenspiel,  triangle,  bell,  castanets,  tympani,  side  and 
bass  drums,  cymbals,  celeste,  and  rattle.  A  small  orchestra 
for  the  stage  also  requires  i  oboe,  i  flute,  2  clarinets,  2  horns, 
2  bassoons,  i  trumpet,  i  drum,  harmonium,  piano,  and 
string  quintet. 

"  Der  Rosenkavalier "  also  contains  melodious  phrases 
in  number  and  variety,  which  rarely  permit  the  bearer's 
interest  to  flag.  Waltz  themes  abound.  They  are  in  the 
manner  of  Johann  Strauss  and  Lanner.  It  is  true  that 
these  composers  flourished  much  later  than  the  rococo 
period  in  which  the  opera  is  laid,  but  just  as  it  makes  no 


Richard  Strauss  869 

diflference  what  a  composer  calls  an  opera,  so  it  makes  no 
difference  whether  he  indulges  in  anachronisms  or  not. 
Gavottes,  etc.,  would  have  been  more  in  keeping  with  the 
period,  but  the  waltz  themes  served  Strauss's  purpose  far 
better  and  are  introduced  with  infinite  charm.  They  give 
the  work  that  subtle  thing  called  atmosphere,  and  play 
their  part  in  making  passages,  like  the  finale  to  the  second 
act,  the  most  significant  music  for  the  stage  of  opera  that 
has  been  penned  in  the  composer's  country  since  Wagner. 
They  also  abound  in  the  scene  between  Octavian  and  Lerche- 
nan  in  the  third  act. 

Act  I.  Room  in  the  Princess  von  Werdenberg's  palace. 
Morning.  The  curtain  rises  after  an  impassioned  orchestral 
introduction  which  is  supposed  to  depict  risquS  incidents 
of  the  previous  night  suggested  by  the  stage  directions. 
These  directions  were  not  followed  in  the  production 
made  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House.  Not  only  did 
their  disregard  show  respect  for  the  audience's  sense  of 
decency,  it  in  no  way  interfered  with  the  success  of  the  work 
as  a  comedy  set  to  music. 

Octavian,  a  handsome  youth,  is  taking  a  passionate  leave 
of  the  Princess,  whose  husband,  a  Field  Marshal,  is  away 
on  military  duty.  Octavian  is  loath  to  go,  the  Princess, 
equally  loather  to  have  him  depart.  For  the  Princess  can- 
not conceal  from  herself  that  in  spite  of  Octavian' s  present 
love  for  her,  the  disparity  in  their  ages  soon  will  cause  him 
to  look  to  women  younger  than  herself  for  love. 

There  is  a  conmiotion  beyond  the  door  of  the  Princess's 
suite  of  rooms.  One  of  her  relatives,  the  vulgar  Baron 
Ochs  von  Lerchenan,  wishes  to  see  her.  The  servants 
remonstrate  with  him  that  the  hour  is  much  too  early,  but 
he  forces  his  way  in.  Taking  alarm,  and  in  order  to  spare 
the  Princess  the  scandal  of  having  him  discovered  with  her, 
Octavian  escapes  into  an  inner  room  where  he  disguises 
himself  in  the  attire  of  a  chambermaid,  a  r61e  which  his 


8io  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

youthful,  beardless  beauty  enables  him  to  carry  out  to 
perfection. 

Von  Lerchenan  has  come  to  inquire  of  the  Princess  if,  as 
she  promised,  she  has  sent  a  Knight  of  the  Rose  with  an  offer 
of  his  hand  to  Sophie,  daughter  of  the  wealthy,  recently 
ennobled  Herr  von  Faninal.  A  Knight  of  the  Rose  was 
chosen  at  that  period  as  a  suitor  by  proxy  to  bear  a  silver 
rose,  as  a  symbol  of  love  and  fidelity,  to  the  lady  of  his 
principal's  choice.  Unfortunately  the  Princess's  passion 
for  Octavian  has  entirely  diverted  her  thoughts  from  Lerch- 
enan's  commission.  He,  however,  consoles  himself  by 
flirting  with  the  pretty  chambermaid,  Octavian,  whose 
assiuned  coyness,  coupled  with  slyly  demure  advances, 
charms  him.  Before  this,  however,  he  has  lost  his  temper, 
because  he  has  been  unable  to  engage  the  Princess's  atten- 
tion amid  the  distractions  provided  by  her  morning  levee, 
at  which  she  receives  various  petitioners — a  singer,  Val- 
zacchi,  and  Annina,  who  are  Italian  intriguers,  three  noble 
orphans,  and  others.  This  levee,  together  with  the  love 
intrigues  and  the  looseness  of  manners  and  morals  indi- 
cated by  the  plot,  is  supposed  in  a  general  way  to  give 
to  the  piece  the  tone  of  the  rococo  period  in  which  the 
story  is  laid.     The  scene  is  a  lively  one. 

Lerchenan  is  appeased  not  only  by  the  charms  of  the  sup- 
posed chambermaid,  who  waits  on  the  Princess  and  her 
relative  at  breakfast,  but  also  because  he  is  so  eager  to  make 
a  rendezvous  with  her.  Octavian  in  his  disguise  understands 
so  well  how  to  lead  Lerchenan  on  without  granting  his 
request,  that  he  forgets  the  cause  of  his  annoyance.  More- 
over the  Princess  promises  that  she  presently  will  despatch 
a  Knight  of  the  Rose  to  the  daughter  of  the  wealthy  Faninal 
whose  wealth,  of  course,  is  what  attracts  Lerchenan.  The 
Princess  chooses  Octavian  to  be  the  Knight  of  the  Rose. 
Later  she  regrets  her  choice.  For  after  the  handsome 
youth  has  departed  on  his  mission,  and  she  is  left  alone,  she 


Richard  Strauss  8il 

looks  at  herself  in  the  glass.  She  is  approaching  middle 
age,  and  although  she  still  is  a  handsome  woman,  her  fear 
that  she  may  lose  Octavian,  to  some  younger  member  of  her 
sex,  cannot  be  banished  from  her  thoughts. 

Act  II.  Salon  in  the  house  of  Hen  von  Faninal.  This 
lately  ennobled  nouveau  rich  considers  it  a  great  distinc- 
tion that  the  Baron  von  Lerchenan,  a  member  of  the  old 
nobility,  should  apply  for  the  hand  of  his  daughter.  That 
the  Baron  only  does  it  to  mend  his  broken  fortunes  does  not 
worry  him,  although  his  daughter  Sophie  is  a  sweet  and 
modest  girl.  Inexperienced,  she  awaits  her  suitor  in  great 
agitation.  Then  his  proxy,  Octavian,  comes  with  the  silver 
rose  to  make  the  preliminary  arrangements  for  his  "cousin," 
Baron  von  Lerchenan.  Octavian  is  smitten  with  the  charms 
of  the  girl.  She,  too,  is  at  once  attracted  to  the  handsome 
young  cavalier.  So  their  conversation  imperceptibly  has 
drifted  into  an  intimate  tone  when  the  real  suitor  enters. 
His  brutal  frankness  in  letting  Sophie  comprehend  that  he 
is  condescending  in  courting  her,  and  his  rude  manners 
thoroughly  repel  the  girl.  Octavian  meanwhile  is  boiling 
with  rage  and  jealousy.  The  girl's  aversion  to  the  Baron 
increases.  The  two  men  are  on  the  point  of  an  outbreak, 
when  Lerchenan  is  called  by  a  notary  into  an  adjoining 
room  where  the  marriage  contract  is  to  be  drawn  up.  So- 
phie is  shocked  at  what  she  has  just  experienced.  Never 
will  it  be  possible  for  her  to  marry  the  detested  Baron^ 
especially  since  she  has  met  the  gallant  Octavian.  The  two 
are  quick  in  agreeing.     Sophie  sinks  into  his  arms. 

At  that  moment  there  rush  out  from  behind  the  two  large 
chimney  pieces  that  adorn  the  room,  the  intriguers,  Val- 
zacchi  and  his  companion  Annina,  whom  Lerchenan  has 
employed  as  spies.  Their  cries  bring  the  Baron  from  the 
next  room.  The  staff  of  servants  rushes  in.  Octavian  tells 
the  Baron  of  Sophie's  antipathy,  and  adds  taunt  to  taunt, 
until,  however  reluctant  to  fight,  the  Baron  is  forced  to 


8 12  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

draw  his  sword.  In  the  encounter  Octavian  lightly  "pinks" 
him.  The  Baron,  a  coward  at  heart,  raises  a  frightful 
outcry.  There  ensues  the  greatest  commotion,  due  to  the 
mix  up  of  the  servants,  the  doctor,  and  the  rage  of  Faninal, 
who  orders  Sophie  to  a  convent  when  she  positively  refuses 
to  give  her  hand  to  Lerchenan.  The  latter,  meanwhile, 
rapidly  recovers  when  his  wound  has  been  dressed  and  he 
has  drunk  some  of  FaninaVs  good  wine. 

Octavian  is  determined  to  win  Sophie.  For  that  purpose 
he  decides  to  make  use  of  the  two  intriguers,  who  are  so 
disgusted  by  the  niggardly  pay  given  them  by  the  Baron, 
that  they  readily  fall  in  with  the  plans  of  the  brilliant  3^oung 
cavalier.  After  the  crowd  has  dispersed  and  the  Baron  is 
alone  for  a  moment,  Annina  approaches  and  hands  him  a 
note.  In  this  the  Princess's  chambermaid  promises  him  a 
rendezvous.  Lerchenan  is  delighted  over  the  new  conquest 
he  believes  himself  to  have  made. 

Act  III.  A  room  in  an  inn  near  Vienna.  With  the  help 
of  Valzacchi  and  Annina,  who  are  now  in  the  service  both  of 
the  Baron  and  of  Octavian,  but  are  more  prone  to  further 
the  latter's  plans  because  he  pays  them  better,  Octavian  has 
hired  a  room  in  an  inn.  This  room  is  fitted  up  with  trap- 
doors, blind  windows  and  the  like.  Here,  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  intriguers,  who  have  the  run  of  the  place  and  know  to 
what  uses  the  trick  room  can  be  put,  Lerchenan  has  made  his 
rendezvous  for  the  evening  with  the  pretty  chambermaid. 
Octavian,  in  his  girl's  clothes,  is  early  at  the  place. 

Between  the  Baron  and  the  disguised  Octavian,  as  soon  as 
they  are  alone,  a  rude  scene  of  courtship  develops.  Octa- 
vian is  able  to  hold  him  off  skilfully,  and  gradually  there  is 
unfolded  the  mad  web  of  intrigue  in  which  the  Baron  is 
caught.  Strange  figures  appear  at  the  windows.  Lerch- 
enan, ignorant,  superstitious,  thinks  he  sees  ghosts.  Sud- 
denly what  was  supposed  to  be  a  blind  window,  bursts  open, 
and  a  woman  dressed  in  mourning  rushes  in.     It  is  the  dis- 


Richard  Strauss  813 

guised  intriguante,  Annina,  who  claims  to  be  the  deserted 
wife  of  Lerchenan.  Innkeeper  and  servants  hurry  in.  The 
clamour  and  confusion  become  more  and  more  frantic. 
Finally  the  Baron  himself  calls  for  the  police,  without  think- 
ing what  a  "give  away"  it  may  be  for  himself.  When  the 
Commissar)'^  of  Police  arrives,  to  save  his  face,  he  gives 
out  that  his  companion,  the  suppo.sed  chambermaid,  is 
his  affianced,  Sophie  von  Faninal.  That,  however,  only 
adds  to  the  confusion,  for  Octainan's  accomplices  have 
sought  out  Faninal  and  invited  him  on  behalf  of  the 
Baron  to  come  to  the  inn.  In  his  amazement  the  Baron 
knows  of  no  other  way  out  of  the  dilemma  save  to  act  as  if 
he  did  not  know  Faninal  at  all,  whereupon  the  latter,  na- 
turally, is  greatly  angered.  When  the  confusion  is  at  its 
height  the  Princess  suddenly  appears.  A  lackey  of  the 
Baron,  seeing  his  master  in  such  difficulties,  has  run  to  her 
to  ask  for  her  powerful  protection.  She  quickly  takes  in  the 
whole  situation;  and  however  bitterly  Octavian's  disaffec- 
tion grieves  her,  she  is  a  clever  enough  woman  of  the  world 
to  recognize  that  the  time  for  her  to  give  him  up  has  come. 
The  threads  now  quickly  disentangle  themselves.  The 
Baron  leaves,  Octavian  and  Sophie  are  forgiven,  and  Herr 
von  Faninal  feels  himself  fully  compensated  for  all  he  has 
been  through,  because  he  is  to  be  driven  home  beside  the 
Princess  in  her  carriage. 

ARIADNE  AUF  NAXOS 

ARIADNE    ON    NAXOS 

Opera  in  one  act;  by  Richard  Strauss;  words  by  Hugo  von  Hofmann- 
sthal.     To  follow  Moli^e's  Comedy,  "  Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme. " 

Characters 

Ariadne Soprano 

Bacchus Tenor 


8i4  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Naiad Soprano 

Dryad Alto 

Echo Soprano 

Zerbinetta Soprano 

Arlecchino     )  Characters  in Baritone 

ScARAMUCcio  >  old  Italian Tenor 

Truffaldin    )  comedy Bass 

Brighella Tenor 

Time — Antiquity.  Place — The  Island  of  Naxos. 

Note:  On  the  stage  there  are  present,  as  spectators  of  the  opera, 
Jourdam,  Marquise  Dorimene  and  Count  Dorantes,  characters  from  "Le 
Bourgeois  Gentilhomme. " 

The  peculiar  relationship  of  this  opera  to  Moliere's 
comedy  is  easily  explained,  although  the  scheme  is  a  curious 
one.  In  "Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme,"  Moliere  has 
Jourdain,  the  commoner,  who  in  his  folly  strives  to  imitate 
the  nobility,  engage  an  entire  ballet  troupe  for  a  private 
performance  at  his  house.  The  opera,  "  Ariadne  auf  Nax- 
os,"  is  supposed  to  take  the  place  of  this  ballet.  Besides 
the  opera,  Richard  Strauss  has  composed  eleven  incidental 
musical  members  for  the  two  acts  of  the  comedy,  to  which 
the  opera  is  added  as  an  independent  third  act. 

Into  the  representation  there  enters  another  factor, 
which  is  liable  to  cause  confusion,  unless  it  is  understood  by 
the  spectator.  Besides  the  opera,  Jourdain  has  engaged  a 
troupe  of  buffoons  to  give  a  performance  of  the  old  Italian 
Harlequin  (Arlecchino)  comedy.  Having  paid  for  both,  he 
insists  that  both  shall  take  place,  with  the  result  that,  while 
the  opera  is  in  progress,  the  comedians  dash  on  the  stage,  go 
through  their  act,  and  dash  off  again. 

The  adapter  of  Moliere's  work  to  Strauss's  purpose  has 
omitted  the  entire  passage  of  the  love  scene  between  Cleonte 
and  Lucille,  Jourdain's  daughter,  so  that  the  two  acts  of 
the  comedy  concern  themselves  mainly  with  Jourdain's 
folly — his  scenes  with  the  music  teacher,  the  dancing  mas- 


Richard  Strauss  815 

ter,  the  fencing  master,  the  philosopher,  and  the  tailor. 
They  also  show  how  the  intriguing  Count  Dorantes  makes 
use  of  Jourdain's  stupidity,  borrowing  a  large  sum  of  money 
from  him,  and  persuading  him  that  he  can  win  the  favour 
of  the  Marquise  with  costly  presents  and  by  arranging  in 
her  honour  the  fdte  at  which  the  opera  is  given.  At  the 
same  time  the  sly  Dorantes  represents  everything  to  the 
Marquise  as  if  he  himself  had  contrived  and  paid  for  the 
gifts  and  the  fdte  in  her  honour.  The  Marquise  goes  to 
Jourdain's  house  to  the  banquet  and  celebration,  as  a 
climax  to  which  the  opera  "Ariadne  auf  Naxos"  is  pre- 
sented. The  opera  therefore  follows  the  adaptation  of 
"Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme. " 

On  a  desert  island  lies  Ariadne  asleep  before  a  cave. 
Naiad,  Echo  and  Dryad  are  singing.  Ariadne,  on  awak- 
ing, bewails  the  lot  of  the  forsaken  one.  In  her  grief  she 
feels  herself  near  death.  Then  the  old  comedy  figures  come 
whirling  in.  In  her  desire  for  death  Ariadne  does  not  notice 
them.  Zerbinetta  sings  and  dances  with  her  four  Harle- 
quins. This  is  their  idea  of  life — to  enjoy  things  lightly. 
When  they  have  disappeared.  Naiad,  Dryad,  and  Echo  come 
back  and  announce  the  arrival  of  a  youthful  god.  Bacchus 
approaches  the  island.  From  afar  he  sings.  A  riadne  hopes 
it  is  Death  coming  to  release  her.  She  longs  for  him,  sinks 
into  his  arms.     They  are  the  arms  of  love. 

DIE  VERKAUFTE  BRAUT 

THE    BARTERED    BRIDE 

Opera  in  three  acts;  music  by  Friedrich  Smetana,  Czech,  text  by  R. 
Sabina.  Produced  in  Czech,  May  30,  1866,  at  Prague;  in  German, 
April  2,  1893,  in  Vienna. 

Characters 

Kruschina,  a  peasant Baritone 

Kathinka,  his  wife Soprano 


8i6  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Marie,  their  daughter Soprano 

MiCHA,  a  landlord Bass 

Agnes,  his  wife Mezzo-soprano 

Wenzel,  their  son Tenor 

Hans,  Micha's  son  by  a  first  marriage Tenor 

Kezal,  a  marriage  broker Bass 

Springer,  manager  of  a  troop  of  artists Tenor 

Esmeralda,  a  danseuse Soprano 

Muff,  a  comedian Tenor 


Act  I.  It  is  the  anniversary  of  the  consecration  of  the 
village  church.  Marie,  daughter  of  the  rich  peasant 
Kruschina,  is  not  happy  for  she  must  today  accept  a  suitor 
picked  out  for  her  by  her  parents  and  she  only  loves  Hans 
although  she  does  not  know  his  antecedents.  Hans  con- 
soles her.  He  will  always  be  true  to  her  and  he  comes  from 
a  good  family,  only  a  wicked  step-mother  has  robbed  him  of 
his  father's  love.  So  she  must  be  of  good  cheer.  Then 
Marie's  parents  arrive  with  the  marriage  broker,  Kezal. 
The  latter  wants  to  complete  arrangements  for  the  marriage 
of  Marie  and  Wenzel,  the  rich  son  of  the  peasant  Micha. 
When  Marie's  father  has  given  his  consent  to  this  union, 
the  go-between  considers  Marie's  opposition  as  a  trifle 
which,  he  tells  Micha  outside  in  the  inn,  can  be  easily 
remedied. 

Act  II.  But  with  what  eyes  has  Kezal  looked  upon  Wen- 
zel that  he  praises  his  excellences  so  loudly?  At  any  rate 
not  with  those  of  a  young  woman.  Can  Kruschina' s  Marie 
love  this  stutterer  and  coxcomb?  Never!  Fortunately 
for  her,  he  does  not  know  her;  and  so  the  clever  girl  is  able 
to  deceive  him.  She  speaks  disparagingly  to  him  of  Krus- 
china's  Marie  who  loves  another  and  whom  therefore  he 
should  not  allow  himself  to  marry.  The  puzzled  Wenzel, 
enamoured  runs  after  the  laughing  girl.  On  this  Hans  comes 
in  with  Kezal.  The  latter  is  telling  his  companion  to  give 
up  his  love  affair.     He  offers  him  first  a  hundred  and  finally 


Richard  Strauss  817 

three  hundred  florins  if  he  will  do  so.  At  last  Hans  consents 
but  only  on  condition  that  Marie  shall  marry  none  other 
than  the  son  of  Micha's  wife.  Kezal  is  content  with  that 
as  he  understands  it.  He  goes  away  to  get  witnesses  and 
everybody  is  provoked  at  the  light  heart  with  which  Hans 
has  sold  his  bride. 

Act  III.  In  the  meantime,  Wenzel  has  fallen  in  love  with 
Esmeralda  the  danseuse  in  a  troop  of  acrobats.  In  his 
infatuation  he  allows  himself  to  be  induced  to  act  in  place  of 
a  drunken  comedian.  His  parents  and  Kezal  surprise  him 
while  practising  his  dance.  They  are  very  much  astonished 
when  he  absolutely  refuses  to  marry  Kruschina's  Marie. 
But  the  matter  would  have  been  entirely  different  had  he 
recognized  her  to  be  the  lovely  maiden  of  earlier  in  the  day. 
Marie  herself,  out  of  revolt  and  grief  at  the  fact  that  her 
lover  has  so  lightly  prized  her  heart,  is  ready  for  everything. 
Then  Hans  rushes  in,  freely  expressing  his  supercilious 
feelings.  All  stand  astounded  until  Micha  recognizes  in 
Hans  his  own  long  missing  son  by  his  first  marriage.  That 
Hans  now  signs  the  contract  as  the  happy  husband  of  Marie 
is  the  joyful  end  of  this  merry  opera. 


Russian  Opera 

'  Too  little  is  known  of  Russian  opera  in  this  country.  It  is  true  that 
Tschaikowsky's  " Pique- Dame, "  Rubinstein's  "Nero,"  Moussorgsky's 
"Boris  Godounoff, "  Borodin's  "Prince  Igor,"  Rimsky-Korsakoff's 
fascinating  "Coq  d'Or"  have  been  performed  here;  while  one  act  of 
Serge  Rachmaninoff's  "Miser  Knight"  was  given  by  Henry  Russell 
at  the  Boston  Opera  House  with  that  excellent  artist  George  Baklanoff 
in  the  title  r61e.  But  according  to  Mr.  Rachmaninoff  thirteen  operas  of 
Rimsky-Korsakoff  still  await  an  American  production  and  this  repre- 
sents the  work  of  only  one  composer.  Who  will  undertake  the  further 
education  of  the  American  public  in  this  respect  ? 

RUSSIAN  AND  LUDMILLA 

MICHAEL  IVANOVICH  GLINKA'S  second  opera  is 
based  upon  one  of  Pushkin's  earliest  poems.  The 
poet  had  hardly  agreed  to  prepare  a  dramatic  version  of 
his  fairy  tale  for  the  composer  when  he  was  killed  in  a  duel 
incurred  owing  to  the  supposed  infidelity  of  his  wife.  As  a 
result  of  his  untimely  end,  Glinka  employed  the  services 
of  no  less  than  five  different  librettists.  This,  of  course, 
weakened  the  story. 

The  opera  opens  with  an  entertainment  held  by  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Kieff  in  honour  of  his  daughter  Ludmilla's 
suitors.  Of  the  three,  Russian,  a  knight,  Ratmir,  an  Orien- 
tal poet,  and  Farlaf,  a  blustering  coward,  Russian  is  the 
favoured  one.  A  thunderclap  followed  by  sudden  dark- 
ness interrupts  the  festivities.  When  this  is  over,  Ludmilla 
has  disappeared.  Her  father,  Svietosar,  promises  her  hand 
in  marriage  to  any  one  who  will  rescue  her. 

The  second  act  takes  place  in  the  cave  of  Finn,  the  wizard, 

8i8 


Russian  Opera  819 

to  whom  Russian  has  come  for  advice.  The  knight  hears 
that  the  abduction  is  the  work  of  Tchernomor  the  dwarf 
Finn  warns  him  against  the  interference  of  Naina,  a  wicked 
fairy.  He  then  starts  out  on  his  search.  The  next  scene 
shows  Farlaf  in  consultation  with  Naina.  The  fairy  advises 
him  to  neglect  Ludmilla  until  she  is  found  by  Russian,  then 
to  carry  her  off  again.  The  next  scene  shows  Russian  on  a 
battlefield.  In  spite  of  the  mist  he  finds  a  lance  and  shield. 
When  the  atmosphere  grows  clearer  he  discovers  a  gigantic 
head,  which  by  its  terrific  breathing  creates  a  storm.  Russ- 
ian subdues  the  head  with  a  stroke  of  his  lance.  Under  it 
is  the  magic  sword  which  will  make  him  victorious  over 
Tchernomo.  The  head  then  explains  that  its  condition  is 
due  to  its  brother,  the  dwarf,  and  reveals  to  Russian  the 
means  to  be  made  of  the  sword. 

In  the  third  act,  at  the  enchanted  palace  of  Naina, 
Gorislava,  who  loves  Ratmir  appears.  When  the  object  of 
her  passion  appears  he  slights  her  for  a  siren  of  Naina' s 
court.  Russian,  too,  is  imperilled  by  the  sirens,  but  he  is 
saved  from  their  fascination  by  Finn. 

The  fourth  act  takes  place  in  the  dwelling  of  Tchernomor. 
Ludmilla,  in  despair,  refuses  to  be  consoled  by  any  distrac- 
tion. She  finally  falls  asleep,  only  to  be  awakened  by  Tcher- 
nomor and  his  train.  The  arrival  of  Russian  interrupts  the 
ensuing  ballet.  Forcing  Ludmilla  into  a  trance,  Tchernomor 
meets  Russian  in  single  combat.  The  knight  is  victorious, 
but  unable  to  awaken  Ludmilla  from  her  sleep.  He  carries 
her  off. 

In  the  fifth  act,  Russian  with  a  magic  ring,  the  gift  of 
Finn,  breaks  Tchernomor's  spell  and  restores  Ludmilla  to 
consciousness. 

PRINCE  IGOR 

Opera  in  four  acts  and  a  prologue  by  Borodin.  Libretto 
suggested  by  Stassoff,  written  by  the  composer. 


820  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  prologue  takes  place  in  the  market-place  of  Poultivle 
where  Igor,  Prince  of  Seversk  lives.  Although  implored  to 
postpone  his  departure  because  of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun, 
which  his  people  regard  as  an  evil  omen,  Igor  with  his  son 
Vladimir  Igoreivitch  departs  to  pursue  the  Polovtsy,  an 
Oriental  tribe,  driven  to  the  plains  of  the  Don  by  Prince 
Sviatoslav  of  Kiev.  Prince  Galitzky,  Igor's  brother,  remains 
to  govern  Poultivle  and  watch  over  the  Princess  Yaroslavna. 
The  first  scene  of  the  first  act  shows  Galitzky  a  traitor,  en- 
deavouring to  win  the  populace  to  his  side  with  the  help  of 
Eroshka  and  Skoula,  two  deserters  from  Igor's  army.  In  the 
second  scene  of  this  act  young  girls  complain  to  Yaroslavna 
about  the  abduction  of  one  of  their  companions.  They  ask 
her  protection  against  Galitsky.  Yaroslavna  has  a  scene 
with  her  brother  and  orders  him  from  her  presence.  News 
is  brought  that  Igor's  army  has  been  defeated,  that  he  and 
the  young  prince  are  prisoners,  and  that  the  enemy  is  march- 
ing upon  Poultivle.  The  loyal  Boyards  swear  to  defend 
their  princess. 

The  second  and  third  acts  take  place  in  the  camp  of  the 
Polovtsy.  Young  Vladimir  has  fallen  in  love  with  Khan 
Konchak's  beautiful  daughter,  Konchakovna.  He  serenades 
her  in  her  tent.  His  father  laments  his  captivity.  Ovlour, 
a  soldier  of  the  enemy,  offers  to  help  him  escape,  but  Igor 
refuses  to  repay  the  Khan's  chivalrous  conduct  in  that 
manner.  In  the  second  act  the  Khan  gives  a  banquet  in 
honour  of  his  captive.  Oriental  dances  and  choruses  are 
introduced. 

In  the  third  act  the  victorious  Polovstiahs  return  with 
prisoners  from  Poultivle.  Igor  consents  to  escape.  Kon- 
chakovna learns  of  the  secret  preparations  for  flight  which 
Ovlour  arranges  by  giving  the  army  a  liberal  allowance  of 
wine.  After  a  wild  orgy  the  soldiers  fall  asleep.  When 
Igor  gives  the  signal  for  flight,  Konchakovna  throws  herself 
upon  young  Vladimir  and  holds  him  until  his  father  has 


Photo  by  Mishkin 

Scene  from  the  Ballet  in  "  Prince  Igor"  (with  Rosina  Galli) 


Photo  by  W 

Anna  Case  as  Fedor,  Didur  as  Boris,  and  Sparkes  as  Xenia,  in 
"  Boris  Godounov  " 


Russian  Opera  Szi 

disappeared.  The  soldiers  rush  to  kill  him  as  in  revenge  for 
Igor's  escape,  but  the  Khan  is  content  to  let  him  remain  as 
his  daughter's  husband. 

In  the  last  act  the  lamenting  Yaroslavna  is  cheered  by  the 
return  of  her  husband,  and  together  they  enter  the  Kremlin 
at  Poultivle. 

Borodin  who  divided  his  life  between  science  and  music 
wrote  his  opera  piece  by  piece.  Rimsky-KorsakofT  wrote 
that  he  often  found  him  working  in  his  laboratory,  that 
communicated  directly  with  his  house.  When  he  was  seated 
before  his  retorts,  which  were  filled  with  colourless  gases  of 
some  kind,  forcing  them  by  means  of  tubes  from  one  vessel 
to  another,  I  used  to  tell  him  that  he  was  spending  his  time 
in  pouring  water  into  a  sieve.  As  soon  as  he  was  free  he 
would  take  me  to  his  living-rooms  and  there  we  occupied 
ourselves  with  music  and  conversation,  in  the  midst  of  which 
Borodin  would  rush  ofif  to  the  laboratory  to  make  sure  that 
nothing  was  burning  or  boiling  over,  making  the  corridor 
ring  as  he  went  with  some  extraordinary  passage  of  ninths 
or  seconds.     Then  back  again  for  more  music  and  talk. 

Borodin,  himself,  wrote:  "In  winter  I  can  only  compose 
when  I  am  too  unwell  to  give  my  lectures.  So  my  friends, 
reversing  the  usual  custom,  never  say  to  me,  'I  hope  you  are 
weir  but  'I  do  hope  you  are  ill.'  At  Christmas  I  had 
influenza,  so  I  stayed  at  home  and  wrote  the  Thanksgiving 
Chorus  in  the  last  act  of  '  Igor. " ' 

He  never  finished  his  opera.  It  was  completed  by 
Rimsky-KorsakofI  and  his  pupil  GlazounofI,  and  three 
years  after  his  death  received  its  first  performance.  Boro- 
din never  wrote  down  the  overture,  but  Glazounoflf  heard 
him  play  it  so  frequently  that  it  was  an  easy  matter  for  him 
to  orchestrate  it  according  to  Borodin's  wishes.  The  com- 
poser left  this  note  about  his  opera:  "It  is  curious  to  see 
how  all  the  members  of  our  set  agree  in  praise  of  my  work. 
While  controversy  rages  amongst  us  on  every  other  subject, 


822  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

all,  so  far,  are  pleased  with  'Igor.'  Moussorgsky,  the  ultra- 
realist,  the  innovating  lyrico-dramatist,  Cui,  our  master, 
Balakireff,  so  severe  as  regards  form  and  tradition,  Vladimir 
Stassoff  himself,  our  valiant  champion  of  everything  that 
bears  the  stamp  of  novelty  or  greatness." 

BORIS   GODOUNOFF 

Opera  in  four  acts  and  eight  scenes ;  libretto  taken  from  the  dramatic 
scenes  of  Pushkin  which  bear  this  title;  music  by  Moussorgsky;  pro- 
duced at  the  theatre  Marie  in  Petrograd  in  1874. 

Characters 

Boris  Godounoff Baritone 

Feodor Mezzo-soprano 

Xenia Soprano 

The  Old  Nurse Contralto 

Prince  Shouisky Tenor 

Andrey  Stchelakov,  clerk  of  the  Douma Baritone 

PiMEN,  monk  and  chronicler Bass 

The  Pretender  Dimitri,  called  Gregory Tenor 

Marina Soprano 

Rangoni,  a  Jesuit  in  disguise Bass 

Varlaam Bass 

MissAiL Tenor 

The  Hostess Mezzo-soprano 

NiKiTiN  (Michael)  constable Bass 

iSq8-i6o§  Russia 

The  subject  brings  to  the  stage  one  of  the  most  curious 
episodes  of  the  history  of  Russia  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
A  privy  councillor  of  the  Czar  Fedor,  son  of  Ivan,  named 
Boris  Godounoff,  has  caused  to  be  assassinated  the  young 
Dimitri,  brother  of  the  emperor  and  his  only  heir.  On  the 
death  of  Fedor,  Boris,  who  has  committed  his  crime  with  the 
sole  object  of  seizing  power,  causes  himself  to  be  acclaimed 
by  the  people  and  ascends  the  throne.  But  about  the  same 
time,  a  young  monk  named   Grischka  escapes  from  his 


Russian  Opera  823 

convent,  discards  his  habit,  and  goes  to  Poland  where  he 
passes  as  the  dead  czarevitch  Dimitri.  The  Polish  govern- 
ment receives  him  all  the  more  cordially  as  it  understands 
all  the  advantage  such  an  event  might  afford  it.  Soon  the 
pretended  Dimitri,  who  has  married  the  daughter  of  one  of 
the  most  powerful  magnates,  puts  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Polish  army  and  marches  with  it  against  Russia.  Just  at 
this  moment  they  hear  of  the  death  of  Boris,  and  the  false 
Dimitri,  taking  advantage  of  the  circumstances,  in  turn 
usurps  power  which  he  is  destined  not  to  keep  very  long. 

Such  is  the  poetical  drama,  the  arrangement  of  which  is 
a  little  inconsistent  from  the  scenic  point  of  view,  and  which 
a  historian  of  Russian  music,  himself  a  musician,  M.  C^sar 
Cui,  treats  in  these  words:  "There  is  no  question  here  of  a 
subject  of  which  the  different  parts,  combined  in  such  a  way 
as  to  present  a  necessary  sequence  of  events,  one  flowing 
from  the  other,  correspond  in  their  totality  to  the  ideas 
of  a  strict  dramatic  unity.  Each  scene  in  it  is  independent ; 
the  roles,  for  the  greater  part,  are  transitory.  The  episodes 
that  we  see  follow  each  other  necessarily  have  a  certain 
connection;  they  all  relate  more  or  less  to  a  general  fact, 
to  a  common  action ;  but  the  opera  would  not  suffer  from  a 
rearrangement  of  the  scenes  nor  even  from  a  substitution  of 
certain  secondary  episodes  by  others.  This  depends  on  the 
fact  that  'Boris  Godounoff'  properly  speaking  is  neither  a 
drama  nor  an  opera,  but  rather  a  musical  chronicle -after  the 
manner  of  the  historical  dramas  of  Shakespeare.  Each  of 
the  acts,  taken  separately,  awakens  a  real  interest  which, 
however,  is  not  caused  by  what  goes  before  and  which  stops 
brusquely  without  connection  with  the  scene  which  is  going 
to  follow."  Let  us  add  that  some  of  these  scenes  are 
written  entirely  in  prose  while  others  are  in  verse  and  we 
will  have  a  general  idea  of  the  make-up  of  the  libretto  of 
"Boris  Godounoff,  "  which  moreover  offered  the  composer 
a  series  of  scenes  very  favourable  to  music. 


824  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

The  score  of  Moussorgsky  is  uneven,  like  his  talents. 
but  nevertheless  remains  very  interesting  and  indicative 
of  a  distinct  personality.  Although  the  composer  was  not 
much  of  a  symphonist  and  rather  indifferently  understood 
how  to  manage  the  resources  of  the  orchestra,  although  his 
harmony  is  sometimes  strange  and  rude  and  his  modulation 
incorrect  and  excessive,  he  had  at  least  a  lavishness  of 
inspiration,  the  abundance  and  zest  of  which  are  calculated 
to  cause  astonishment.  He  is  a  musician  perhaps  of  more 
instinct  than  of  knowledge,  who  goes  straight  ahead  without 
bothering  himself  about  obstacles  and  who  sometimes  trips 
while  on  his  way  but  who  nevertheless  reaches  his  ob- 
ject, sometimes  even  going  beyond  it  by  his  strength  of 
audacity. 

Not  much  of  a  symphonist,  as  I  have  said,  Moussorgsky 
did  not  even  take  the  trouble  to  write  an  overture  and  some 
entr'actes.  But  certain  pages  of  his  score  are  not  the  less  re- 
markable for  their  accent,  their  colour,  and  their  scenic  effect, 
and  especially  for  the  national  feeling  which  from  a  musical 
point  of  view  flows  from  them.  Under  this  head  we  would 
point  out  in  the  first  act  the  great  military  scene,  which  is  of 
superb  brilliance,  and  the  chorus  of  begging  monks;  in  the 
second,  the  entire  scene  of  the  inn,  in  which  the  dramatic 
intensity  does  not  lessen  for  a  second  and  which  presents  an 
astonishing  variety  of  rhythm  and  colour;  then,  in  the  third, 
the  chorus  of  female  attendants,  sung  on  a  Cracovian 
woman's  air,  the  song  of  Marina  in  the  style  of  a  mazurka, 
and  a  grfeat  Polish  dance  full  of  go  and  warmth;  finally 
the  whole  episode  of  the  death  of  Boris,  which  has  a 
really  gripping  effect.  These  are  enough,  in  spite  of  the 
inequalities  and  defects  of  the  work,  to  cause  regret  for 
the  death  of  an  artist  endowed  with  a  very  individual 
style,  whose  instruction  had  been  doubtless  incomplete, 
but  who  nevertheless  seemed  called  to  have  a  brilliant 
future. 


Russian  Opera  825 

EUGEN  ONEGIN 

Opera  in  three  acts;  music  by  Peter  Ilitsch  Tschaikowsky;  text  after 
Pushkin's  tale  by  Modeste  Tchaikowsky,  the  composer's  brother;  Ger* 
man  text  by  von  A.  Bemhard.     Produced  at  Moscow,  March,  1879. 

Chakactbrs 

Lasina,  who  owns  an  estate Mezzo-soprano 

Sr-'l^""^-'"- {iT" 

FiLiPiEVNA,  a  waitress Mezzo-soprano 

EuGEN  Onegin Baritone 

Lenski Tenor 

Prince  Gremin Baritone 

A  Captain Bass 

Saretsky Bass 

Triquet,  a  Frenchman, Tenor 

As  the  characterization  of  the  opera  as  "lyrical  scenes" 
shows,  the  poet  offers  no  substantial  work,  but  follows 
closely,  often  even  word  for  word,  Pushkin's  epic  tale, 
with  which  one  must  be  fully  acquainted — as  is  the  case 
with  everybody  in  Russia — in  order  to  be  able  to  follow 
the  opera  properly. 

Act  I.  Eugen  Onegin  has  been  called  from  a  wild  life  of 
pleasture  to  his  sick  uncle,  of  whose  property  he  takes  posses- 
sion after  the  uncle's  sudden  death.  He  has  brought  with 
him  from  the  big  city  a  profound  satiety  of  all  enjoyments 
and  a  deep  contempt  for  the  society  of  mankind  in  his 
solitary  countryseat.  Here,  however,  he  forms  a  friendship 
for  a  young  fanatic,  the  poet  Lenski.  Through  him  he  is 
introduced  to  Larina,  a  woman  who  owns  an  estate.  Her 
two  daughters,  Olga  and  Tatiana,  correspond  to  the  double 
nature  of  their  mother,  whose  youth  was  a  period  of  senti- 
mentality in  which  she  allowed  herself  to  be  affected  like 
others  by  Richardson's  novels,  raved  over  Grandison,  and 
followed  the  Wild  adventures  of  Lovelace  with    anxiotis 


826  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

thrills.  Life  later  had  made  her  rational,  altogether  too  ra- 
tional and  insipid.  Olga  now  has  become  a  cheerful,  super- 
ficial, pleasureful  silly  young  girl;  Tatiana,  a  dreamer  whose 
melancholy  is  increasing  through  reading  books  which  her 
mother  had  once  used.  Lenski  is  betrothed  to  Olga.  Tatiana 
recognizes  at  her  first  sight  of  Onegin  the  realization  of  her 
dreams.  Her  heart  goes  out  to  meet  him  and  in  her 
enthusiasm  she  reveals  all  her  feelings  in  a  letter  to  him. 
Onegin  is  deeply  stirred  by  this  love;  a  feeling  of  confidence 
in  mankind  that  he  had  not  known  for  such  a  long  time 
awakens  in  him.  But  he  knows  himself  too  well.  He 
knows  that  every  faculty  as  a  husband  is  departing  from 
him.  And  now  he  considers  it  his  duty  not  to  disappoint 
this  maiden  soul,  to  be  frank.  He  refuses  her  love.  He 
takes  the  blame  on  himself,  but  he  would  not  have  been 
the  worldly  wise  man  if  his  superiority  to  the  simple  country 
child  had  not  been  emphasized  chiefly  on  this  account.  But 
Tatiana  only  listens  to  the  refusal,  she  is  very  unhappy. 
Onegin  remains  her  ideal,  who  now  will  be  still  more  solitary, 
in  spite  of  it. 

Act  II.  Tatiana's  name-day  is  being  celebrated  with  a 
big  ball.  Onegin  goes  there  on  Lenski" s  invitation.  The 
stupid  company  with  their  narrow  views  about  him  vex  him 
so  much  that  he  seeks  to  revenge  himself  on  Lenski  for  it, 
for  which  he  begins  courting  Olga.  Lenski  takes  the  jest  in 
earnest;  it  comes  to  a  quarrel  between  the  friends  Lenski 
rushes  out  and  sends  Onegin  a  challenge.  Social  consider- 
ations force  Onegin  to  accept  the  challenge;  a  duelling  fa- 
natic landlord,  Saretsky  stirs  Lenski' s  anger  so  severely  that 
a  reconciliation  is  not  possible.  This  part  in  Pushkin's 
work  is  the  keenest  satire,  an  extraordinarily  efficacious 
mockery  of  the  whole  subject  of  duelling.  There  is  derision 
on  Onegin' s  side,  too,  for  he  chooses  as  his  second  his  coach- 
man Gillot.  But  the  duel  was  terribly  in  earnest;  Lenski 
fails  shot  through  by  his  opponent's  bullet:     (This  scene 


Russian  Opera  Baif 

recalls  a  sad  experience  of  the  poet  himself;  for  he  himself 
fell  in  a  duel  by  the  bullet  of  a  supercilious  coiutier,  Georg 
d'Anth^s-Heckeren,  who  died  in  Alsace  in  1895.) 

Act  III.  Twenty-six  years  later.  Onegin  has  restlessly 
wandered  over  the  world.  Now  he  is  in  St.  Petersburg  at 
a  ball  given  by  Prince  Gremin.  There,  if  he  sees  aright, 
Princess  Gremina,  that  accomplished  woman  of  the  world 
is  "his"  Tatiana.  Now  his  passion  is  aroused  in  all  its 
strength.  He  must  win  her.  Tatiana  does  not  love  him 
with  the  same  ardour  as  before.  When  she  upbraids  Onegin 
that  he  loves  her  only  because  she  has  now  become  a  brilliant 
woman  of  the  world  it  is  only  a  means  of  deceiving  herself 
and  her  impetuous  adorer  as  to  her  real  feelings.  But  finally 
her  true  feeling  is  revealed.  She  tells  Onegin  that  she  loves 
him  as  before.  But  at  the  same  time  she  explains  that  she 
will  remain  true  to  her  duty  as  a  wife.  Broken-hearted 
Onegin  leaves  her. 

PIQUE-DAME 

THE    QUEEN    OF    SPADES 

The  libretto  of  Tschaikowsky's  "Pique-Dame"  was  first 
prepared  by  the  composer's  brother  Modeste  for  a  musician 
who  later  refused  to  use  it.  Tschaikowsky  wrote  it  in  six 
weeks,  during  a  stay  in  Florence.  The  libretto  is  that  of  the 
well-known  story  by  Pushkin.  Herman,  the  hero,  a  passion- 
ate gambler,  loves  Lisa,  whom  he  met  while  walking  in  the 
summer  garden  in  St.  Petersburg.  He  learns  that  she  is  the 
grand-daughter  of  "the  belle  of  St.  Petersburg, "  famous  in 
her  old  age  as  the  luckiest  of  card  players.  So  strange  is  the 
old  lady's  appearance  that  she  has  been  named  "The  Queen 
of  Spades."  The  two  women  exert  conflicting  influences 
over  Herman.  He  loves  Lisa,  while  the  old  woman  awakens 
his  gambling  impulses.  It  is  said  that  the  old  Countess's 
success  at  the  card  table  is  based  upon  her  secret  knowledge 


828  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

of  a  combination  of  three  cards.  Herman  is  bent  upon 
learning  the  secret.  Although  Lisa  loves  Herman  she  en- 
gages herself  to  Prince  Yeletsky.  With  the  hope  of  forcing 
the  old  woman  to  reveal  her  secret,  he  hides  in  her  bedroom 
one  night.  When  she  sees  him  the  shock  kills  her,  and 
Herman  learns  nothing.  Half-crazed  with  remorse  Herman 
is  haunted  by  the  old  Countess's  ghost.  The  apparition 
shows  him  the  three  cards. 

When  he  goes  to  her  house  the  night  after  her  funeral  and 
plays  against  Prince  Yeletsky,  he  wins  twice  by  the  cards 
shown  him  by  the  gho^t.  He  stakes  everything  he  posses- 
ses on  the  third  card  but  he  turns  up,  not  the  expected  card, 
but  the  queen  of  spades  herself.  At  the  same  instant  he 
sees  a  vision  of  the  Countess,  triumphant  and  smiling.  De- 
sperate, Herman  ends  his  life. 

Tschaikowsky  enjoyed  his  work  on  this  opera.  He  wrote 
as  follows  to  the  Grand  Duke  Constantine :  "  I  composed  this 
opera  with  extraordinary  joy  and  fervour,  and  experienced 
so  vividly  in  myself  all  that  happens  in  the  tale,  that  at  one 
time  I  was  actually  afraid  of  the  spectre  of  the  Queen  of 
Spades.  I  can  only  hope  that  all  my  creative  fervour,  my 
agitation,  and  my  enthusiasm  will  find  an  echo  in  the  heart 
of  my  audiences.  First  performed  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1890, 
this  opera  soon  rivalled  "Eugene  Oniegin"  in  popularity. 

LE  COQ  DOR 

THE  GOLDEN  COCK 

Opera  pantomime  in  three  acts  with  prologue  and  epilogue.  Pro- 
duced in  May,  1910,  at  Zimin's  Private  Theatre,  Moscow.  Music  by 
Rimsky-Korsakoff. 

Characters 

King  Dodon Baritone 

Prince  Guidon Tenor  ''<'■ 


Russisoi  Opera  829 

Prince  Afron Baritone 

VoEvODA  PoLKAN  (the  General) Baritone 

Amelfa  (the  royal  housekeeper) Contralto 

The  Astrologer Tenor 

The  Queen  of  Shemakhan Soprano 

The  Golden  Cock Soprano 

"he  Coq  D'Or"  was  Rimsky-Korsakoflf's  last  opera. 
The  censor  refused  to  sanction  its  performance  during  the 
composer's  lifetime  and  his  difficulties  with  the  authorities 
in  this  matter  are  supposed  to  have  hastened  his  death. 
When  the  work  was  given  in  Petrograd  it  was  thought  to 
be  over-taxing  for  the  singers  who  are  obliged  to  dance,  or 
for  the  dancers  who  are  obliged  to  sing.  M.  Fokine  in- 
geniously devised  the  plan  of  having  all  the  singers  seated 
at  each  side  of  the  stage,  while  the  dancers  interpreted,  in 
pantomime,  what  was  sung.  In  spite  of  the  protests  made 
by  the  composer's  family,  this  was  done  in  Paris,  London, 
and  New  York. 

The  opera  is  composed  to  a  libretto,  by  V.  Bielsky,  based 
upon  a  well-known  poem  by  Pushkin.  In  a  preface  to 
the  book  the  author  says:  "The  purely  htunan  nature  of 
Pushkin's  'Golden  Cock'  —  that  instructive  tragicomedy 
of  the  unhappy  consequences  following  upon  mortal  pas- 
sions and  weaknesses — permits  us  to  place  the  plot  in  any 
region  and  in  any  period. " 

King  Dodon,\azy  and  gluttonous, is  oppressed  by  the  cares 
of  state.  Warlike  neighbours  harass  him  with  their  attacks. 
Holding  council  in  the  hall  of  his  palace  with  his  Boyards, 
he  asks  the  advice  first  of  one  son,  then  the  other.  But  the 
wise  old  General  disagrees  with  the  solutions  suggested  by  the 
young  princes.  Soon  the  entire  assembly  is  in  an  uproar. 
The  astrologer  then  appears  and  offers  the  King  a  golden 
cock.  The  bird  has  the  power  to  foretell  events,  and  in 
case  of  danger  will  give  warning.  The  King  is  overjoyed. 
From  a  spire  in  the  capital  the  bird  sends  out  various  mes- 


830  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

sages.  At  its  bidding  citizens  now  rush  for  their  weapons, 
now  continue  peaceful  occupations.  Dodon's  bed  is  brought 
upon  the  stage,  and  the  monarch  relieved  of  all  responsi- 
bility goes  to  sleep,  after  having  been  tucked  in  by  the  royal 
housekeeper.  Suddenly  the  cock  sounds  the  war  alarm. 
The  rudely  awakened  sovereign  first  sends  his  sons,  then 
goes  himself.  Dodon's  army  fares  ill.  In  the  second  act, 
the  moonlight  in  a  narrow  pass  reveals  the  bodies  of  his  two 
sons.  At  dawn,  Dodon  notices  a  tent  under  the  hillside. 
The  King  thinks  it  is  the  tent  of  the  enemy  leader,  but  to  his 
astonishment,  a  beautiful  woman  emerges.  The  lovely 
Queen  lures  on  the  aged  Dodon,  mocks  at  his  voice,  and 
forces  him  to  dance,  until  he  falls  exhausted  to  the  ground. 
Finally  she  agrees  to  become  his  bride. 

The  third  act  shows  the  populace  preparing  to  welcome 
Dodon.  There  is  a  wonderful  procession  led  by  Dodon  and 
the  Queen,  followed  by  a  grotesque  train  of  giants  and 
dwarfs.  Soon  the  Queen  is  bored.  The  astrologer  returns, 
claiming  a  reward  for  his  magic  bird.  He  demands  the 
Queen.  Dodon  kills  the  astrologer  by  a  blow  on  the  head 
with  his  sceptre,  but  this  does  not  improve  his  position  with 
his  bride.  With  an  ominous  cry,  the  bird  flies  towards  the 
King  and  fells  him  with  one  blow  from  his  beak.  A  thunder- 
clap is  followed  by  darkness.  When  light  returns  both 
Queen  and  cock  have  disappeared.  The  people  lament  the 
death  of  the  King.  In  the  epilogue  the  resuscitated  astro- 
loger announces  that  the  story  is  only  a  fairy  tale  and  that 
in  Dodon's  kingdom  only  the  Queen  and  himself  are  mortals. 

MANRU 

Opera  in  three  acts.  Music  by  Ignace  Jan  Paderewski.  Book  by 
Alfred  Nossig.  The  first  performance  in  New  York  was  on  February 
14,  1902,  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House.  Mr.  Damrosch  conducted. 
The  cast  included  Mme.  Sembrich,  Mme.  Homer,  Miss  Fritzi  Scheflf, 
Alexander  van  Bandrowski,  Mr.  Mtihlmann,  Mr.  Blass,  Mr.  Bisphsim. 


Russian  Opera  831 

The  opera  had  its  first  performance  on  any  stage  at  the 
Court  Theatre,  Dresden,  May  29,  1901.  Before  being  sung 
in  New  York  it  was  heard  in  Cracow,  Lemberg.  Zurich,  and 
Cologne. 

The  scene  is  laid  among  the  Tatra  mountains,  between 
Galicia  and  Hungary.  The  story  illustrates  the  gypsy's 
wanderlust.  The  plot  is  borrowed  from  a  Polish  romance. 
Manru  has  won  the  love  of  a  Galician  girl,  Ulana,  and  mar- 
ried her  gypsy  fashion.  After  a  time  she  returns  to  her 
native  village  among  the  Tatra  mountains,  seeking  her 
mother's  help  and  forgiveness.  But  her  mother  curses  her, 
and  she  is  the  object  of  the  villagers'  scorn.  They  taunt  her 
with  a  song  which  celebrates  the  inconstancy  of  all  gypsies 
under  the  spell  of  the  full  moon.  As  she  has  already  noticed 
signs  of  uneasiness  in  her  husband,  Ulana  seeks  the  help  of 
Urok,  a  dwarf,  who  loves  her  and  who  is  said  to  be  a  sorcerer. 
He  gives  her  a  magic  draught  by  means  of  which  she  wins 
back  Manru  for  a  time.  Alone  in  the  mountains,  however, 
the  influence  of  the  moon,  the  charm  of  gypsy  music,  and 
the  fascinations  of  a  gypsy  girl  are  too  strong  for  him.  He 
rejoins  his  companions.  Oros,  the  gypsy  chief,  himself  in 
love  with  the  maiden  of  Manru's  fancy,  opposes  her  rein- 
statement in  the  band.  But  through  the  influence  of  Jagu, 
a  gypsy  fiddler,  his  wishes  are  overruled  and  Manru  is  made 
chief  in  Oros's  place.  The  deposed  chief  revenges  himself 
by  hurling  his  successful  rival  down  a  precipice,  a  second 
after  the  distraught  Ulana  has  thrown  herself  into  a 
mountain  lake. 


American  Opera 

No  really  distinguished  achievement  has  as  yet  been  reached  in  the 
world  of  American  opera.  Various  reasons  are  given  for  the  delinquency. 
Some  say  that  American  composers  are  without  that  sense  of  the 
theatre  so  apparent  in  the  composers  of  the  modern  Italian  school. 
But  whatever  the  reasons,  the  fact  remains  inalterably  true. 

The  Metropolitan  has  housed  several  worthy  efforts.  Two  of  the 
most  successful  were  Mr.  Parker's  "Mona"  and  Mr.  Damrosch's 
"Cyrano  de  Bergerac. "  After  much  fulsome  praise  had  been  bestowed 
upon  both,  however,  these  operas  were  promptly  shelved.  Others  have 
taken  their  place.  But  the  writer  of  a  truly  great  American  opera  has 
yet  to  make  his  appearance. 

THE  SACRIFICE 

OPERA  in  three  acts  by  Frederick  Shepherd  Converse. 
Mr.  Converse  wrote  his  own  libretto.  The  lyrics  are 
by  John  Macy.  The  story  takes  place  in  southern  California 
in  1846.  Americans  are  guarding  the  Anaya  mansion,  and 
the  American  officer,  Burton,  a  baritone,  is  in  love  with 
Chonita,  the  beauty  of  the  household.  Chonita,  has  an  old 
Indian  servant,  Tomasa,  who  hates  the  Americans,  yet 
seems  to  realize  that  they  will  conquer.  Chonita,  praying  in 
the  Mission  Church  desecrated  by  the  invaders,  is  told  by 
Burton  that  he  has  killed  a  Mexican.  Her  questions  reveal 
that  Bernal  is  the  dead  man.  But  Bernal  is  wounded,  not 
dead,  and  he  comes  into  the  church.  Burton  again  assures 
Chonita  of  his  love  and  promises  to  do  for  her  all  that  a  man 
can  do.  "You  wretched  devil,  'tis  I  she  loves,"  cries 
Bernal,  and  he  rushes  at  Burton  with  a  dagger.     Chonita 

832 


American  Opera  833 

throws  herself  between  the  two,  and  is  accidentally  wounded 
by  the  American's  sword.     Bernal  is  held  a  prisoner. 

In  the  third  act,  Chonita  is  in  bed  apparently  dying.  If 
she  could  only  have  her  lover  she  would  live,  she  sings; 
despair  is  killing  her.  Padre  Gabriel  brings  her  consolation, 
and  sets  a  trap  for  the  Americans.  Burton  brings  Bernal 
that  he  may  sing  a  love  duet  with  Chonita.  She  pleads  for 
Bernal' s  freedom.  "He  is  not  a  spy."  Burton  stands 
between  love  and  duty.  To  give  Chonita  happiness  he  is 
willing  to  die.  The  Americans  are  suddenly  attacked  and 
Burton,  throwing  down  his  sword,  is  killed  by  Mexican 
rescuers.  Tomasa  looks  at  Burton's  corpse  and  simis  up  the 
whole  tragedy:  '"Tis  true  as  ever.  Love  brings  life  and 
death." 

THE  PIPE  OF  DESIRE 

Opera  in  one  act  by  Frederick  Shepherd  Converse.  Poem 
by  George  Edwards  Barton. 

The  scene  takes  place  in  a  wood  during  the  first  day  of 
spring.  Elves  flit  to  and  fro  performing  sundry  occupations. 
One  scatters  seeds  to  the  winds.  Others  remove  dead 
leaves  from  flowers.  They  sing  of  the  awakening  of  Nature 
from  her  sleep  through  the  winter.  lolan,  a  peasant,  is 
heard  singing  in  the  distance.  The  elves  although  re- 
proached by  the  Old  One  desire  to  show  themselves  to  him. 
lolan  tells  them  that  he  is  to  wed  Naoia  tomorrow,  and  bids 
them  come  to  the  wedding.  The  Old  One  reminds  them  that 
it  is  forbidden  to  show  themselves  to  man,  and  adds  that  no 
good  can  come  of  it.  lolan  laughs  at  the  Old  One  and  his 
Pipe.  The  Old  One  plays  for  the  elves  to  dance,  but  with 
misgivings.  lolan  still  defies  the  power  of  the  Pipe.  The 
elves  demand  that  the  Old  One  make  him  dance  and  respect 
its  power.  When  he  cannot  resist  the  music,  he  snatches 
the  Pipe  and  breaks  the  cord  which  holds  it.     The  Old  One 


834  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

tells  him  that  it  is  the  Pipe  God  gave  to  Lilith,  who  played 
it  to  Adam  in  Eden,  and  that  the  mortal  who  now  plays  the 
Pipe  without  understanding  its  secret  will  die  when  it  be- 
comes known  to  him.  lolan,  however,  puts  the  Pipe  to 
his  lips.  At  first  only  discordant  sound,  later  beautiful 
music  is  his  reward.  lolan  sees  a  vision  of  what  he  most 
desires.  He  is  rich.  He  owns  horses,  goats,  and  wine. 
Naoia,  his  wife,  comes  to  him  through  roses.  His  children 
play  about  the  door  of  their  home.  He  calls  on  Naoia  to 
come  to  him.  She  comes  to  him,  bleeding.  Because  he 
played  the  Pipe  misfortune  has  come  to  her.  She  dies  and 
lolan  soon  follows  her,  while  the  sorrowing  elves  proclaim 
that  they  who  die  for  love  have  accomplished  their  life. 

SHANEWIS,  OR  THE  ROBIN  WOMAN 

An  American  opera  in  two  parts ;  book  by  Nelle  Richmond  Eberhardt ; 
music  by  Charles  Wakefield  Cadman.  Produced  at  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House,  March  23,  1918,  with  the  following  cast: 

Shanewis Sophie  Braslau 

Mrs.  Everton Kathleen  Howard 

Amy  Everton Marie  Sundelius 

Lionel  .' Paul  Althouse 

Philip Thomas  Chalmers 

An  Indian  girl,  whose  voice  has  been  elaborately  culti- 
vated, falls  in  love  with  the  son  of  her  benefactress.  The 
young  man  is  already  betrothed  to  Mrs.  Everlon's  daughter. 
An  Indian  suitor  offers  Shanewis  a  bow  and  poisoned  arrow 
which  she  rejects.  When  he  discovers  that  his  rival  has  left 
Shanewis  in  ignorance  of  his  previous  betrothal  he  shoots 
the  gay  deceiver,  and  finishes  both  the  youth  and  the  opera. 

THE  TEMPLE  DANCER 

Opera  in  one  act  in  English  by  John  Adam  Hugo.  Libretto  by  Jutta 
Bell-Ranske.     Performed  for  the  first  time  on  any  stage  at  the  Metro- 


American  Opera  835 

politan  Opera  House,  March  12,  1919,  with  Florence  Easton,  Morgan 
Kingston,  and  Carl  Schlegel. 

Characters 

Temple  Dancer Soprano 

Guard Tenor 

Yoga Bass 

The  leading  dancer  of  the  Temple  of  Mahadeo  has  fallen 
in  love  with  a  youth  who  is  not  of  her  faith.  Through  her 
lover's  suffering  she  realizes  the  unjust  and  immoral  demands 
made  upon  the  temple  dancers  whose  beauty  is  sold  to  pass- 
ers-by in  order  that  jewels  may  be  bought  for  Mahadeo. 
The  opera  opens  with  a  ceremony  in  the  temple.  The  great 
Mahadeo  sits  blazing  in  jewels.  The  Dancer  enters.  She 
has  decided  to  take  the  jewels  for  her  lover,  who  is  in  want. 
She  considers  that  the  jewels  bought  with  the  price  of  her 
beauty  are  hers,  by  right.  She  pleads  for  a  sign  from  the 
god,  but  as  her  prayer  remains  unanswered  she  threatens 
the  temple.  The  returning  temple  guard,  hearing  her 
imprecations,  threatens  her  with  death.  To  protect  herself, 
she  takes  the  snake  from  Mahadeo  and  winds  it  around  her. 
She  begs  to  be  permitted  to  pray  before  being  slain,  and  in 
a  seductive  dance,  that  interprets  her  prayer,  fascinates  the 
guard.  He  promises  her  his  protection  and  she  pretends  to 
return  his  passion.  In  a  love  scene  he  loosens  the  bands  of 
her  outer  robe,  which  falls  off.  A  letter  to  her  lover  tells  of 
her  plan  to  meet  him  with  the  stolen  jewels.  The  guard, 
enraged,  prepares  to  torture  her.  But  she  dances  again, 
and  as  a  last  prayer  begs  for  a  drop  of  water.  When  the 
guard  brings  her  the  water  she  poisons  it  and  persuades  him 
to  drink  to  her  courage  in  facing  death.  He  drinks  and  dies 
cursing  her,  her  laughter,  and  her  mocking  dance.  As  he 
dies  the  dancer  calls  down  curses  upon  the  temple.  A 
thunder-storm  is  the  answer.  Lightning  shatters  the  walls 
and  as  the  dancer  puts  out  her  hand  to  take  the  jewels  of  the 


836  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

god  it  strikes  her  and  she  falls  dead  beside  the  guard.  The 
priests, returning, see  the  bodies  of  guard  and  dancer  and  call 
upon  the  gods  for  protection.  The  opera  closes  with  the 
singing  of  the  hymn  of  redemption,  which  implores  forgive- 
ness for  the  erring  spirits  of  the  dead. 

THE  LEGEND 

A  lyric  tragedy  in  one  act  in  English  by  Joseph  Breil, 
with  a  libretto  by  Jaques  Byrne.  Produced  for  the  first 
time  on  any  stage  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  March 
12,  1919,  with  Rosa  Ponselle,  Kathleen  Howard,  Paul  Alt- 
house,  and  Louis  d'Angelo. 

Count  Stackareff,  an  impoverished  nobleman,  lives  with 
his  daughter,  Carmelita,  at  his  hunting  lodge  in  Muscovadia, 
a  mythical  country  in  the  Balkans.  In  order  to  make  his 
living,  he  leads  a  double  life.  By  day  he  is  a  courtly  noble- 
man, and  by  night  a  bloodthirsty  bandit,  Black  Lorenzo. 
No  one  but  his  daughter  knows  his  secret,  and  she  is  in 
constant  fear  of  his  discovery  for  there  is  a  price  upon  his 
head.  The  story  opens  on  a  stormy  night.  Stackareff  tells 
his  daughter  that  he  has  captured  a  wealthy  merchant,  and 
is  holding  him  for  a  large  ransom.  He  expects  the  ransom 
to  arrive  by  messenger  at  any  moment.  If  it  does  not  come 
Stackareff  intends  to  kill  the  prisoner.  Carmelita  not  only 
fears  for  the  safety  of  her  father,  but  that  her  lover  Stephen 
Pauloff,  whom  she  met  in  Vienna,  will  find  out  that  she  is 
the  daughter  of  such  a  rogue,  and  cast  her  off.  She  prays 
before  the  statue  of  the  Virgin  that  the  young  man  will  not 
discover  her  father's  double  life.  Marta,  an  old  servant, 
enters  and  tells  Carmelita  that  she  has  seen  Stephen  in  the 
woods.  He  has  told  her  that  he  will  soon  come  to  see  his 
sweetheart.  Carmelita  rejoices  but  Marta  warns  her  of  the 
legend  that  on  this  night  the  Evil  One  walks  abroad  and 
knocks  at  doors.     He  who  opens  the  door  dies  within  a  year. 


American  Opera  837 

CarmelUa  scoffs  and  asks  Marta  to  tell  her  fortune  with 
the  cards.  The  ace  of  spades,  the  death  card,  presents  itself 
at  every  cutting.  Marta  refuses  to  explain  its  significance 
and  leaves  her  young  mistress  bewildered.  The  storm 
increases.  There  are  two  knocks.  Thinking  it  is  Stephen, 
Carmelita  opens  the  door.  No  one  is  there.  She  is  terri- 
fied. Later  Stephen  arrives.  In  his  arms  she  for  the  mo- 
ment forgets  her  fears,  but  they  are  soon  renewed  when 
her  lover  tells  her  that  he  has  been  sent  to  take  the  miu"der- 
ous  bandit.  Black  Lorenzo,  dead  or  alive.  Carmelita  makes 
the  young  man  swear  before  the  Virgin  that  he  will  never 
desert  her.     Then  she  prepares  to  elope  with  him. 

Stackareff  enters,  expecting  to  find  the  messenger.  He  is 
apprehensive  when  he  sees  a  soldier  at  his  fireside.  Car- 
melita's  assurance  that  Stephen  is  her  lover  calms  his  fear. 
But  Stephen  in  answer  to  Stackareff' s  questions  tells  him 
that  he  is  after  Black  Lorenzo.  Again  the  knocks  are  heard. 
Stackareff,  after  shouting  at  Stephen  that  he  is  his  man, 
escapes  through  the  door.  When  the  young  soldier  resists 
her  prayers  to  desist  from  pursuing  the  murderer  Carmelita 
stabs  him.  Two  soldiers  bring  in  the  mortally  wounded  body 
of  her  father.  Realizing  that  Carmelita  has  killed  their 
captain  they  fire  upon  her.  Their  shot  rings  out  through 
the  music  of  the  finale. 

NATOMAH 

Opera  in  three  acts  by  Victor  Herbert.  First  performance  on  any 
stage  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  Philadelphia,  February  23, 191 1, 
with  Miss  Mary  Garden,  Miss  Lillian  Grenville,  Mr.  Huberdeau,  Mr. 
Dufranne,  Mr.  Sammarco,  Mr.  Preisch,  Mr.  Crabbe,  Mr.  Nicolay,  Mr. 
McCormack. 

Characters: 

Don  Francisco  de  la  Guerra,  a  noble  Spaniard  of  the  old 

regime ,  Bass 

Father  Peralta,  Padre  of  the  Mission  Church Bass 


838  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Juan  Baptista  Al\arado,  a  young  Spaniard Baritone 

Jos^  Castro,  a  half-breed Baritone 

Pico  1 Tenor 

>  bravos,  comrades  of  Castro 

Kagama  ) Bass 

Paul  Merrill,  Lieut,  on  the  U.  S.  Brig  Liberty Tenor 

Barbara  de  la  Guerra,  daughter  of  Don  Francisco Soprano 

Natomah,  an  Indian  girl Soprano 

The  time  is  1820,  under  the  Spanish  regime.  The  scene 
of  Act  I  is  laid  on  the  Island  of  Santa  Cruz,  two  hours' 
sail  from  the  mainland.  Act  II  takes  place  in  the  plaza  of 
the  town  of  Santa  Barbara  on  the  mainland,  in  front  of  the 
Mission  Church.  Act  III  represents  the  interior  of  the 
Mission  Chu'rch. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  opera  Don  Francisco  is  awaiting 
the  return  from  a  convent  of  his  only  child,  Barbara.  His 
reverie  is  interrupted  by  the  arrival  of  Alvarado  and  his 
comrades  Castro,  Pico,  and  Kagama.  Alvarado  wishes  to 
marry  his  cousin  Barbara  in  order  to  gain  possession  of  the 
estates  left  to  her  by  her  mother.  Castro  is  a  half-breed. 
Pico  and  Kagama  are  vaqueros  and  hunters.  All  three 
have  come  to  the  island  ostensibly  for  a  wild-boar  hunt,  but 
Alvarado  has  timed  his  arrival  with  the  return  of  his  cousin. 

Lieutenant  Paul  Merrill,  an  American  naval  officer,  and 
Natomah,  a  pure-blooded  Indian  girl,  appear  together  at  the 
back  of  the  stage.  His  ship  has  dropped  anchor  in  the  Bay 
of  Santa  Barbara.  Natomah  has  never  seen  an  American 
before  and  she  is  fascinated  by  him.  She  tells  him  of  a 
legend  of  her  people.  She  is  the  last  of  her  race.  During 
their  childhood  she  was  Barbara's  playmate.  She  tells  him 
of  the  young  girl's  beauty,  and  imagining  that  when  he  sees 
Barbara  he  will  fall  in  love,  the  Indian  girl  begs  him  to  per- 
mit her  to  be  at  least  his  slave.  Barbara  and  Father  Peralta 
enter.  With  the  young  girl  and  Paul  it  is  a  case  of  love  at 
first  sight.  When  all  but  Castro  and  Natomah  have  gone 
into  the  hacienda,  the  half-breed  urges  Natomah  to  cease 


American  Opera  839 

spending  her  time  with  white  people  and  to  follow  him,  the 
leader  of  her  race.  Natomah  turns  from  him  in  disgust. 
When  they  separate,  Alvarado  serenades  Barbara  who  ap- 
pears on  the  porch.  He  has  heard  that  she  has  eyes  only 
for  the  American.  Fearing  to  lose  time  he  declares  his  love. 
But  he  does  not  advance  his  suit  by  taunting  her  with  her 
infatuation  for  the  American  officer.  When  she  leaves  him 
he  swears  to  have  Paul's  life.  Castro  suggests  that  it  would 
be  better  to  carry  Barbara  off.  Natomah,  hidden  in  an  ar- 
bour, overhears  them  discussing  their  plans.  The  next  day  a 
fiesta  will  be  held  in  honour  of  Barbara's  return.  When  the 
festivity  is  at  its  height  fast  horses  will  be  ready  to  bear  the 
young  girl  away  to  the  mountains  where  pursuit  would  be 
difficult. 

When  all  the  guests  have  departed,  Barbara  speaks  aloud 
in  the  moonlight  of  her  love  for  Paul.  He  suddenly  appears 
and  they  exchange  vows. 

The  next  act  shows  the  fiesta.  Alvarado  dances  the 
Habanera  with  the  dancing-girl  Chiquita.  There  is  formal 
ceremony  in  which  the  Alcalde  and  the  leading  dignitaries 
of  the  town  pay  tribute  to  the  young  girl  on  her  coming  of 
age.  Alvarado  begs  the  honour  of  dancing  with  his  cousin. 
The  American  ship  salutes  and  Paul  arrives  with  an  escort 
to  pay  tribute  to  the  Goddess  of  the  Land,  Barbara.  Alva- 
rado demands  that  his  cousin  continue  the  dance.  A  num- 
ber of  couples  join  them  and  the  dance  changes  into  the 
Panuelo  or  handkerchief  dance  of  declaration.  Each  man 
places  his  hat  upon  the  head  of  his  partner.  Each  girl 
retains  the  hat  but  Barbara  who  tosses  Alvarado^ s  disdain- 
fully aside.  During  this  time  Natomah  has  sat  motionless 
upon  the  steps  of  the  grand-stand.  When  Castro  ap- 
proaches in  an  ugly  mood,  rails  at  the  modern  dances  and 
challenges  someone  to  dance  the  dagger  dance  with  him, 
she  draws  her  dagger  and  hurls  it  into  the  ground  be- 
side the  half-breed's.     The  crowd  is  fascinated  by  the  wild 


840  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

dance.  Just  as  Alvarado  is  about  to  smother  Barbara  in  the 
folds  of  his  serape,  Natomah,  purposely  passing  him,  plunges 
her  dagger  into  the  would-be  abductor.  The  dance  comes 
to  a  sudden  stop.  Alvarado  falls  dead.  Paul  and  his  escort 
hold  the  crowd  at  bay.  Natomah  seeks  protection  in  the 
Mission  Church  at  the  feet  of  Father  Peralta. 

At  the  opening  of  the  third  act  Natomah  is  crooning  an 
Indian  lullaby  to  herself  in  the  church.  She  wishes  to  join 
her  people,  but  instead  Father  Peralta  persuades  her  to  enter 
the  convent. 

MONA 

Opera  in  three  acts.  Poem  by  Brian  Hooker.  Music  by 
Horatio  Parker.  The  action  takes  place  during  the  days 
of  the  Roman  rule  in  Britain.  First  performance  at  the 
Metropolitan,  March  4,  1912. 

Quintus,  son  of  the  Roman  Governor;  by  a  British  cap- 
tive, has  grown  up  as  one  of  his  mother's  people.  Known 
to  them  as  Gwynn,  he  has  won  power  and  position  among 
them  as  a  bard.  He  is  about  to  marry  Mona,  foster-child  of 
Enya  and  Arth,  and  last  of  the  blood  of  Boadicea.  But  a 
great  rebellion  is  stirred  up  in  Britain  by  Caradoc,  the  chief 
bard,  and  Gloom,  the  Druid,  foster-brother  of  Mona.  By 
birthright  and  by  old  signs  and  prophecies  she  is  proclaimed 
leader.  The  girl  has  been  taught  to  hate  Rome  and  to 
dream  of  great  deeds.  Gwynn,  fearing  to  lose  Mona  and  his 
power,  swears  fellowship  in  the  conspiracy.  But  in  spite 
of  this,  for  urging  peace,  he  is  cast  off  by  Mona  and  her 
followers. 

The  faithful  lover  follows  her  about  on  her  mission  to 
arouse  revolt,  prevents  the  Roman  garrisons  from  seizing 
her,  and  secretly  saves  her  life  many  times.  The  Governor, 
his  father,  blames  him  for  this,  but  he  replies  that  through 
Mona  he  will  yet  keep  the  tribes  from  war.     The  Governor 


American  Opera  841 

lays  all  the  responsibility  upon  his  shoulders.  He  promises 
to  spare  the  Britons  if  they  remain  passive,  but  swears  to 
crush  them  without  mercy  if  they  attack.  Cwynn  meets 
Mona  just  before  the  battle  and  so  moves  her  love  for  him 
that  she  becomes  his  creattire  from  that  moment.  Tri- 
umphantly he  begins  to  tell'  her  of  his  plans  for  peace.  Sud- 
denly she  seems  to  realize  that  he  is  a  Roman,  and  calls  the 
Britons  to  her  aid.  Still,  she  lies  to  save  his  life.  The 
youth  is  made  prisoner  and  led  by  Mona  and  the  bards 
against  the  Roman  town. 

The  rebellion  is  crushed.  Arth  and  Gloom  are  slain. 
Gwynn,  coming  upon  them  and  Mona,  tells  her  of  his  parent- 
age and  pleads  for  assistance.  But  having  believed  him 
a  traitor,  she  now  thinks  him  a  liar  and  slays  him.  The 
Governor  and  his  soldiers  take  her  captive.  From  them  she 
learns  that  Gwynn  had  spoken  the  truth. 

CYRANO 

Opera  in  four  acts  by  Walter  Damrosch.  Book  by  William  J.  Hender- 
son after  the  drama  by  Edmond  Rostand.  First  performance  on  any 
stage  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  February  27,  1913,  with  Pas- 
quale  Amato  as  Cyrano,  Frances  Alda  as  Roxane,  and  Riccardo  Martin 
as  Christian. 

Characters 

Cyrano  de  Bergerac Baritone 

RoXANE Soprano 

Duenna Alto 

LiSE Soprano 

A  Flower  Girl Soprano 

Ragueneau Tenor 

Christian Bass 

De  Guiche Bass 

Le  Bret ^ Bass 

A  Tall  Musketeer Tenor 

MONTFLEURY BosS 

First  Cavauier Bass 


842  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Second  Cavalier Tenor 

Third  Cavalier Bass 

A  Cadet Tenor 

Act  I.  Interior  of  the  Hotel  de  Bourgogne.  Act  II. 
"The  Poet's  Eating  House,"  Ragueneau's  cook  and  pastry 
shop.  Act  III.  A  small  square  in  the  Old  Marais.  Act 
IV,  Scene  i.  Entrenchment  at  the  siege  of  Arras. 
Scene  2.     A  convent  garden  near  the  field  of  battle. 

Rostand's  play  was  first  produced,  October,  1898,  by 
Richard  Mansfield,  and  repeated  in  subsequent  seasons. 
In  1900  it  was  given  in  French  by  Bernhardt  and  Coquelin. 
The  libretto  of  the  opera  follows  the  play  closely.  Mr. 
Henderson  retained  and  successfully  remodelled  the  main 
incidents  of  the  drama.  The  operatic  version  begins  at  the 
Hotel  de  Bourgogne  where  "La  Clorise"  is  to  be  played. 
Cyrano  orders  the  leading  actor  off  the  stage  because  he  has 
dared  to  cast  insolent  glances  at  his  cousin  Roxane,  whom 
Cryano  loves  but  dares  not  woo  because  of  the  deformity  of 
his  hideous  nose.  Roxane,  from  a  box,  sees  in  the  audience 
the  man  with  whom  she  has  fallen  in  love,  although  she  has 
never  met  him.  Cyrano  fights  a  duel  with  De  Guiche,  a 
married  suitor  of  Roxane,  and  pricks  him  in  the  arm.  Elated 
at  the  prospect  of  a  meeting  with  his  cousin  arranged 
through  her  duenna,  Cyrano  rushes  off  to  disperse  one 
hundred  men  who  are  waiting  to  kill  one  of  his  friends. 

In  Act  II,  Cyrano  is  at  Ragueneau's  shop  waiting  for  his 
cousin.  He  writes  an  ardent  love  letter,  intending  to  give 
it  to  her.  His  hopes  are  high,  but  they  are  dashed  to  the 
ground  when  Roxane  tells  him  of  her  love  for  Christian,  who 
is  to  join  her  cousin's  regiment  that  day.  Cyrano  promises 
to  watch  over  Christian.  He  bears  his  insults  and  agrees 
to  woo  Roxane  ioT  Christian  by  his  wit  and  verse.  He  even 
sacrifices  his  own  love  letter. 

In  Act  III,  Christian  rebels  at  the  second-hand  love- 
making.     But  when  Roxane  is  disgusted  with  his  common- 


American  Opera  843 

places  he  is  glad  to  turn  again  to  Cyrano.  Under  cover  of 
night,  Cyrano  courts  Roxane  beneath  her  balcony.  She  is 
delighted  and  rewards  her  lover  with  a  kiss.  De  Guiche 
sends  a  priest  with  a  letter  in  which  he  attempts  to  gain  an 
interview  with  her.  Roxane  tells  the  priest  that  the  letter 
contains  an  order  for  him  to  perform  the  marriage  cere- 
mony. While  Cyrano  keeps  De  Guiche  outside  the  lovers 
are  married.  In  revenge,  De  Guiche  orders  the  Gascon  regi- 
ment of  which  Cyrano  and  Christian  are  both  members  to 
the  war. 

In  the  last  act,  Roxane  visits  the  entrenchment  at  the 
siege  of  Arras.  Her  carriage  is  driven  by  the  faithful 
Ragueneau.  Cyrano's  love  letters,  ostensibly  from  Christian, 
have  prompted  her  coming.  Her  husband  realizes  that  the 
man  she  really  loves  is  Cyrano,  although  she  believes  it  to  be 
Christian.  He  leaves  the  cousins  alone,  urging  Cyrano  to 
tell  the  truth.  He  is  soon  brought  back,  mortally  wounded. 
Cyrano  assures  him  that  he  has  told  Roxane  of  the  deception 
and  that  Christian  is  the  man  she  loves. 

The  second  scene  takes  place  in  a  convent.  Cyrano, 
wounded  and  dying,  visits  Roxane.  He  begs  to  see  her 
husband's  last  letter.  Forgetting  himself,  he  recites  it  in 
the  dusk.  Thus  he  betrays  his  love.  But  when  Roxane 
realizes  the  truth  he  denies  it,  "dying,"  as  he  declares, 
"without  a  stain  upon  his  soldier's  snow-white  plume." 

THE  CANTERBURY  PILGRIMS 

Opera  in  four  acts  by  Reginald  de  Koven.  Book  by  Percy  Mackaye 
Produced  for  the  first  time  on  any  stage  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  March  8,  191 7,  with  the  following  cast: 

Chaucer ' Johannes  Sembach 

The  Wife  of  Bath Margaret  Ober 

The  Prioress Edith  Mason 

The  Squire Paul  Althouse 

King  Richard  II Albert  Reis^ 


844  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Johanna Marie  Sundelius 

The  Friar Max  Block 

Joannes Pietro  Audsio 

Man  of  Law Robert  Leonhardt 

The  Miller Basil  Ruuysdael 

The  Host Giulio  Rossi 

The  Herald Riccardo  Tegani 

Tw6  Girls i  ^'^"^  ^<i^"">' 

)  Minnie  Egener 

The  Pardoner Julius  Bayer 

The  Summoner Carl  Schlegel 

The  Shipman Mario  Laurenti 

The  Cook Pompilio  Malatesta 

Conductor,  Bodanzky 

The  time  is  April,  1387;  the  place,  England.  Chaucer, 
first  poet  laureate  of  England,  travelling  incognito  with 
pilgrims  from  London  to  Canterbury,  encounters  Alisoun, 
the  Wife  of  Bath,  a  woman  of  the  lower  middle  class,  buxom, 
canny,  and  full  of  fun,  who  has  had  five  husbands,  and  is 
looking  for  a  sixth.  She  promptly  falls  in  love  with  Chaucer 
who,  instead  of  returning  her  sprightly  attentions,  conceives 
a  high,  serious,  poetic  affection  for  the  Prioress.  She  is  a 
gentlewoman,  who,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  time,  is 
both  ecclesiastical  and  secular,  having  taken  no  vows. 

The  Wife  of  Bath,  however,  is  determined  to  win  her  man. 
Devising  a  plan  for  this,  she  wagers  that  she  will  be  able  to 
get  from  the  Prioress  the  brooch,  bearing  the  inscription 
"  Amor  Vincit  Omnia,"  that  this  lady  wears  upon  her  wrist. 
Should  Alisoun  win,  Chaucer  is  bound  by  compact  to  marry 
her.  After  much  plotting  and  by  means  of  a  disguise,  the 
Wife  of  Bath  wins  her  bet,  and  Chaucer  ruefully  contemplates 
the  prospect  of  marrying  her.  In  his  plight  he  appeals  to 
King  Richard  II,  who  announces  that  the  Wife  of  Bath  may 
marry  a  sixth  time  if  she  chooses,  but  only  on  condition 
that  her  prospective  bridegroom  be  a  miller.     A  devoted 


American  Opera  845 

miller,  who  has  long  courted  her,  joyfully  accepts  the  honour, 
and  the  opera  ends  with  a  reconciliation  between  Chaucer 
and  the  Prioress. 

Mr.  Mackaye  in  speaking  of  his  libretto  at  the  time  of 
the  production  of  the  opera  had  this  to  say : 

"In  writing  'The  Canterbury  Pilgrims'  one  of  my  chief 
incentives  was  to  portray,  for  a  modern  audience,  one  of  the 
greatest  poets  of  all  times  in  relation  to  a  group  of  his  own 
characters.  As  a  romancer  of  prolific  imagination  and 
dramatic  insight,  Chaucer  stands  shoulder  to  shoulder  with 
Shakespeare.  For  English  speech  he  achieved  what  Dante 
did  for  Italian,  raising  a  local  dialect  to  a  world  language. 

"Yet  the  fourteenth-century  speech  of  Chaucer  is  just 
archaic  enough  to  make  it  diifficult  to  understand  in  modem 
times.  Consequently  his  works  are  little  known  today, 
except  by  students  of  English  literatiu'e. 

"  To  make  it  more  popularly  known  I  prepared  a  few  years 
ago  (with  Professor  J.  S.  P.  Tatlock)  The  Modern  Readers' 
Chaucer';  and  I  wrote  for  Mr.  E.  H.  Sothern  in  1903  my 
play  *  The  Canterbury  Pilgrims,'  which  since  then  has  been 
acted  at  many  American  universities  by  the  Coburn  Players, 
and  in  book  form  is  used  by  many  Chaucer  classes. 

"In  the  spring  of  1914,  at  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  De 
Koven,  I  remodelled  the  play  in  the  form  of  opera,  condens- 
ing its  plot  and  characters  to  the  more  simple  essentials 
appropriate  to  operatic  production.  Thus  focussed,  the 
story  depicts  Chaucer — the  humorous,  democratic,  lovable 
poet  of  Richard  Second's  court — placed  between  two  con- 
trasted feminine  characters,  the  Prioress,  a  shy,  religious- 
minded  gentlewoman,  who  has  retired  from  the  world,  but 
has  as  yet  taken  no  vows;  and  the  Wife  of  Bath,  a  merry, 
sensual,  quick-witted  hoyden  of  the  lower  middle  class, 
hunting  for  a  sixth  husband.  These  three,  with  many 
other  types  of  old  England,  are  pilgrims,  en  route  from 
London  to  the  shrine  of  Thomas  k  Becket,  at  Canterbury. 


846  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

"  Becoming  jealous  of  the  Prioress,  the  Wife  of  Bath  makes 
a  bet  with  Chaucer  concerning  the  gentlewoman's  behaviour 
— a  bet  which  she  wins  by  a  trick  in  the  third  act,  only  to 
lose  it  in  the  fourth. 

"The  work  is  a  comedy  in  blank  verse  of  various  metres, 
interspersed  with  rhythmed  lyrics.  For  the  first  time,  I 
believe,  in  drama  of  any  language,  it  inaugurates  on  the 
stage  the  character  of  the  famous  first  poet-laureate  of 
England— the  'Father  of  English  Literature.'" 

Mr.  De  Koven  also  tells  how  he  came  to  compose  the 
music : 

"I  have  often  been  asked  the  question  why  I  have  never 
before  now  written  a  work  in  the  larger  operatic  form,  and 
my  answer  has  always  been  that  I  was  waiting  until  I  could 
find  a  really  good  book.  For  an  opera  libretto  that  success- 
fully meets  the  requirements  of  a  lyric  work  of  this  class, 
which  is  primarily  for  and  of  the  stage,  in  the  way  of  dra- 
matic interest,  development  and  climax,  a  poetic  knowledge 
of  the  possibilities  and  limitations  of  the  English  language 
when  sung,  and  those  visual  and  picturesque  qualities  in  the 
story  which  alone  can  make  the  unreal  conditions  of  opera, 
per  se,  either  plausible  or  intelligible,  is  about  as  rare  as  the 
proverbial  white  crow — as  many  gifted  composers  have 
found  to  their  cost. 

"All  these  requirements  are,  I  think,  fulfilled  in  the  really 
charming  libretto  which  Mr.  Mackaye  has  written  in  'The 
Canterbury  Pilgrims,'  which  came  to  me  unsought  as  it 
were.  As  a  member  of  a  committee  for  choosing  plays  to  be 
used  in  settlement  work  on  the  East  Side,  my  wife  read  Mr. 
Mackaye's  earlier  play  of  the  same  name,  and  told  me  she 
thought  it  contained  excellent  operatic  material.  Agreeing 
with  her,  I  went  to  Mr.  Mackaye  and  suggested  the  idea  to 
him.  He  agreed  with  me  and  soon  afterwards,  early  in 
1 914,  we  set  to  work.  To  adapt  a  play  of  over  17,000  words 
for  operatic  purposes  by  merely  cutting  it  was  manifestly 


American  Opera  847 

impossible.  Entire  reconstruction,  both  in  structure  and 
language,  was  necessary,  and  this  Mr.  Mackaye  has 
so  successfully  accomplished  that  in  my  judgment  his 
libretto,  as  an  artistic  whole,  is  far  superior  to  his  earlier 
play. 

"I  took  the  first  act  with  me  when  I  went  abroad  in 
March,  1914,  and  the  entire  opera,  begun  October  10,  19 14, 
was  finished  on  December  21,  191 5,  during  which  time  I 
lived  at  Vevey,  Switzerland,  amid,  and  yet  far  from,  wars 
and  rumours  of  wars. 

"As  to  my  part  of  the  work,  the  characters  of  Mr.  Mac- 
kaye's  story,  whose  essentially  old  English  atmosphere 
appealed  to  me  strongly  from  the  first,  naturally  suggested 
Verdi's  'Falstaff'  as  a  model  in  a  sense.  But  Verdi  abjured 
the  leit  motif  or  motto  theme,  and  I  had  always  felt  that 
Wagner's  theory,  applied  in  some  form,  was  the  true  basis  of 
construction  for  all  musico-dramatic  work.  Yet  again  it 
always  seemed  to  me  that,  save  in  the  hands  of  a  consum- 
mate master,  the  leit  motif,  pushed  to  its  logical  develop- 
ment, was  only  too  apt  to  become  tiresome,  obscure,  and 
ineffective.  So,  after  much  consideration,  I  bethought  me 
of  the  very  way  in  which  Massenet  in  'Manon'  had  used  a 
limited  number  of  what  might  be  called  recurrent  themes — 
such  as  the  one  for  'Des  Grieux' — and  made  up  my  mind  to 
try  what  could  be  done  along  these  simpler  and  more 
plastic  lines. 

"So,  without  attempting  to  describe  pictorially  in  music, 
swords,  tarnhelms,  or  dragons,  or  to  weave  music  into  an 
intricate  contrapuntal  work,  I  have  in  'The  Canterbury  Pil- 
grims,' while  following  closely  the  spirit  and  meaning  of  Mr. 
Mackaye's  poetic  text,  attributed  a  number  of  saliently 
melodic  themes  to  the  characters,  incidents,  and  even 
material  objects  of  the  story,  and  when  these  recur  in  or  are 
suggested  by  the  text  the  attributive  themes  recur  with 
them,  so  that,  as  I  hope,  they  may  be  readily  recognizable 


848  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

by  the  untechnical  opera-goer  and  aid  him  in  following  this 
story  and  action. 

"Just  a  word  in  regard  to  the  English  language  as  a 
medium  for  opera  and  song.  As  Mr.  Gatti  says  that  a 
typical  operatic  audience  in  Italy,  knowing  their  own  lan- 
guage and  generally  familiar  with  both  text  and  story  of 
their  operas,  only  expect  to  understand  about  half  the  words 
as  sung,  owing  to  the  very  conditions  of  opera  itself,  may  it 
not  be  fairly  said  that  American  audiences  who  go  to  hear 
operas  in  English,  expecting  to  understand  every  word, 
expect  the  impossible,  and  should  be  more  reasonable  in  their 
demands  ? 

"Again,  I  have  always  contended  and  maintained  that 
the  English  language,  properly  used,  is  an  entirely  singable 
language,  and  as  so  far  during  the  rehearsals  of  'The  Canter- 
bury Pilgrims'  none  of  the  artists  has  seemed  to  find  any 
great  difficulty  in  singing  in  English  beyond  that  inherent 
to  a  certain  lack  of  familiarity  with  the  language  itself,  it 
looks  as  if  my  contention  stands  at  least  a  fair  chance  of 
being  admitted. " 


Spanish  Opera 

DURING  the  winter  of  19 15-16  the  interest  in  Spanish 
musfc  was  at  its  height  in  New  York,  Enrique 
Granados,  a  distinguished  Spanish  composer  and  pianist, 
came  to  the  city  to  superintend  the  production  of  his  opera, 
"Goyescas,"  sung  in  Spanish  at  the  Metropolitan.  Pablo 
Casals,  the  famous  Spanish  'cellist,  and  Miguel  Llobet, 
virtuoso  of  the  guitar,  were  making  frequent  appearances. 
La  Argentina  was  dancing,  and  Maria  Barrientos  made  her 
debut  at  the  Metropolitan.  In  the  season  of  1917-18  the 
Spanish  craze  culminated  in  "The  Land  of  Joy,"  a  musical 
revue  which  came  first  to  the  Park  Theatre,  then  was 
transferred  to  the  Knickerbocker  Theatre.  The  music 
was  by  Joaquin  Valverde,  fils,  and  the  entertainment  was 
an  entrancing  blend  of  colour  and  intoxicating  rhythms, 
with  the  dancing  of  the  passionate  gipsy,  Doloretes,  as  the 
most  amazing  and  vivid  feature. 

GOYESCAS 

The  characters  and  setting  of  the  opera  are  suggested  by 
the  work  of  the  Spanish  painter  Goya.  The  opera  opens 
with  a  crowd  of  niajas  and  majos  enjoying  a  holiday  on  the 
outskirts  of  Madrid.  Some  of  the  majas  are  engaged  in 
the  popular  pastime  of  tossing  the  pelele  (a  man  of  straw) 
in  a  blanket.  Paquiro  the  toreador  is  paying  compliments 
to  the  women.  Pepa,  his  sweetheart  of  the  day,  arrives  in 
her  dogcart.  Popular,  she  is  warmly  welcomed.  Soon 
54  849 


850  The  Complete  Opera  Book 

Rosario,  a  lady  of  rank,  arrives  in  her  sedan-chair  to  keep  a 
tryst  with  her  lover,  Fernando,  a  captain  in  the  Royal 
Spanish  Guards.  Paquiro  reminds  her  of  a  haile  de  candil 
(a  ball  given  in  a  room  lit  by  candlelight)  which  she  once 
attended.  He  invites  her  to  go  again.  Fernando  overhears 
his  remarks.  His  jealousy  is  aroused.  He  informs  Paquiro 
that  Rosario  shall  go  to  the  ball,  but  that  he,  Fernando,  will 
accompany  her.  He  extracts  Rosario' s  promise  to  go  with 
him,  while  Pepa,  enraged  by  Paquiro' s  neglect,  vows  venge- 
ance upon  her. 

The  second  tableau  shows  the  scene  at  the  ball.  Fernando 
appears  with  Rosario.  His  haughty  bearing  and  disdainful 
speech  anger  all  present.  The  two  men  arrange  for  a  duel 
that  evening,  and  when  Rosario  recovers  from  a  swoon, 
Fernando  takes  her  away. 

The  third  tableau  reveals  Rosario' s  garden.  Fernando 
visits  her  before  keeping  his  appointment  with  Paquiro. 
When  a  bell  strikes  the  fatal  hour,  Fernando  tears  himself 
away.  He  is  followed  hesitatingly  by  Rosario.  Soon  the 
silence  is  broken  by  a  cry  from  Fernando,  followed  by  a 
shriek  from  Rosario.  The  lovers  reappear.  Rosario  sup- 
ports Fernando  to  a  stone  bench  where  he  dies  in  her  arms. 

Enrique  Granados,  perhaps  the  first  important  composer 
from  Spain  to  visit  North  America,  was  born  July  27,  1867, 
at  Lerida,  Catalonia.  He  died  March  24,  1916,  a  passenger 
on  the  Sussex,  torpedoed  in  the  English  Channel.  The 
libretto  for  his  "Goyescas"  is  by  Fernando  Periquet. 


INDEX 

Note:     In  setting  this  index,  different  faces  of  type  have  been  used  as  follows: 
For  operas,  thus;  Alda. 
For  characters,  thus;  Phadames. 
For  singers,  thus :  Eambs. 
For  composers,  thus :     VERDI. 


Abimelech,  725 

Adalgisa,  326  ff. 

ADAM,  ADOLPHE  CHARLES. 

467,  497 
Adams,  Suzanne,  45,  516 
Adina,  335  fif . 
Adriano,  94  ff. 
iEneas,  539,  541 
Aennchen,  64  ff. 
Afron,  Prince,  829 
iEgisthus,  804 
Agathe,  64  ff. 
Agnes,  816 

Agramente,  Mother,  765 
Ah- Joe,  686  ff. 
Aida,  I,  6,  7,   90,  433,  438,  439,- 

466,  602,  618,  672 
Alain,  728 

Alberich,  89,  141,  148,  208 
Albert,  748 
Alboni,  306,  308 
Alceste,  493 
Alcindoro,  643  ff. 
Alda,  Frances,   458,   466,    602, 

680,  762,  841 
Alessandro   Stradella,  559 
Alessio.  319  ff. 
Alfio,  612  ff. 
Alfonso,  52,  53,  496 
Alfonso  XI,  359  ff. 
Ali,  762 

Alice,  343  ff.,  501  ff. 
Aline,  767 
Alisa,  343 
Allaine,  760 
Almaviva,  308 

Almaviva,  Count,  23  ff.,  295  ff. 
Almaviva,  Countess,  23  ff. 
Almerio,  762 


Alston,  Elizabeth,  23 
Althouse,  Paul,  834,  836,  843 
Altichiara,  680  ff. 
Alvar,  Don,  524  ff. 
Alvarado,  Juan  Baptista,  838 
Alvarez,  M.,  458,  516,  543,  736, 

745 
Alvaro,  Don,  437  ff. 
Alvary,  Max,  69,  140,  148,  191, 

208,  227 
Alvise,  482  ff. 
Amato,  Pasquale,  14,  427,  475, 

482,   587,  602,  622,  639,  674, 

680,  690,  707,  841 

AMBRfe,    MmE.,  586 

Ambrosio,  295 

Amelfa,  829 

Amelia  (Adelia),  427  ff. 

Amfortas,  272  ff. 

Amico  Fritz,  L',  618  ff. 

Amina,  319  ff. 

Amneris,  439  ff. 

Amodio,  402,  416,  531 

AmonasrO;  439  ff. 

Amor,  God  of  Love,  9  ff. 

Amore  Medici,  L',  698 

Anacona,  718  ff. 

Ananian,  Paolo,  765 

Ancona,  359,  602,  628 

Andres,  724 

Andr6  Ch^nier,  712  ff. 

Andromache,  539 

ANGELINO,  638 

Angelo  (Director),  434 

Angelotti,  Cesare,  653  ff. 

Angioletta,  765 

Angrisani,  Carlo,  44,  295 

Anita,  746 

Anna,  523  ff.,  541,  639,  720,  764 

Anna  Boleno,  334 

Anne,  466  ff. 


851 


852 


Index 


Annetta,  718  ff. 
Annina,  4i6flf.,  807 
Anschutz,  Carl  (Director),  69 
Antipas,  Herod,  801 

AnTOGNINI,  SlGNOR,   333 

Antonia,  724 

Antonio,  23  ff.,  367  ff.,   581   ff., 

622  ff. 
Aphrodite,  756  ff. 
Araline,  Mme.,62 
Araquil,  746 

ARBELL,  LUCY  (Librettist),  750 
Archibaldo,  690  ff. 
Arden,  Cecil,  765 
ARDITI,  306 
Ariadne,  813 
Ariadne  (Arianna),  5 
Ariadne  auf  Nazos,  813 
Ariane,  759  ff 

Ariane  et  Barbe-Bleue,  759 
Arianna  (Ariadne),  5 
Ariofarno,  715 
Arkel,  752  ff. 
Arlecchino,  705  ff.,  814 
Armide,  8,  20,  85,- 493 
Armide,  14  ff. 
Armuth,  Lena,  721 
Arnold,  313  ff. 
Arnoldson,  Sigrid,  748 
Arnolfo,  706 
Arontes,  15  ff. 
Arrigo,  436  ff. 
Arsaces,  310  ff. 
Artaxerzes,  4 
Artemidore,  15  ff. 
Arth,  840 
Arturo,  343 
Ascanio,  536  ff. 
Ascanius,  539,  541 
Asdrubale,  Don,  719 
Ashby,  674  ff. 

Ashton,  Lord  Henry,  343  ff. 
Assad,  773 
Assur,  310  ff. 
Astaroth,  773 
Astolfo,  339  ff. 
Astyonax,  539 
Astrofiammante,    Queen    of    the 

Night,  45 
Asvezel  Moslain,  Khan,  767 
Athanael,  732 

Attaque  du  Moulin,  L',  75S  ff. 
AUBER,  DANIEL    FRANCOIS 


ESPRIT,  2,  306,  426,  496, '498, 

510 
AuDisio,  Pietro,  765,  844 
Authorite,  752 
Avito,  690  ff. 
Azema,  310  ff. 
Azucena,  403  ff. 


B 


Baal  Hanau,  773 

Bacchis,  757 

Bacchus,  813 

Bada,  Angelo,  765 

Baglioni,  Antonio,  32 

Bahis,  Dr.,  706 

Bakj.anoff,  Georges,  767 

Balducci,  536  ff. 

BALFE,  467 

Ballo  in  Maschera,  Un,  426,  438 

Balthazar,  359  ff. 

Bandrowski,  Alexander  Van, 
830 

Baptista,  772 

Barbarina,  23  ff. 

Barber  of  Bagdad,  The,  770 

Barber  of  Seville,  7,  22,  25,  295, 
307,  308,  315,  376,  742 

BARBIER,  JULES  (Librettist) 
23,  531,  535,  562,  565,  574,  580, 
585, 723 

Barbieri,    Mme.,  44 

Bardolph,  466  ff. 

Barili,   Clothilda,  367 

Barnaba,  482  ff. 

Baroncello,  94  ff. 

Barr6,  585 

Barrientos,  Maria,  849 

Bartet,  Miss,  728 

Bartolo,  719 

Bartollo,  Doctor,  23  ff.,  295  ff. 

BARTON,  GEORGE  ED- 
WARDS (Librettist),  833 

Basilio,  295 

Bassett,  Charles,  612 

Bassi,  Signor,  32,  699 

Bastien,  52 

Bastien  and  Bastienne,  51 

Bastienne,  52 

BATKA,  RICHARD  (Libret- 
tist), 781,  788 

Bayer,  Julius,   272,  776,  844 

Beale,  Kittie,  765 


Index 


853 


Beatrice,  583,  704  ff. 

Beatrice  and  Benedict,  538 

BEAUMARCHAIS  (Librettist), 
23 

Beckmesser,  Sixtus,  246  ff. 

BEETHOVEN,  22,  54.  55.  56.  77 

Behne,  Harriet,  665 

Belcore,  335  ff. 

Belhomme,  M.,  724 

BELL-RANSKE,  JUTTA  (Li- 
brettist), 834 

Bellang^re,  760 

Bellati,  665 

Bellini,  Laura,  612 

BELLINI,  VINCENZO,  I,  3i8flf., 

325,  329,  334.  376,  493.  608 
Benedict,  538 
BENELLI,     SEM      (Librettist), 

690 
Benjamin,  495 
Benoit,  643  ff. 
Benson,  Mrs.,  725 
Benvenuto  Cellini,  535  ff. 
Benvenuto  Cellini,  536  ff. 
Benvolio,  575  ff. 
Beppe,  619  ff.,  628  ff. 
Berardengo,  Ser  Toldo,  680  ff. 
BiRAT,  Louis,  699 
Bergmann,  Carl   (Director),  63, 

107 
BERGMULLER,  ROBERT,  559 
BERLIOZ,     HECTOR,     13,  63, 

78.  85.  535,  542 

Bemal.  832 

Bernardino,  536  ff. 

BERNEDE,  ARTHUR  (Libret- 
tist), 749 

BERNHARD,     A.     (Librettist), 

825 
Bersi,  713  ff. 
Berta,  295 
Bertel,  781 
Bertha,  516  ff. 

BERTONI,  FERNANDINO,  12 
Bertram,  the  Unknown,  501 
Bervoix,  Flora,  416  ff. 
Besenbinder,  Der,  776 
Betrothed,  The  (I  Promessi  Sposi), 

481 
Bettini,  501 
Betz,  89 
BEY,   MARIETTE    (Librettist), 

439 


Beyle,  Leon,  756 
BiACHi    Hannibal,  562 
Biaiso,  699  ff. 
Bianca,  772 
Bianco fiore,  680  ff. 
BIELSKY,  v.,  829 
BIERBAUM,     OTTO     JULIUS 
(Librettist),  791 

BiGNARDI,    386 

BIS    (Librettist),  317 

BiSCHOFF,   A.,    163 

BisPHAM,    David,    52,  227,  375, 

830 
BISHOP,    HENRY    ROWLEY, 

30 
Bishop,  Mme.  Anna,  546 
Biterolf,  107  ff. 
BIZET,  GEORGES,  2,  494,  510, 

586,  601,  603,  728 
Black   Lorenzo,  836 
Blancheflem,  788 
Blass,  M.,  272,  830 
BLAU,    EDOUARD  (Librettist), 

742,  747 
BLECH,  781 
Block,  Max,  772,  844 
Blue-Beard,  759  ff. 
Blum,  A.,  163 
Bobadilla.  718  ff. 
BODANZKY,      ARTUR,      769, 

773.  844 
Boheme,  La  (Leoncavallo),  628 
Boh6me,  La  (Puccini),  638,  643  ff. 
Bohner,  Mrs.  Jennie,  612 
BOILDIEU,     FRANCOIS    AD- 

RIEN,  495 
BOITO,    ARRIGO    (Librettist), 

458,  466,  474,  480,  482,  715 
Bombardon,  779 
BoNci,  329,  372,  639 
BoNDiNi,  Teresa,  32 
Boniface,  747 
BoNNARD,  745 
Bonze,  The,  665  ff. 
Borghese,  Signora,  333 
Borgia,  Lucrezia,339  ff. 
BoRi,  620,  686,  690 
Boris  Godoimoff,  822 
BORODIN,   819 
Borov,  720 
Borsa,  387  ff. 

BOSIO,  SiCNORlNA,  501,  503 

Bostana,  771 


854 


Index 


BoTTA,  620,  686 

BOUILLY   (Librettist).  55 

Boy,  440 

Braendle,  Miss,  272 

Brander,  543  flf, 

Brangane,  227  fif. 

Brandt,  Marianne,  62,  69,  117, 

163,  236,  272, 516 
Braun,  18,  504 
Braun,  781 

Braslau,  Sophie,  834 
Brayole,  Captain,  788 
BREIL,  JOSEPH,  836 
Brema,  516 

Bressler-Gianoli,  586,  602 
Bret,  Le,  841 
BREUNING  (Librettist),  54 

BrEVAL,  LUCIENNE,  729,  752 

Bridewell,  Carrie,  752 

Brighella,  814 

Brignoli,   339,    402,    416,    513, 

585 
Broschi,  Carlo,  4 
Brough,  319 
BRULL,   779 

BRUNEAU,  ALFRED,  758 
Briinnhilde,  7,  89,  140,   142,    146 

164, 208 
Bucklaw,  Lord  Arthur,  343  ff . 
BUNGE,  RUDOLF  (Librettist), 

784 
Burgstaller,  272 
Burton,  832 
Butterfly,  Madam  (Cio-Cio-San) 

6656. 
Butterfly,  Madama,  638,  644,  664 
BYRNE,    JAQUES    (Librettist), 

836 


Cadi,  762 

CADMAN,  CHARLES  WAKE- 
FIELD,  834 
CAIN,       HENRI       (Librettist), 

743,  745,  749 
Cajus,  Dr.,  466  ff. 
Calatrava,  Marquis  di,  437  ff. 
Caliph,  The  771 
Calife  de  Bagdad,  Le,  495 
CaUides,  756  ff. 
CALVjfe.    Mme.,    475,    543,    564, 

586^  602,  604,  612,  618,  745 


CALZABIGI,     RANIERO     DI 

(Librettist),  9 
Cambiale  di  Matrimonio,  La,  294 
CAMMARANO,     SALVATORE 

(Librettist),  343,  372,  402 
Campanari,  23,  628 
Campanello  di  Notte,  U,  334, 3742. 
Campanini,    Cleofante    (Direc- 
tor), 354,  458,  466,  611,  665, 

699 
Campanini,  Italo,  117,  343,  354, 

359,  402,   437,   440,  475,   503, 

531,  546,  562,  586,  587 
Campbell,  Miss,  612 
Canio,  628  ff. 
Canissa,  Pauline,  163 
Canterbury  Pilgrims,  The,  843 
Capoul,  575,  580 
Capulet,  Count,  575  ff. 
Caradoc,  840 
Carlos,  Don,  377.  437,  438 
Carmela,  699  ff. 
Carmelita,  836 
Carmen,  2,     303,  510,  586,  587, 

603 
Caroline,  Queen,  708  ff. 
CARRi:,  MICHEL  (Librettist), 

2,  531.  562,  565.  574:  580,  585, 

603, 723 
Caruso,  14,  335,  337,  339,    343, 

354.  386,  388,  402,   412,  426, 

475,  482,   504,   516,   546,   564, 

587,   602,  604,  611,   620,   622, 

640,665,674,714 
Cary,  Annie  Louise,   117,  359, 

402,  437,  440,  475,  503,  585 
Case,  Anna,  807 
Cassandra,  539 
Cassio,  459  ff. 
Castelmary,  557 
Castiglione,  765 
CASTIL-BLAZE         (Librettist), 

299,  307 
Castor  and  Pollux,  i 
Castro,  Jose,  675,  838 
CATALINA,   ALFRED,   719 
Caterina,  619  ff. 
Catherine,  530 

Cavalieri,  Lina,  640,  715,  749 
Cavalleria-Rusticana,    609,     610, 

612,  626,  698,  707,  746 
CAVALLI,   5 
Cavaradossi,  Mario,  652  ff. 


Index 


855 


Cavalieri,  Caterina,  43 

Cendrillon,  728,  745 

Ceprano,  Count,  386  fif. 

Ceprano,  Countess,  387  ff. 

Cesano,  765 

Cesare  Borgia,  627 

Cesarim,  Dike  (Director),  300 

Chaliapine,  475 

Chalmers,  Thomas,  762,  834 

Chapelon,  497 

Chapuis,  601 

Charles,  Vicx)mte  de  Sirval,  367 
ff. 

Charlotte,  748 

Charming,  Prince,  745 

CHARPENTIER,  GUSTAVE, 
750 

Chaucer,  843 

Chemlneau,  Le,  766 

Ch^nier,  Andrd,  713  ff. 

CHERUBINI,   LUIGI,   493,  494 

Cherubino,  23  ff. 

Chiarina,  765 

Chim-Fen,  686  ff. 

Chimaris,  757 

Chimene,  742 

Chonita,  832 

CHOPIN,  306 

CHORLEY    (Librettist),   574 

Choroebus,  539 

Christian,  841 

Christine,  779 

Chrysis,  757 

Chrysothemis,  804 

Cicillo,  699  ff. 

Cid,  Le,  742 

Cieca,  La,  482  ff. 

Cinderella,  745 

Cinti-Damoreau,  Mlle.,  501 

CIVINI,  G.,  674 

CLARETIE,  JULES  (Libret- 
tist), 745 

Clarke,  Payne,  612 

Claudio,  538 

Clemenza  di  To  to,  51 

Cleo,  788 

Cleopatra,  750 

Cleopatre,  750 

Clitandro,  706 

Clotilda,  326  ff. 

Clytemnestra,  804 

Cochenille,  724 

Colas,  52,  779 


COLAUTTI   (Librettist),  720 
CoLETTi,  503,  562 

COLINl,  562 

Collin,  M.,  724 

CoUine,  643  ff, 

Colombina,  704  ff. 

Colombo,  Cristoforo,  717  ff. 

Colonna,  Steffano.  94  ff. 

Comare,  La,  719 

Concetta,  699  n. 

Conchita,  685,  716 

Conchita,  716  ff. 

Conrjed,    Heinrich    (Director), 

272,  612,  804 
Contes  d'Hoffmann,  Les,  723 
CONVERSE,       FREDERICK 

SHEPHERD,   832,833 
Coppelius,  724 
Coq  d'Or,  Le,  828 

COQLELIN,  728 
CORDIER,  531 

Corentino,  531  ff. 
CORMON     (Librettist),  603 
CORNEILLE,  742 
CORNELIUS,  PETER,  769,  770 
Corregidor,  Der,  792 

CORSI,  PiNI,  674 

Cortez,  Fernando,  80 
Cortez,  765 
Cossc,  504  ff. 
Cosi  Fan  Tutti,  24,  52 
COSTA,  63,  78 
Crabbe,  Mr.,  837 
Cremonini,  359,  652 
Crepusculum,  627 
Crespel,  724 

Cricket  on  the  Hearth,  The,  775 
Crisogono,  721 

Crispino  e  La  Comare,  718  ff. 
Crispino,  718  ff. 
Cristoforo  Colombo,  717  ff. 
Crivelli,  Signor,  295 
Cuno,  63  ff. 
Cyril,  720 

Cyrano  de  Bergerac,  832,  841 
Czar  und  Zimmermann  (Czar  and 
Carpenter),  80 


D 


Dafne,  4 

Daland,  98  ff. 
Dalila,  725 


856 


Index 


Dalmores,  Charles,  543,  587, 
602,  749 

Dame  Blanche,  La,  495 

Damian,  784 

Damnation  de  Faust,  La,  535, 
542  ff. 

Damphol,  Baron,  416  ff. 

Damrosch,  Dr.  Leopold  (Di- 
rector), 62,  90,  107,  163,  498, 
523,  542,  830 

DAMROSCH,  WALTER,  832, 
841 

d'Angelo,  Louis,  836 

Danielo,  765 

Danish  Knight,  The,  15  ff. 

DA  PONTE,  LORENZO  (Li- 
brettist), 29,  30,  31,  44,  52 

David,  247  ff.,  619  ff. 

DEBUSSY,  2,  752 

Defrere,  Desire,  767 

D'ENNERY,  M.  (Librettist), 
742 

de  Gebel,  Frida,  163 

DE  GRAMONT,  LOUIS  (Li- 
brettist), 756 

DE  KOVEN,  REGINALD,  843 

DELAVIGNE  (Librettist),  496, 
501 

DELDEVEZ,    EDOUARD,    559 

DELIBES,  724 

Delmas,  M.,  736 

Delpouget,  M.,  736 

Del  Puente,  402,  503,  562,  586, 
612, 736 

DE  LucA,  Giuseppe,  628,  665, 
762 

Demellin,  756 

Demetrios,  756  ff. 

DE  Reszke,  Edouard,  45,  208, 
227,246,440,503,  516,  523 

DE  Reszke,  Jean,  23,  45,  140, 
208,  227,  246,  426,  503,  516, 
523,  542,  575,  563,  586,  736, 
748 

DESCHAMPS  (Librettist),  503 

Deschamps-Jehin,  Mme.,  750 

Desdemona,  459  ff. 

de  Segurola,  Andres,  674,  762 

Desfonandres,  Dr.,  706 

Despina,  52 

Despreaux,  707  ff. 

d'Este,  Alfonso,  Duke  of  Ferrara, 
339  ff- 


Destinn,  E.,  427,  466,  475,  482, 

504, 665,  674 
Deux  Joumees,  Les,  493 
Diable,  Le,  728 
Diana,  18  ff. 
Dido,  541 
DiDUR,   Adamo,    516,    622,    674, 

686,  690,  765,  776 
Diego,  Don,  524  ff.,742 
Diemut,  797 
Dilthey,  Minnie,  9 
Dimitri,  the  Pretender,  822 
Di  Murska,  Ilma,  531 

DiNH-GlLLY,  674 

Dinorah,  531  ff. 

Dinorah,  ou  le  Pardon  de  Ploer- 

mel,  500,  530 
Di  Silva,  Don  Ruy  Gomez,  377  ff. 
Djamileh,  605 
Djamileh,  605 
Dmitri,  720 

d'Obigny,  Marquis,  4x6  ff. 
Dodon,  King,  828 
DoLci,  Alessandro,  720 
Dominique,  759 
Donati,  679 
Don  Carlos,  437,  441 
Donella,  680  ff. 
DONIZETTI,     I,  308,  334,  359. 

366,  372,  376,  493,  608 
Donne  Curiose,  Le,  698,  704 
Donner,  89,  148 
Dorabella,  52 

D'ORINVILLE  (Librettist),  720 
Doris,  788 
DoRus,  Mlle,  501 
Dot,  775 
Duca  d'Alba,  II,  366 

DUFRANNE,  Mr.,  729,  837 
DUFRICHE,  652,  745,  752 

DUKAS,  PAUL,  759 
Dulcamara,  335  ff. 
Dulcinee,  La  belle,  743  ff. 
DU     LOCLE,    CAMILLE     (Li- 
brettist), 752 

DUPREZ,  313,  343 

Durham,  Lady  Harriet,  546  ff. 

Dursel,  788 

Dusk  of  the  Gods,  The,  89 

Dutchman,  The,  98 
DUVAL,     ALEXANDER      (Li- 
brettist), 495 
DU  WAILLY  (Librettist),  535 


Index 


857 


E 


Eames,  Emma.  23,  140,  246,  402, 
426,  458,  466,  475,  564,  575, 
586,  612,  620,  715,  748 

Easton,  Florence,  622,  769,  835 

EBERHARDT,  NELLE  RICH- 
MOND (Librettist),  834 

Eboli.  Princess,  438 

Edgar,  639 

Edgar  of  Ravenswood,  343  ff. 

Edgardo,  343,  608 

Edmund,  640  ff. 

Egener,  Minnie,  844 

Eislinger,  Ulrich,  246  ff. 

El  Dancairo,  .S87  ff. 

Eleanora,  704  ff. 

Elektra,  769,  804 

Elektra,  804 

Elena,  475  ff. 

Elisa,  Princess,  708  ff. 

Elizabeth,  107  ff. 

Elizabeth,  St.,  769 

Ellen,  725 

Elus,  Mary,  765 

Elopement  from  the  Serail,  The 
(Belmonte  und  Constance),  52 

El  Remendado,  587  ff. 

Elsa  of  Brabant,  1 17  ff. 

Else,  781 

Elvino,  319  ff. 

Elvira,  330,  377,  608 

Elvira,  Don,  31  ff. 

Emilia,  459  ff. 

Engel,  Freidrich,  787 

Engel,  Lotta,  776 

Enrico,  343,  375 

Enrico  di  Borgogna,  335 

Ensorcelee,  L',  764 

Enya,  840 

Ephiggnie  en  Tauride,  18 

Erda,  89,  140,  142,  148 

Eric,  98  ff. 

ERLANGER,  CAMILLE,  756 

Emani,  377.  385 

Ernani,  608 

Emani,  John,  of  Aragon,  377  ff. 

Ernesto,  372  ff. 

Eroshka,  820 

Escamillo,  587  ff. 

Eschenback,  Wolfram  von,  107  ff. 

Esmeralda,  816 

Estella,  716  S. 


6TIENNE.  V.  J.  C  JOUY),"  313 
Eugen  Oniegio,  825,  828 
Euryanthe,  03,  69,  77,  85 
Eurydice,  9  ff. 
Eva,  247  ff. 

Evangelimann,  Der,  787 
Everton,  Amy,  834 
Everton,  Mrs.,  834 

P 

Fafner,  141,  148 

Fairies,  The,  82 

Falstaff,  7,  376,  466,  480,^47 

Falstaff,  Sir  Henry,  466  ff. 

Fancuilla  del  West,  La,  638,  674 

Faniska,  494 

Farlaf,  818 

Farneti,  Marie,  620 

Farrar,  Geraldine,  23,  45,  565, 

586;  602,  611,  622,  665,  705, 

707.  741,  765.  776 
Fasolt,  141,  148 
Fatimah,  762 
Faur6,  45,  531,562,  585 
Faust,  7,  79,  510  561,562 
Faust,  475,  543,  562 
Favart,  788 
Favorita,  La,  334,  359 
Febrizio,  718  ff. 
Fedora,  714,  720 
Fedora,  Princess,  720 
Feldlager  in  Schlesien,  Das,  500, 

530 
Fenella,  496 
Fen  ton,  466  ff. 
Feodor,  822 
Ferdinand,  359  ff. 
Fernando, 850 
Fernando  Cortez,  80 
Fernando,  Don,  54  ff. 
Ferrando,  52,  402 
Ferrari-Fontana,  690 
Feuersnot,  769,  796 
FEVRIER,  HENRY,   761 
Fiamina,  729 
Fidelio  22,  54,  56,  62,  77 
Fides,  516  ff. 
Fierarnosca,  536  ff. 
Figaro,  23,  24,  295,  309 
Figaro,  Marriage  of,  51,  295 
Figlia  del  Reggimento,  La,  334, 

355 
Figlinol  Prodigo,  111,  481  . 


858 


Index 


Filipievna,  825 

Fille  de  Roland,  La,  763 

Finn, 818 

Fiordiligi,  52 

Fiorello,'  295 

Fischer,  Emil,  69,  117,  140,  148, 
191,  208,  227,  246 

FiTziN,  Anna,  719 

Flaminio,  690  ft. 

Flammen,  622  ff. 

Flavius,  326  ff. 

Fleville,  713  fif. 

Flora,  690  ff. 

Florestan,  54,  62 

Florinda,  704  ff. 

Flosshilde,  148,  208 

Flying  Dutchman,  The,  69,  79, 
84,  98,  109,  118,  226 

Folco,  626 

Folz,  Hans,  246  ff. 

Fontaine,  Charles,  761,  767 

Ford,  466  ff. 

Ford,  Mistress,  466  ff. 

For^t,  Lysiart  de,  69  ff. 

Formes,  Carl,  313,  501,  503 

FoRNiA,  807 

Forth,  Sir  Richard,  3'^o  ff. 

FORTUNA,  FERDINANDO 
(Librettist),  639 

Forza  del  Destine,  La,  436  ff. 

FORZANO,  GIOACCHINO  (Li- 
brettist), 622 

Fouche,  707 

Fra  Diavolo,  497 

Francesca,  680  ff. 

Francesca  Da  Rimini,  680  ff. 

Francesco,  536  ff. 

FRANCHETTI,  ALBERTO,  717, 
721 

Franco  Arciero,  II,  63 

Frangois,  767 

Frangoise,  759 

Frantz,  724 

Franz,  622  ff. 

Frasquita,  587,  793 

Frederic,  581  ff. 

Fredeiica,    Duchess    of    Ostheim, 

434  ff- 
Frederick,  724 

Frederick  of  Telramund,  117  ff. 
Frederico,  619  ff. 
Freia,  141,  148  ff. 
Freischiitz,  Der,  62,  77,  81,  85 


Fremstad,  Olive,    14,    140,   227, 

801,  804 
Freudhofer,  Johannes,  787 
Freudhofer,  Matthais,  787 
Frezzolini,  386 
Friche,  Claire,  756 
Fricka,  89,  142,  148,  164 
Friedhold,  799 
Froh,  148  ff. 
Pucho,  272 

Fugere,  Lucien,  729,  750 
Furies,  The,  10 
Fursch-Madi,  483 
Furst,  Walter,  313  ff. 


GABEAUX,   PIERRE,    55 

Gabriel,  Padre,  833 

Gadski,  Johanna,  9,  227,  246 

Galassi,  Antonio,  332,  354,  367, 
387,  402,  437,  458,  587 

Galitzky,  Prince,  820 

Gall,  Yvonne,  767 

GALLET,  M.  LOUIS  (Libret- 
tist), 605,  731,  742,758 

G.'VLLi-CuRci,  Amelita,  295,  306, 
343, 386, 388, 416,  532,  575,  742 

Galli-Mari6,  586,  601 

GANDONNlfiRE,   542 

Gansemagd,  Die,  776 

Garcia,  716,  743  ff. 

Garcia,  Mme.  44 

Garcia,  Manuel,  44,  295,  309 

Garcia,  Jr.,  Manuel,  44 

Garcia,  Maria,  44,  295 

Garden,  Mary,  587,  603,  747, 
750,  756,761,801,  804,  837 

Garrison,  Mabel,  52 

Garrito,  Gen.,  746 

Garsenda,  680  ff. 

Caspar,  Don,  359  ff. 

Gates,  Lucy,  52,  375 

GATTEEREZ,  ANTONIO 
GARCIA    (Librettist),  402 

Gatti-Casazza,  516,  611 

GAUTHIER-VILLARS,  HEN- 
RY   (Librettist),  804 

Gay,  466 

Gazello,  339  ff. 

GAZZANIGA,  GIUSEPPE,  31 

Gelsomino,  707  ff. 

Gennaro,  339,  699  ff. 


Index 


859 


Genoveva,  752  S. 
Gedlier,  Le,  756  ff . 
Gerald,  724 

GERARD    (Librettist),  542 
Gerard,  Charles,  713  ff. 
Germania,  720 
Germont,  Alfredo,  416  ff. 
Germont,  Giorgio,  416  ff. 
Gerolamo  Savonarola,  627 
Gerold,  Herman,  612 
Geronte  De  Ravoir,  640  ff. 
Geister,  Etelka,  45,  319,  325, 

329,  335.  343.  546 
Gertrud,  Frau,  781 
Gertrude,  575,  778 
Gertrude,  Queen  of  Denmark,  586 
Gerville-Reache,  Jeanne,    746, 

^74? 
Gessler,  313  ff. 

GHISLANZONI,ANTONIO,439. 
441 

GIACOSA,  GIUSEPPE   (Libret- 
tist), 643,  652,  664 
Gianetta,  335  ff. 
Gianetto,  622  ff. 
GiANiNi,736 
Gianni  Schicchi,  677 
Giarno,  581  ff. 

GIESEKE  (Librettist),  45,  46 
Gil,  Count,  705 
Gilda,  387  ff. 

GiLiBERT,  Charles,  355, 602, 652, 
^745 

GlLKBERT,  Mr.,  752 

GILLE,  PHILIPPE  (Librettist), 

724.  736 
Gioconda,  La,  480,  481,  482,  638 
Gioconda,  La,  482  ff. 
Giogetta,  678 
GIORDANO,   UMBERTO,   607, 

707, 726 
Giorgio  D'Ast,  765 

GlORGI-RlGHETTl,  3OO,  308 

Giovanni,  377,  387,  680 
Giovanni  di  Guzman — Vespri  Sici- 

liani,  436 
Giovanni,  Don,  21,  22,  25,  30,  31, 

32,  33,  43.  51,  85,  493 

Giovanni,  Don,  21,  31  ff. 

GlRALDONI,482 

Giovanni  Galltirese,  697 
GIRARD,     ERNEST,   723 
Giscon,  752 


Gismonda,  761 

Gismonda,  761 

GLINKA,  MICHAEL  IVAN- 
OVICH,   818 

Gloom,  840 

Gluck,  Aluca,  9,  14 

GLUCK,  CHRISTOPH  WIL- 
BALD,  1,4,  6,  8,  12,  14, 17, 19, 
20,  22,  77,  90,  293,  493,  494 

Godfrey,  Duke,  117  ff. 

Godoimoff,  Boris,  822 

Godounoff,  Boris,  822 

GOETZ,    HERMANN,    769,  772 

GoFF,  Winifred,  665 

Golden  Cross,  The,  779 

Golden,  Grace,  612 

GOLDMARK,  CARL,   769,  773, 

775 

GOLISCIANI,  ENRICO  (Libret- 
tist), 699,  705 

Golo,  752  ff. 

GONDINET  (Librettist),  724 

Gorislava,  819 

GoRiTz,  Otto,  246,  272,  772,  776, 
807 

Gormas,  Conte  de,  742 

Goro,  665 

GOtterdfimmerung,  140,  207 

GOUNOD,  CHARLES  FRAN- 
COIS,  2,  438,  459,  494,  510 

GUORDON,  M.,  724 

Goyescas,  849 

GRANADOS,   ENRIQUE,    849 

Grange,  La,  416,  503 

Grau,  Maurice  (Director),  509, 

563 
Grazia,  699  ff. 
Graziani,  417 
Grech,  720 
Gregory,  575  ff. 
Gregorez,  762 
Gremin,  825 
Grenvil,  Dr.,  416  ff. 
Grenville,  Miss  Lilian,  837 
Gretel,  778 

Grieux,  Chevalier  Des,  640,  736  R. 
Grieux,  Count,  Des,  736  ff. 
Grimaldo,  Enzo,  482  ff. 
Griselda,  727 
Griselidis,  727 
Grivot,  M.,  724 

Grisi,  306,  309,  326,  329,  339,  374 
Grumio,  772 


86o 


Index 


Grun,  Frau,  89 

GUADAGNI,  GaeTANO,  12,  I4 

Gubetta.  339  flf. 

GUDEHUS,  272 

Guerra,  Barbara  de  la,  838 

Guerra,  Don  Francisco  de  la,  837 

Guevara,  Don  Fernando,  717  ff. 

Guglielmo,  52  ■ 

Guidon,  Prince,  828 

Guiche,  de,  841 

GUILLARD,         FRANCOIS 

(Librettist),  18 
Guillaume  Tell,  294,  312 

GUILLE,  612 

Guiseppe,  416  ff. 
GUNSBOURG,    RAOUL,   767 
Gunther,  89,  143,  208 
Guntram,  798 
Guntram,  799 

GURA,  89 

Gurnemanz,  272  ff. 
Gusmann,  Leonora  Di,  359  ff. 
Gustave  III,  ou  Le  Bal  Masque, 

426 
Gutrune,  89,  143,  208 
Gwynn,  840 


H 


Haensel,  778 

Haensel   und    Gretel,    746,    769, 

778,  807 
Hagen,  89,  143,  208 
HALEVY,    JACQUES,    2,    498, 

510 
Haltifere,  Mme.  de  la,  745 
Hamilcar,  752 
Hamlet,  585 
Hamlet,  585 
Hammerstein,  Oscar  (Director), 

612 
HANDEL,   14 
Handsome,  674 
Hanego,  619  ff. 
Hans,  816 
Hans  Heiling,  79 
Happy,  674  ff. 
Happy  Shade,  A,  9  ff. 
Harden,  272 
Haroun,  Prince,  605 
Harriette,    ou    La    Servante    de 

Greenwiche,  559 
Harry,  674  ff. 


HARTMANN,    G.     (Librettist), 

747 
HASSE,  JOHANN  ADOLPH,  4 
Hastreiter,  Helene,  9 
Hate,  14  ff. 
Hauck,  Minnie,    575,    586,   602, 

612,  736 
HAYDN,   51 
Hayes,  Miss,  516 
Hecuba,  539 
Hedvige,  Signora,  721 
Hedwiga,  313  ff. 
Heglon,  Mme.,  736 
Helene,  Duchess,  436  ff. 
HELL,  THEODOR   (Librettist), 

76 
Hellera,  697 
Hempel,  Freda,  23,  45,  246,  427, 

475.  504,  807 
HENDERSON,     WILLIAM    J. 

(Librettist),  841 
Henrietta,  330  ff. 
Henry  the  Fowler,  1 17  ff. 
HERBERT,   VICTOR,   837 
Herman,  827 
Hermann,  107  ff. 
Hermann,  Landgrave,  769 
Hero.  538,  715 
Hero  E.  Leandro,  715  ff. 
Herod,  749 
Herodiade,  748 
Herodias,  749,  801 
HE'ROLD,  LOUIS  J.  F.,  497 
Hexe,  Die,  776 
Hidraot,  15  ff. 
Hill,  89,  272 

HiNCKs,  Mrs.  Pemberton,  612 
HiNRiCHS,    Gustave    (Director), 

612,618,628 
HiNSHAW,  William,  776- 
HIPPOLYTE  (Librettist),  313 
Hoel,  531  ff. 
HoFER,  Mme.,  52 
Hoffman,  724 

HOLMAN,  MiSS,  309 

HoLMAN,  Mrs.,  23 

Holzhacker,  Der,  776 

Homer,  Louise,  9,  14,  140,  246, 

272,  402,  427,   475,  482,  665, 

776,  830 
HOOKER,    BRIAN    (Librettist), 

840 
Hortensio,  355 ^  772 


Index 


861 


Howard,  Kathleen,    762,    765, 

834.  836 
Hua-Qui,  686  ff. 

HUBERDEAU,  GUSTAVE,  756,  761, 
837 

Hu-chi,  686  ff. 

Huebscher,  Catherine,  708  ff. 

HUGO,  JOHN   ADAM,   834 

HUGO,  VICTOR  (Librettist), 
343,  377,  386 

Huguenots,  Les,  294,  498,  500, 
503,  510,  527,  731 

HUMPERDINCK,  ENG  EL- 
BERT, 769,776.778 

Hunding,  142,  163 

Hu-Tsin,  686  ff. 

Hylas,  541 


lago,  458  ff. 

lb  and  Little  Christina,  689 

Idomoneo,  51 

Idrenus,  310  ff. 

Igor,  820 

Igor,  Prince,  819 

Igoreivitch,  Vladimir,  820 

Iguamota,  718  ff. 

n  Barbiere  di  Siviglia,  705 

II  Cieco,  620  ff. 

n  Dissoluto  Punito,  ossia  il  Don 

Giovanni,  30 
ILLICA,      LUIGI      (Librettist), 

619, 625, 643, 652,  664, 712, 717, 

712 
Inez,  359,  403, 523 
Infanta,  742 
Intendant,  367 
lolan,  833 

Iphigenie  en  Aulide,  493 
Iphigenie  en  Tauride,  8,  9,  19,  20 
Iphigdnie,  18  ff. 
Iphigenia  in  Aulis,  85 
Irene,  94  ff. 
Iris,  611,  619,  620 
Irma,  750 

Isaac,  Mlle.  Adele,  724 
Is^po,  482,  ff. 
Isabeau,  611,  625 
Isabeau,  625  ff. 
Isabella,  501  ff. 
Isabel  of  Spain,  Queen,  717  ff. 
Isolde,  227  ff. 


Jackrabbit,  Billy,  674  ff. 

Jacob, 495 

Jacquino,  54  ff. 

Jadloker,  705 

Jadlowker,  Herman,  776 

Jager, 272 

Jago,  377  ff. 

Jagu, 831 

Jaide,  89 

Jamet,  585 

Jane,  721 

Janouschoffsky,  Mme.,  612 

Javotte,  736  ff. 

Jean,  746,  747 

Jean  de  Paris,  495 

Jebbel,  721 

Jemmy,  313  ff. 

Jessonda,  79 

Jewels  of  the  Madonna,  The,  699 

Joannes,  844 

Joe, 674  ff. 

Johanna, 844 

John, 775 

Johnson  Dick  (Ramarrez),  674  ff. 

John  the  Baptist,  749 

Jokanaan, 801 

Jonas,  516  ff. 

Jongleur  de  Notre  Dame,  Le,  746 

ff. 
Jopas,  541 
Jose,  Don,  587  ff. 
Josef,  764 

Joseph  en  Egypte,  495 
Joseph,  495 
JouRNET,  Marcel,  272,  477,  620, 

752,  761 
"JOUY,"      V.     J.     ETIENNE 

(Librettist),  313 
Juan, 744 
JucH,  Emma,  9 
Juive,  La,  498,  510,  731 
Julia,  768  ff. 
Julien,  750 
Juliet,  575  ff. 


K 


Kagama,  838 

KALBECK,    MAX    (Librettist), 

Kamac,  727 


862 


Index 


Kaspar,  64  ff. 
Katharina,  772 
Kathinka,  815 
ICati  Bettaque,  148 
KEISER,    REINHARD,   4 
Kellogg,    Clara    Louise,    367, 

546,  562 
Kelly,  Michael,  24 
Kemlitz,  227,  246 
Kerker,  Gustave  (Director),  612 
Kezal,  8~i7 

KIENZL,   WILHELM,    787,  788 
Kilian,  64  flf. 
Kingston,  Morgan,  835 
Kirchhofer,  Werner,  784 
Klingsor,  272  flf. 
Kobus,  Fritz,  619  ff. 
Koegel,  163 
Kogel,  Josef,  107 
Konchak,  Khan,  820 
Konchakovna, 820 
Konigskinder,  776 
Konigssohn,  Der,  776 
Konradin,  784 
Korner,  Carlo,  721 
Kothner,  Fritz,  246  ff. 
KousNEZovA,  Marie,  750 
KREUTZER,    CONRADIN,    80 
Kronold,  Selma,  612,  628 
Krusceniski,  665 
Kruschina,  815 
Kuhreigen,  Der,  788 
Kundry,  273  ff. 
Kunrad,  797 
Kurt,  18,  140 
Kurwenal,  227  ff. 
Kyoto,  630  ff. 


Lablache,  45, 329,  374,  562 
LACHMANN,    HEDWIG,  (Lib- 
rettist), 800 
Laertes,  581,  586 
L'Africaine,  500,  523,  527 
Lakme,  724 
Lakm^,  724 

L'Allemand,  Pauline,  725 
LALO,  727 
Lambert,  A.,  728 
L'Ame  en  Peine,  546 
Lammert,  Fraulein,  89 
L'Amore  Medici,  705  ff. 


L'Amore  Dei  Tre  Re,  690  ff. 

Lampe,  781 

L'Anery,  Gontran  de,  779 

LANGE,  FERDINAND,   76 

LANNER,   808 

Larina;  825 

Larkens,  674  ff. 

Lasalle,  523,  585 

Laura,  434,  482 

Laurenti,  Mario,  765,  844 

Lawrence,  Friar,  575  ff. 

Lazaro,  Hipolito,  765 

LAZZARI,  SYLVIO,   764 

Lazzari,  Virgilio,  720 

Leandro,  704, 715 

Lea  Villi,  638 

Leesugg,  Miss,  295,  308 

Lefebvre,  707  ff. 

Legros,  12,  13 

Legend,  The,  836 

Lehmann,  Lilli,  45.  62,  69,  89, 

93,  140,  191,  207,  227,  326,  475, 

516,603 
Lehmann,  Marie,  89 
Leila,  603 
Leila,  604 
Lelio,  704  ff. 

L'Elisire  d'Amore,  334,  335 
LEMAIRE,    FERDINAND, 

(Librettist),  725 
LENA,   MAURICE    (Librettist), 

746 
Lenski,  825 
Leonato,  538 
LEONI,  607,  686 
LEONCAVALLO,   RUGGIERO, 

7,  91,  607,  608,  627,  628,  638 
Leonhardt,  Robert,    769,    772, 

844 
Leonora,  Don,  437  ff. 
Leonora,  Duchess,  403  ff. 
Leonora,   ossia   L'Amore    Conju- 

gale,  55 
Leonore,  54,  62 
Leporello,  31  ff. 
Lepreuse,  La,  764 
LEROUX,  XAVIER,   765,  766 
Leroy,  707  ff. 
Lescaut  640, 736 
L'Etoile  du  Nord,  500,  530 
Letorieres,  Gastone  de,  416  ff. 
Leuthold,  313  ff. 
Levasseur,  501 


Index 


863 


Levi,   Hermann,   (Director),  52 

272 
Lherie,  601 
Liebesverbot,  Das,  82 
LiND,  Jenny,  325,  334,  355,  501 
Linda,  367,  ff. 
Linda  di  Chamoiinix,  367 
Lindorf,  724 
Lionel,  546,  834 
Lisa,  319,  827 
Lise,  841 
Lisetta,  706,  719 
LiSTNER,  Mme.,  163 
LISZT,     FRANZ,     86,  98,    117, 

120,  535,  769 

LiTUANI,  I,  481 
Liverotto,  339  ff. 
Lobetanz,  791 
Lobetanz,  791 

LOCLE,    CAMILLE    DU    (Lib- 
rettist), 439,  441 
Lodoletta,  611,  622 
Lodoletta,  622  ff. 
Lodovico,  459  ff. 
Loewe,  Frederick,  721 
Loge,  89, 148 
Lohengrin,  68,  69,  79,  86,  99,  117, 

"8,273,516 
Lohengrin,  117  ff. 
Lola,  612  ff. 
LoLLi,  Giuseppe,  32 
Lopez,  Juan,  793 
Loreley,  719  ff. 
Loreley,  720 
Loris,  Count,  720 
LORTZING,  ALBERT,   80 
Lothario,  581  ff. 
Louis  VI,  69  ff. 
Louise,  750 
Louise,  750 
Loys,  729 
Luc  Agnolo,  765 
Lucca,  355,  523 
Lucentio,  772 
Lucia,  343 
Lucia   di   Lammermoor,    7,    334, 

343,  376,  426,  608,  673 
Lucia,  Mamma,  612  ff. 
Lucinda,  706 
Lucinde,  14  ff. 
Lucrezia  Borgia,  334,  339 
Lucy,  343  ff. 
Ludmilla,  818 


LUDWIG,  736 

Ludwig,  Landgrave,  769 

Luigi,  678 

Luisa,  434  ff. 

Luisa  Miller,  433,  438 

LULLY,  4,  6,  17,  21 

LUSSAM,  Z^lie  de,  466 

Lutzoq,  Luigi,  721 

M 

Macbeth,  Florence,  719 
MACKAYE,  PERCY      (Libret- 

tist),  843 
Macro  ton.  Dr.,  706 
Madeleine,  7138'. 
Madeline,  367  ff. 
Madelon,  713  ff. 
Magda,  764 
Magdalena,  387  ff. 
MAETERLINCK,      MAURICE 

(Librettist),  752,  759 
Magared,  727 
Magda,  676  ff. 
Magdalena,  247,  787 
Maguenai,  Alfred,  750 
MAHLER,   GUSTAVE,   76 
Magic  Flute,  The,  7,  21,  22,  45, 

52, 55,  n.  85, 307 

Masetto,  31  ff. 
Malatesta,  Dr.,  372  ff. 

MaLATESTA,  POMPILIO,  844 

Malatestino,  680  ff. 

Mala  Vita,  707 

Malibran,  44 

Maliella,  699  ff. 

Mallika,  724 

Malten,262 

Manctnellei  (Director),  752 

MANCINELLI,   LUIGI,   715 

Manfredo,  690  ff. 

Manon  Lescaut,   638,    640,    736, 

741.  742 
Manon  Lescaut,  640,  736  ff. 
Maran,  Ernst,  776 
Mantua,  Duke  of,  386  ff. 
Manuela,  793 

Mapleson  (Director),  354,  712 
Manrico,  402  ff. 
Manru,  830 
Manru,  831 
Mantelli,  359,  503 
Marcel.  504.  643 


864 


Index 


MARAST,     ARMAND    (Libret- 
tist), 313 
Maic  Antony,  750 
Marcelina,  23  ff. 
Marcellina,  54  flf. 
Marconi,  458 
Marcy,  Mme.,  736 
Mardones,  516 
Marechal,  Mr.,  729,  746,  750 
Maretzek,  Mme.,  516 
Marguerite,  543,  562 
Margherita,  475  ff. 
Margiana,  771 
Maria,  784 
Marianne,  807 
Marie,  355,816 
Marimon,  531 
Marina,  707 
Marina,  8-22 
Marini,  501,  503 
Mario,  45,  374 
Mario,  326,  388,  516 
Marion  Delorme,  481 
Marke,  King,  227  flf. 
Marouf,  762 

Marouf ,  the  Cobbler  of  Cairo,  762 
Marriage  of  Figaro,  The,  21,  22, 

23.  30,  31.  295 
MARSCHNER,  HEINRICH,  79 
Marta,  836 
Martha,  546,  ff. 
Martha,  475,  787 
Martinelli,  680 
Martin,  Riccardo,  841 
Martyn,  Mrs.,  62 
MaruUo,  387  S. 
Mary,  98  ff. 

Masaniello,  496,  498,  510 
Masaniello,  496 
MASCAGNI,     PIETRO,     7,  91, 

607,  610,  612,  618, 638 
Maschere,  Le  (The  Maskers),  61 1 
Masetto,  36  flf. 
Masked  Ball,  The   (Un  Ballo  in 

Maschera),  426  ff. 
Mason,  Edith,  843 
MASSENET,  JULES,   2,  7,  306, 

494.   510,  727.   731,   736,   742; 

743,  745.  746,  747,  748,  750 
Massimele,  Marquis,  788 
Mateo,  716  fT. 

Materna,  Frau,  89, 163,  272,  498 
Mathieu,  713  ff- 


Mathieu-Lutz,  Mme.,  756 

Matheos,  718  ff. 

Matho,  752 

Mattfeld,  Marie,  674,  765,  772, 

776,  807 
Matthisen,  516  ff. 
MATTINATA,  306 
Matzenauer,    Margarete,     23. 

427=  504,516,769 

Maurel,  Victor,  45,  440,  458, 
466,503,623,627 

Max,  64  ff . 

May,  775 

MAYR,   SIMON,   55 

MEYREDER  -  OBERMAYER, 
ROSA,  792 

Mazarin,  804 

Mazzoleni,  Francesco,  523,  562 

McCoRMACK,  John,  45,  355,  837 

McGucKiN,  Barton,  736 

McIntyre,  Margaret,  475 

Medici,  I,  627 

Mefistofele,  475  ff. 

MEHUL,  ETIENNE  NICHO- 
LAS, 495 

MEILHAC.  HENRI  (Libret- 
tist), 586,  736 

Meistersinger  von  Nximberg,  Die, 
88,91,  119,246,  376 

Melba,  Nellie,  295,  306,  343, 
388, 416, 458, 503, 543, 564, 628 

MELESVILLE    (Librettist),  497 

Melisande,  753,  760 

Melisse,  14  ff. 

Melothal,  313  ff. 

MENASCI,  G.,  612 

MENDES,  CATULLE  (Libret- 
tist), 765 

Mephistopheles,  474 

Mephistopheles,  543,  562 

Mercedes,  587  flf. 

Mercedes,  Dona,  793 

Mercutio,  575  flf. 

Mere  Coupable,  La,  296 

Merlier,  759 

Merlot,  227  flf. 

Merrill,  Paul,  838 

Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  The,  80 

Meru,  504  flf. 

MERY  (Librettist),   437 

Messiah,  The,  14 

MEYERBEER,     GIACOMO,  i, 


Index 


865 


2,  79.  438,  440,  459,  494.  498, 
499,510,523 
Micaela,  587  ff. 

MiCELLI,  CaTARINA,  32 

Micha,  816 
Michela,  765 
Michele,  678 

MlERZ\VINSKl,3I3 

Mignon,  580  ff . 
Migncn,  581  ff. 
Mikkel,  764 

Mikleford,  Lord  Tristan  de,  546  ff. 
Miller,  434  ff. 

MILLIET  PAUL  (Librettist), 
747.  748 

MlLON,  44 

Mime,  89,  148 
Mimi,  143,  644 
Minnie,  674  ff. 
Miol4N-Carvalho,  562,  575 

MiRABELLA,  475 

Mirabolano,  719 
Miracle,  Dr.,  724 
Missail,  822 
Mitranus,  310  ff, 
Mol6,  Mlle.,  724 
Mona,  832,  840 
Mona,  840 
Monna  Vanna,  761 
Monna  Vanna,  761 
Montano,  459  ff. 

MoNTEAUX,  Pierre  (Director), 
762 

MONTEGRIFFO,  628 

MONTEMEZZI,  ITALO,  607, 
690 

Monterone,  Count,  386  ff. 

MONTEVERDE,  CLAUDIO,  5 

Montfleury,  841 

Montford,  Guy  de,  436  ff. 

Morales,  587  ff. 

MORAND,  EUGENE  (Libret- 
tist), 727 

MORAN,  Miss,  272 

Moran-Oldern,  140,  148 

MORELLO,  SiGNOR,  43 

Morfontaine  Guillot  de,  736  ff. 
Mors  et  Vita,  561 
MOSENTHAL,    G.    H.    (Libret- 
tist), 773 
MOSENTHAL,    H.    (Librettist), 

779 
Moser,  August,  246  S. 

55 


MoTTL,  Felix  (Director),  539 
Monostatos,  46  ff. 
MOUSSORGSKY,  822,  824 
MOZART,   21,22,24,30,33,43, 

45,  51,  55,  77, 293. 295. 426. 493 
Muette  dePortici,La  (Masaniello), 

496 
Muff,  816 

MOhlmann,  272,  830 
MULLER,  WENZEL,  46 
MuRATORE,  564,  575,  761 
MuRSKA,  Ilma  di,  45 
Musetta,  643  ff. 
Mustapha  Baba,  771 
Muzio,  516 
Mylio,  727 
Myrto,  757 
Mysteres  d'Isis,  Les,  45,  51 

N 

Nachtigall,  Conrad,  246  ff. 
Nachtlager  in  Granada,  Das,  80 

Nadir,  604 

Naiad,  15,  814 

Nancy,  546  ff. 

Nangis,  Raoul  de,  504  ff. 

Nanneti,  440 

Naoia,  833 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  707  ff. 

Narbal,  541 

Narraboth,  801 

Narr-Havas,  752 

Natomah,  837 

Natomah,  838 

Navara,  483 

Navarraise,  La,  605,  728,  745 

Ned  da,  608,  628 

Nelusko,  523  ff. 

Nemorino,  335  ff. 

Nereno,  475  ff. 

Nerone  (Nero),  480 

NESSLER,  VIKTOR  E.,   784 

Neuendorff,  Adolff,   107,   162, 

163 

Neumann,    Angelo    (Director), 

140 
Nevers,  Adolar  de,  69  ff. 
Nevers,  Count  de,  504  ff. 
Nibelungen,  Der  Ring  des,  139  ff. 
Nibelung,  The,  Dramas,  87,  88 
Nicias,  732 
Nick,  674  ff. 


866 


Index 


Nicklause,  724 

NICOLAI.   OTTO,   80,  466 

NicoLAY,  Mr.,  837 

NicoLiNi,  575 

Niemann,  62,  89,  140.  207,  227 

Nikalantha,  724 

Nikitin,  (Michael),  822 

NiLssoN,    Christine,    117,    402, 

416,  475,  483,   503,   546,   562, 

580, 585 
Ninus,  Ghost  of,  3x0  ff. 
Nipperg,  Count  de,  707  ff. 
Noemie,  745 
NoRDicA,   Lillian,  45,  140,  227, 

482,  503,  523 
Norina,  372  ff. 
Norma,  318,  325 
Norma,  326  fif . 
Norman,  343  S. 
Normando,  343 
NOSSIG,  ALFRED   (Librettist), 

830 
Nourabad,  604 
NouRRiT,  13,  313,  501 

NOVARA,  475,  562 

Nozze  di  Figaro,  Le,  23,  24,  309, 

376,  493,  808 
Nureddin,  771 


O 


Ober,  Magarete,  482,  772,  807, 

843 
Oberon,  63 

Oberthal,  Count,  516  ff. 

Ochs,  Baron,  807 

Octavian,  807 

OFFENBACH,    JACQUES,   723 

Olga, 825 

Olga,  Countess,  720 

Olympia,  724 

Onegin,  Eugen,  825 

Ophelia,  585 

Oracola,  L',  686  ff. 

Orestes,  18,  20,  804 

Orfeo,  8,  9.  13,  14 

Orfeo  ed  Euridice,  4,   5,  6,   8,  9, 

20,  77,  493 
Orlando,  765 
Oroe,  310  ff. 
Oros,  831 
Oroveso,  326  ff. 
Orsini,  Maffio,  339  ff. 


Orsino,  Paolo,  94  ff. 
Ortel,  Hermann,  246  ff. 
Orti,  764 
Ortrud,  117  ff. 
Osaka,  620  ff. 
Oscar  (Edgardo),  427  ff. 
Ostasio,  680  ff. 
OtheUo,  7,  376,  458,  480 
Othello,  458  ff. 
Ottavio,  704  ff. 
Ottavio,  Don,  31  ff. 
Ottokar,  Prince,  63  ff. 
Ory,  Comte,  294 


PADEREWSKI,  IGNACEJAN, 

830 
PAER.  55 

Page,  Mistress,  466  ff. 
Pagliacci,  I,  608,  618,  626,  628, 

698 
PAISIELLO,   300 
Palm,  Giovanni,  721 
Paltrinieri,  Giordano,  765 
Pamina,  45  ff. 
Pandolfe,  745 
Pantalis,  475  ff. 
Pantalone,  704  ff. 
Pantasille,  765 
Pantheus,  539,  541 
Paolo,  680  ff. 
Papagena,  46  ff. 
Papageno,  45  ff. 
Pappenheim,  163 
Paquina,  849 
Parepa-Rosa,  503 
Paris,  Count,  575  ff. 
PARKER,   HORATIO,   832,  840 
Parpignol,  643  ff. 
Parsifal,  90,  119,  247,  272 
Parsifal,  2y2  ff. 
Pasquali,  di,  372 
Pasquale,  Don,  334,  372 
Pasquale,  Don,  372  ff. 
PASQUE,  ERNST    76 
Path,  Adelina,    295,    305,    308, 

309,   319.   343,   354,   355.   367, 
377,  388,  416,   531,    546,    564, 

725,  742 
Patti,  Carlotta,  45 
Pauloff,  Stephen,  836 


Index 


867 


Pearman, 23 

P£cheurs  de  Perles,  Les,  603  ff. 

Pedro,  743,  793 

Pedro,  Don,  31.  523,  53^ 

Pelleas,  752  flf. 

Pell^as  et  M61isande,  2,  752 

PEPOLI,    COUNT    (Librettist), 

32? 
Peralta,  Father,  837 
PERI,  JACOPO,   4 
PERINET   (Librettist),  46 
Perini,  Flora,  765 
PERIQUET,    FERNANDO, 

(Librettist),  850 

PeROZZI,  SlGNOR,  333 

PERRIER,  MARTIAL  (Libret- 
tist), 764 

Persiani,  343 

Pescatori  di  Perle,  603 

Peschka-Leutner,  306 

Peter,  779 

Peters,  721 

Peter  the  Great,  530 

Petruchio,  772 

Pettigiani.  523 

Phanuel,  749 

Phenice,  14  flf. 

Philine.'sSi  ff. 

PhUip,  834 

Philip  II.  438 

Phillipps,  Thomas,  23,  295,  308 

Philodme,  756  flf. 

PIAVE,  FRANCESCO  MARIA 
(Librettist),  377  386,  416,  718 

PICCINI,    NICOLA,   8,9,20 

PiCCOLOMINl,  416 

Pico,  838 

Pierre,  767 

Pierrot,  367  ff. 

Pimen,  822  fif. 

PiNi-CoRsi,  Antonio,  372,  776 

PiNKERT,  329 

Pinkerton,  Kate,  665  ff. 

Pinkerton,  Lieutenant  B.F.,665  flf. 

Pipe  of  Desire,  The,  833 

Pique-Dame,  827 

Pistacchio,  Don  Hannibal,  375 

Pistol,  466  flf. 

Pizarro,  54  fif. 

Placide,  Mr.,  62 

PLAN50N,  Pol,  359,  427,  475,  482, 

503,  516,  565,  587,  715,  745 
Plummer,  Edward,  775    . 


Plunkett,  564  flf. 

Pogner,  Veit,  246  flf. 

Polkan,  Voevoda,  829 

PoUione,  326  flf. 

Polonius,  586 

Poly.\ena,  539 

Pomone,  765 

Pompeo,  536  ff. 

PONCHIELLI,        AMILCARE, 

480,  481,638 
PoNSELLE,  Rosa,  836 
PoNziANi,  Felice,  32 
PORDES-MILO         (Librettist), 

781 
Postilion  de  Long;iuneau,  Le,  497 
Pousette,  736  flf. 
Prefect,  367  flf. 
Preisch,  Mr.,  837 
Pretre,  Le  Grand,  756  flf. 
Preusser,  Felix,  163 
Priam,  539 

Procida,  Giovanni  di,  436  fif. 
Prodigal  Son,  The,  481 
ProphSte,  Le,  500,  504,  516,  731 
Pruette,  William,  612 
PUCCINI,  GIACOMO,  I.  7,  91. 

482,  607,  638,  643,  652 
PuENTE,  Del,  117,  437,  483 
Puisct,  Eglantine  de,  69  fif. 
Puritani,  I,  318,  329 
PUSHKIN    (Librettist),  822 
Pylades,  182  flf. 


Q 


Quichotte,  Don,  743  flf. 
Quichotte,  Don,  743  flf. 
Quickly,  Dame,  466  flf. 
.QUINALT,  FRANCOIS  (Libret- 
tist), 14,  17 
Quintus,  840 

R 

RABAUD,  HENRI,   763 
Rachel,  498 
Rafaele,  699  flf. 
Raggio  di  Luna,  689 
Raguencau,  841 
Raimbaut,  501 
Raimondo,  343 
Raimondo,  94  flf. 
Raimondo,  King,  625  flf. 


/ 


868 


Index 


Raisa,  Rosa,  625 

Rambaldo,  676  ff. 

RAMEAU,    1,21 

Ramphis,  439 

Ranee,  Jack,  674  ff. 

Rangoni,  822 

Rappold,  Marie,  18,  772 

Ratmir,  818 

Ratsaltesti,  Der,  776 

Raymond,  343  flf. 

Redemption,  La,  561 

Reichmann,  272 

Reine  Fiammette,  La,  765 

Reiner,  Marcel,  776 

Reinhart  (Renato),  427  ff. 

Reiss,  Albert,  52,  375,  665,  674, 

765,  772,  776,  807,  843 
Renaud,  Maurice,  45,  387,  475, 

543,  747, 749 
Renaud  (Rinaldo),  15  flf. 
Repela,  793 
Retz,  de,  504 
REYER,   752 

Rheingold,  Das,  87,  89,  139,  148 
Rhinedaughters,  89,  141 
Rhodis,  757 
Riadames,  439  flf. 
Riccardo,  Don,  377  flf. 
RICCI,   FEDERIGO,  718 
RICCI,   LUIGI.  718 
RICCORDI,   TITO    (Librettist), 

680 
Richard,  Count  of  Warwick,  427  flf. 
Richard  II.,  King,  843 
RICHEPIN,  JEAN   (Librettist), 

766 

RiCHINGS,  319 

RiCHTER,  Hans  (Director),  89, 
107,  246 

Ricke,  721 

Rienzi,  der  Letzte  der  Tribune, 
84,  94,  98,  109,  118 

Rienzi,  Cola,  94  flf. 

RIESE,  WILHELM  FRIED- 
RICH  (Librettist),  546 

Rigoletto,  7,  376,  386,  426,  438, 
466,  471,  602 

Rigoletto,  386  flf. 

Rimini,  Giacomo,  720 

RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF,   828 

Rinegata,  La,  343 

Ring  Dramas,  The,  91,  119,  122, 
247      -  - 


RioTON,  Miss,  750 

Rip  Van  Winkle,  689 

RIVAS,  DUKE  OF  (Librettist), 

437 
Robert,  639 
Robert,  Duke,  501,  799 
Roberti,  653  flf. 
Robert  le  Diable,  498,  500,  504, 

510 
Robertson,  Sir  Benno,  330  flf. 
Robin,  466  flf. 
Robinson,  Adolf,  107,  117,  208. 

227 
Rocco,  54,  699 
ROCHE,       HENRI       PIERRE 

(Librettist),  764 
Roderigo,  459  ff. 
Rodolpho,  Count,  319,  434 
Rodrigo,  742 

Rodrigo,  Marquis  de  Posa,  438 
Rodriguez,  744 
Roi  d'Ys,  Le,  727 
Roland  of  Berlin,  628 
ROMANI,  FELICE  (Librettist), 

318,325,335,339 
Romeo,  575  ff. 
Romeo  et  Juliette,  561,  574 
RoNCONi,  Mlle.,  580 

RONCONl,  387 

Rondine,  La,  639,  676 
ROQUETTE,  OTTO  (Librettist), 

769 
Rosa,  Parepa,  546 
Rosario,  850 
Rosaura,  704  ff. 

Rosencavalier,  Der,  376,  759,  807 
Rose.  725 

ROSENFELD,  SYDNEY,    374 
Rosette,  736  ff. 

ROSICK,  SlGNOR,  295 

Rosina,  295,  306,  308 
ROSMER,  ERNST    (Librettist), 

776 
Rossa,  La,  708  ff. 
ROSSI,  GAETANO  (Librettist), 

309,  367 

Rossi,  GiULio,  335,  844 

ROSSINI,  GIOACHIMO  AN- 
TONIO, I,  22,  25,  293,  307, 
309,  312,  334,  426,  493,  494, 
498,  510,  608 

RoTHiER,  Leon,  762,  765 

Roucher,  713  ff. 


Index 


869 


Roustan,  707  ff. 
Rouvel,  Baron,  720 
Roxana, 841 

ROYER,    ALPHONSE    (Libret- 
tist), 359 
RozE,  Marie,  736 
Rozenn, 727 
RuBiNi,45,  329 
Rudolph,  313,  643 
Ruedi,3i3  ff. 
Rufina,  716  ff. 

RuFFo,  TiTTA,  387,  475,  585,  717 
Ruggero,  676  ff. 
Ruin  of  Athens,  The,  56 
Ruiz,  402  ff. 

RUSSITANO,  466 

Russian,  818 

Russian  und  Ludmilla,  818 

Rustighello,  339  ff. 

RUYSDAEL,  BASa,  769,  772,  844 


SABINA,    R,    (Librettist),  815 
Sachs,  Hans,  145,  246 
Sacrifice,  The,  832 
SAGANA,    LUIGI     (Librettist), 

704 
St.  Bris,  Count  de,  504  ff. 
St.  Elizabeth,  769 
ST.  GEORGE,   559 

SAINT-SAENS,   725 

Salammbo,  752 

Salammbo,  752 

Saleza,  Albert,  575,  587,  715, 

752 
Salignac,  Mr.,  752 
SALIERI,  24,466 
Salome,  769,  800 
Salome,  749,  8or 
Saluce,  Marquis  de,  728 
Salvi,  502,  516 
Salviat ,  Cardinal,  536  ff. 
Salvini-Donatelli,  417 
Samaritana,  680  ff. 
Sammarco,  Mr.,  458,  705,  837 
Sammares,  699 
Samson,  725 

Samson  et  Dalila,  i4>  725 
Samuel,  427  ff. 
Sancho,  743  ff. 
Sanger, 227 
Sandelius,  Marie,  844 


Sanderson,  Sibvl,  736,  741 

Sans  Gine,  Madame,  707  ff. 

Sante,  705 

Santley,  503,  562,  585 

Santuzza,6i3  ff. 

Saporiti,  Teresa,  32 

Sappho, 561,  728,  749 

Sarastro,  45  ff. 

SARDOU    (Librettist),  728,    761 

Saretsky,  825 

Satan, 728 

Sauteriot,  Le,  764 

Savoie,  Euryanthe  de,  69  ff. 

ScALCHi,  309,  458,  466,  483,  562, 

580 
Scaramuccio,  814 

ScARIA    272 

SCARLATTI,  ALESSANDRO,  5 
Scarpia,  Baron,  652  ff. 
Schaunard,  643  ff. 
Schauspiel-director,  der,  52 

SCHEFF,  FrITZI,  23,  83O 
SCHEFSKY,  FrAULEIN,  89 

Schicchi,  679 
SCHIKANEDER,     EMANUEL 

(Librettist),  45,  46,  55 
SCHILLER   (Librettist),  434, 437 
ScHLEGEL,  Carl,  769,  835,  844 

SCHLOSSER,  89 

Schmidt,  713  ff. 

Schneider,  Der,  776 

ScHOTT,  Anton,  107,  163,497,516 

Schreiber,  Heinrich  der,  107  ff. 

SCHROEDER-DEVRltNT,  MmE.,  56, 

84 

Schroeder-Hanfstaengl,  516 
Schumann-Heink,  140,  246,  340, 
516,806 

Schwartz,  Hans,  246  ff. 

Schwerlein,  Martha,  562  ff. 

Sciarrone,  653  ff. 

Scolara,  440 

ScoTTi,    Antonio,   23,   45,    335, 

372,  427,  458,  466,  504,  620, 

640,  652,  665,  686,  705,  752 
SCRIBE    (Librettist)    436,    495, 

498,501,503,516,523.528 
Segreto  di  Susanna,  II,  698,  705 
Seidl,  Anton  (Director),  62,  69, 

117,  140,227,246,255 
Seidl-Kraus,  107,  117,  163,  191, 

207,  246 
Selika,  523  ff. 


870 


Index 


Selysette,  759  flf. 

Sembach,  Johannes,  18,  772,  843 

Sembrich,  23,  45,  295,  306,  319, 
325,  335,  343,  355.  372,  377, 
416,  483,  503,  546,  565, 725, 830 

Semiramide,  309  ff. 

Semiramide,  310  ff. 

Seneschal,  769 

Senta,  98  ff. 

Sentlinger,  Ortolf,  797 

Serafina,  375 

Serena.  699  ff. 

Seso,  757 

Setti.  503 

Sforza,  Cardinal,  765 

Shahabarim,  752 

Shanewis,  834 

Shanewis,  or  The  Robin  Woman, 

834 

Sharpless,  665  ff. 

Sheba,  The  Queen  of,  773 

Sheba,  Queen  of,  773 

Sheehan,  Joseph  F.,  665 

Shouisky,  822 

Siberia,  714 

Sid,  674  ff. 

Sidonie,  14  ff. 

Siebel,  562  ff. 

Siegfried,  87,  89,  91,  140,  191 

Siegfried,  89,  140,  143,  208 

Sieglinde,  89,  140,  142,  146,  164 

Siegmunde,  89,  140,  142,  146,  163 

SiEHR,  89,  272 

SiLVAiN,  728 

Silvan,  427  ff. 

SILVESTRE,  ARMAND  (Li- 
brettist), 727 

Silvio,  628  ff. 

Simeon,  495 

SIMONI,  RENATO  (Librettist), 
707 

Singspiel,  51 

SiNico,  Mme.,  586 

Siriex,  de,  720 

Sizes,  752 

Skoula,  820 

Slach,  Anna,  107 

Slezak, 458 

Smaradi,  680  ff. 

SMETANA,  FRIEDRICH,  769, 

815 
Solomon,  King,  773 
Somarona,  538 


SOMMA-SCRIBE  (Librettist), 
426 

Songe  d'une  Nuit  d'Ete,  Le,  467 

Sonnambula,  La,  7,  318,  331,  376, 
426, 608 

SONNLEITHNER,  JOSEPH 
(Librettist),  54,  55 

Sonora,  674  ff. 

Sontag,  355 

Sophie,  748,  807 

Sophie,  Landgravine,  769 

Spallanzani,  724 

Sparafucile,  386  ff. 

Sparkes,  Lenore,  765 

Spendius,  752 

Spielmann,  Der,  776 

Splendiano,  605 

SPOHR,  LUDWIG,  79 

Spoletta,  653  ff. 

SPONTINI,   GASPARO,  80 

Springer,  816 

Stackareff,  Count,  836 

Stagno,  483 

Stallmagd,  Die,  776 

Stapps,  721 

STASSOFP  (Librettist),  819 

Staudigl,  163 

Stchelakov,  Andrey,  822 

Steffanone,  402,  501,  503,  516 

Stella,  699,  724 

STERBINI,  CESARE  '  (Libret- 
tist), 295 

Stockton,  Fanny,  562 

Stolzing,  Walther  von,  246  ff. 

Storchio,  665 

Strakosch,  Max  (Director),  440 

STRAUSS,  JOHANN,  808 

STRAUSS,  RICHARD,  7,  20,  32, 
306,  769, 796, 798, 800, 804, 807, 

813 
Stritt,  117,  246 
SUARATONI   (Librettist),  618 
Sulamith,  773 
Sulpice,  355  ff. 
Sulzer,  Henrietta,  562 
SuNDALis,  Marie,  834 
Suor  Angelica,  677 
Susanna,  23  ff. 
Susel,  619  ff. 
SusiNi,  326 

Suzanne,  Countess,  705 
Suzuki,  665  ff. 
Sviatoslav,  Prince,  820 


Index 


871 


Svietosar,  818 
SzAMOZY,  Elsa,  665 


Tabarro,  D,  677 

Tackleton,  775 

Tagliafico,  516 

Taglioni,  501 

Talazac,  M.,  72± 

Talbot,  Lord  Arthur,  330  fT. 

Tamagno,  313,  458 

Tamburini,  329,  374 

Taming  of  the  Shrew,  The,  772 

Tamino,  45  B. 

Tancredi,  12,  294,  307 

Tannhauser,  68,  69,  79,  85,  86, 
88,  99, 106,  118,  226,  303, 516 

Tannhauser,  107  ff. 

Tan  Taanach,  752 

TARGIONI-TOGGETTI,  GIO- 
VANNI   (Librettist),  612 

Taskin,  M.,  724 

Tatiana,  825 

Tavannes,  504  ff. 

Tchemomo,  819 

Teal,  Jeannie,  612 

TEGANI,  RlCCARDO,  844 

Tell,  William,  313  ff. 

Temple  Dancer,  The,  834 

Tempi er  imd  die  Judin,  Der,  79 

Tenebrun,  744 

Teresa,  319,  536 

Ternina,  Milka,  140,  227,   272, 

652 
Tetrazzini,  LuisA,  295,  319,  325, 

329.  343,  355,  388,  416,  458, 

531,725 
Thais,  728,  731 
Thais,  732 

Thallus,  Primus,  788 
Th^r^se,  779 
Thoas,  i8ff. 
THOMAS,       AMBROISE,    580, 

585, 586 
Thore,  504  ff. 
Three  Pintos,  The,  76 
THUILLE  LUDWIG,   791 

TlCHATSCHEK,  84 
TlETJENS,  306,  339 

Tiffany,  Marie,  765,  844 
Timon,  756  ff. 
Tic  Lucas,  793 


Titurel,  272  ff. 

Toinet,  767 

Toinette,  708,  767 

Tolak,  767 

Tom  (Tommaso),  427  ff. 

Tomaso,  832 

Tomes,  Dr.,  706 

Tommaso  Chatterton,  626 

Tonio,  355,  628,  716 

Tonuelo,  793 

ToRRiANi,  Mlle.,  440 

Torvaldo  e  Dorliska,  300 

Tosca,  638,  644,  652 

Tosca,  Floria,  652  ff. 

ToscANiNi  (Director),  705 

Traviata,  La,  376,  416,  438,  471 

Trebelli,475,58i 

TREITSCHKE,         GEORG 

FRIEDRICH   (Librettist),  54, 

56 
Trentini,  602 
Trin,  674  ff. 
Trine,  764 
Triquet,  825 
Tristan,  227  ff. 
Tristan  und  Isolde,  87,   88,  91, 

119,  227,  247,  335 
Trompeter  von  KlikkJngen,  Der, 

784 
Trouble      (Cio-Cio-San's     child), 

665  ff. 
Trovatore,  II,  376,  402,  471 
Troyens  k  Carthage,  540  ff. 
Troyens,  Les,  La  Prise  de  Troie, 

539  ff- 
Truffaldin,  814 
TSCHAIKOWSKY,   MODESTE 

(Librettist),  825,  827 
TSCHAIKOWSKY,        PETER 

ILITSCH,  825,  827 
Turiddu,  609,  612 
Tybalt,  575  ff. 

U 

Ubalde,  15  ff. 

Ugalde,     Mlle.     Marguerite, 

724 
Ulana,  831 
Ulrica,  427  ff. 
Undine,  80 
Unger,  89 
Urbain,  504  ff. 


872 


Index 


Urok,  831 
Ursula,  538 
Utopal,  495 


V 


Valda,  Giulia,  434 
Valentine,  504,  562 
Valery,  Violetta,  416  ff. 
Valkyr,  The,  89,  91 
Valleria,  475 
Valois,  Elizabeth  de,  438 
Valois,  Marguerite  de,  504  flE. 

VALTELLINO,  SlGNOR,  333 

Valzacchi,  807 

Vampyr,  Der,  79 

Van  Dyck,  140 

Vannard,  622  flf. 

Van  Rooy,  140,  246,  272 

Van  Zandt,  Miss,  725 

Varesi,  417 

Varlaam,  822 

Vasari,  765 

Vasco  Da  Gama,  523,  ff. 

VAUCAIRE    (Librettist),  716 

Vecchio,  Cecco  del,  94  ff. 

Venus,  107  ff. 

Vepres  Siciliennes,  Les,  440 

VERDI,  GIUSEPPI,  I,  6,  7,  22, 
90,  91,  334,  376,  377,  386,  402, 
416,  426,  436,  481,  493,  494, 
608,  638,  847 

Verkaxifte  Brant,  Die,  815 

VERNOY,  BAYARD  (Libret- 
tist), 355 

VERNOY,  JULES  H.  (Libret- 
tist), 355,  559 

Verona,  Duke  of,  575  ff. 

Versiegelt,  781 

Vestale,  La,  80 

Vestivalli,  309,  402 

Viardo-Garcia,  Pauline,  13,  44, 
305,  516 

Vicini,  434 

Vieil  Aigle,  Le,  767 

VlETTl,  503 

ViLLANi,  Louise,  690 
Villi,  Le,  639  ff. 
Vinaigre,  707  ff. 
Viola,  765 
Violette,  765 
Violine,  765 
Viscardelio,  402 


Vitellozzo,  339  ff. 

VoGEL,  89 

Vogelgesang,  Kunz,  246  ff. 

Vogelweide,  von  der,  107  ff. 

VON    BREUNING,   STEPHAN 

(Librettist),  56 
VON  BuLOW,     Hans      (Director), 

227,  246,  535 
VON        CHEZY,        HELMINE 

(Librettist),  69 

VON  DOENHOF,  HeLEN,  6I2 

Von  Faninal,  807 

VON   FLOTOW,    FRIEDRICH, 

546,  559 
von  Gundelfingen,  Schweiker,  797 
VON     HOPMANNASTHAL, 

HUGO,    (Librettist)    804,    807, 

813 

VON  MlLDE,  227 

von  Schonau,  Baron,  784 
von  Werdenberg,  Princess,  807 
von  Wildenstein,  Count,  784 
VON  WOLZOGEN,  ERNST,  796 

W 

Wachtel,   Theodore,   496,    497, 

503 
WAEZ,    GUSTAVE    (Librettist), 

359 
Waffenschmied,  Der,  80 

Wagner,  475,  562 

WAGNER,  RICHARD,  6,  8,  68, 
71,  79,  81,  86,  90,  98,  106,  117, 
118,  139,  148,  163,  191,  207, 
^^1,  293,  459,  481,  483,  494, 
562,  626,   759,   769,   803,   807, 

847 
Walker,  Edyth,  482 
Walkiire,  Die,  7,  87,  139,  163  ff. 
Wallace,  Jake,  675  ff. 
Walse,  142  ff. 
Walter,  720 
Walter,  Count,  434  ff. 
Walter,  Edna,  776 
Walton,  Lord  Gautier,  329  ff. 
Walton,  Sir  George,  329  ff. 
Waltraute,  89,  140,  208 
Warwick,  Veni,  765 
WEBER,  CARL  MARIA  VON, 

63,  68,  76,  77,  79,  493,  562 
Weckerin,  Fraulein,  89 


Index 


873 


WEa,  18,  807 

Wellgtinde,  148,  208 

Wcnzel,  816 

Werthcr,  747 

Werther,  748 

WETTE,    ADELHEID    (Libret- 
tist), 778 

White,  Carolina,  699,  705 

White,  Phillis,  765 

Whitehill,  Clarence,  246,   769, 
772 

WicKHAM,  Florence,  776 

WIDMANN,  VICTOR    (Libret 
tist),  772 

Wilhelm,  584  flF,  724 

Wildschiitz,  Der,  80 

William  Tell,  498,  510 

Willmers,  Frau,  781 

WILLNER,   M.    (Librettist),  775 

WlNCKELMANN,  272 

Win-San-Lui,  686  ff. 
Win-She,  686  flF. 
Wirt,  Der,  776 
Wirtstochter,  Die,  776 
Woglinde,  148,  208 
WOLF-FERRARI,      ERMANO, 

607,698 
WOLF,   HUGO,   792 
Wood,  Mr.,  319,  501 
Wood,  Mrs.,  319,  501 
Worms,  Carl,  721 
Wotan,  89,  140,  141,  148,  164 
Wowkle,  675  ff . 
Wulf,  639 


X 


Xenia,  822 

Ximenes,  Don  Ronaldo,  718  ff. 


Yakuside,  665  ff. 
Yamadori,  Prince,  665  ff. 
Yaroslavna,  Princess,  820 
Yeletsky,  Prince,  828 
Ygraine,  759  ff. 
Yniold,  753  ff. 
Yoga,  835 
Yppolito,  G.,  562 


Zacaria,  Franco,  762 
Zacharias,  516  ff. 
Zamboni,  301 
Zamiel,  64  ff. 
Zampa,  497 
ZANARDINI 
ZANDONAI, 

680,  716 
Zanetto,  611 
ZANGARINI, 

674.699,716 
7AN0NI,  CAMILLO  (Librettist), 

686 
ZauberflSte,  Die,  51,  493 
Zaza,  628 

Zenatello,  458,  665 
Zerbinetta,  814 
Zerlina,  31,  36 
Zina,  767 
Zitterbart,  787 
Zorn,  Balthazar,  246  ff. 
Zuane,  482  ff. 
Zucarraga,  746 

ZUCCHI,523 

Zuniga,  587  ff. 

Zurga,  604 

Zweter,  Reiman  von,  107  ff. 


(Librettist),  720 
RICCARDO,  607, 


C.      (Librettist), 


My  Path  Through  Life 

By  Lilli  Lehmann 

Translated  from  the  German  by 
Alice  Benedict  Seligman 

8°.    About  500  pp.     With  50  Illustrations 


Mme.  Lehmann  gives  us  a  volume  of  memoirs, 
musical  and  personal,  which  will  command  the 
attention  of  the  world-wide  public  which  this 
great  singer  has  charmed.  The  book  is  written 
with  her  characteristic  sincerity  and  frankness. 
She  unfolds  the  complete  story  of  her  life,  de- 
voting a  generous  measure  of  attention  to  her 
Mends  and  rivals  upon  the  operatic  stage. 

Her  achievements  in  Prague,  Leipsic,  Vienna, 
and  elsewhere,  her  struggles  in  Berlin,  her  ex- 
tended tours  in  Europe  and  America,  are  fasci- 
natingly told.  She  presents  an  account  of  her 
collaborations  with  Wagner  at  Bayreuth,  and 
tells  of  her  experiences  at  Court. 

The  pleasant  as  well  as  the  arduous  aspects  of 
the  artist's  career  are  presented  with  a  wealth 
of  anecdote. 


G.  P.  Putnam*s  Sons 


New  York 


London 


"  Clear  in  construction,  direct  in  purpose,  and 
written  with  intellectual  calm,  yet  with  the 
enthusiasm  of  a  musician," — N.  Y,  Sun. 


The  Life  of 
Johann    Sebastian    Bach 

BY 

Sir  Hubert  Parry,  M.A.,  Mus.  Doc,  D.C.L. 

Professor  of  Music,  Oxford;  Director  of 
Royal  College  of  Music 

Author  of  "  Studies  of  Great  Composers,"  "  Evolution 
of  the  Art  of  Music,"  etc. 

8to.     With  Portraits, 

Sir  Hubert  Parry's  Johann  Sebastian  Bach,  Com- 
poser^ is  at  once  a  biography  and  a  critical  and 
historical  study  of  the  achievements  of  the  great 
eighteenth-century  composer,  director,  and  per- 
former upon  the  organ  and  piano.  The  eminence 
of  Sir  Hubert  Parry  himself  as  a  composer  and  as 
a  writer  and  student  of  music  needs  no  comment 
here.  For  the  last  decade  he  has  been  professor 
of  music  at  Oxford.  Considering  the  importance 
of  the  man  who  is  the  subject  of  this  life,  and  the 
authority  of  Sir  Hubert  Parry  as  a  critic  and 
writer,  no  student  of  music  can  afford  to  be  a 
stranger  to  this  thorough  and  comprehensive  work. 

G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 
New  York  London 


Memoirs  of  a  Prima 
Donna 

By  Clara  Louise  Kellogg 

(Mme.  Strakosch) 
<y°.  With  48  Illustrations, 


Clara  Louise  Kellogg,  who  is  now  Clara  Louise  Stra- 
kosch, was  the  first  American  prima  donna  to  win  re- 
cognition abroad.  After  making  her  d^but  in  opera  at 
the  Academy  of  Music,  in  New  York,  in  1 86i ,  she  appeared 
in  opera  in  London  and  later  in  BerUn,  Vienna,  and  Saint 
Petersburg.  In  every  country  she  was  received  with 
acclaim  and  returned  to  her  native  land  covered  with 
honors  showered  upon  her  by  the  best  audiences  that 
the  old  world  affords. 

Miss  Kellogg  created  the  r61e  of  Marguerite  in  Gounod's 
Faust  in  this  country,  and  of  Mignon  in  Ambroise 
Thomas's  opera  of  that  name.  After  winning  laurels 
in  Italian  opera  she  organized  an  English  opera  company 
of  her  own,  which  sang  for  several  seasons  in  New  York 
and  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States.  While  at 
the  head  of  her  own  company  she  produced  Wagner's 
Flying  Dutchman  for  the  first  time  in  America,  creating 
the  r61e  of  Senta,  and  she  was  the  first  prima  donna  to 
sing  A'ida  and  Carmen  in  English.  Miss  Kellogg  was 
famous  not  only  for  the  beautiful  quality  of  her  voice  but 
for  her  marvelous  musical  ear.  It  is  ^aid  that  there  were 
over  forty  operas  that  she  cotdd  sing  on  twenty-four 
hours'  notice,  and  that  never  once  in  the  course  of  her 
operatic  career  had  she  been  known  to  sing  a  fraction  of 
a  tone  off  the  key. 

These  Memoirs  are  filled  with  anecdotes  of  the  interest- 
ing people  whom  she  met,  on  and  off  the  stage,  and  con- 
tain a  fund  of  information  about  voice  culture  and  the 
study  of  music  that  no  one  interested  in  the  subject  can 
read  without  profit. 

New  York     G.   P.   Putnam's   Sons     London 


"».««.  A  A  «. 


An  Ideal  Biography 


Richard    Wagoner 

His  Life  and  His  Dramas 

A  Biographical  Study  of  the  Man  and  an 
Explanation  of  His  Work 

By 

W.  J.  Henderson 

Author  of  "The  Story  of  Music,"  "Preludes  and 
Studies,"  "What  is  Good  Music."  etc. 


The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  supply  Wagner-lovers  with 
a  single  work  which  shall  meet  all  their  needs.  The  author 
has  told  the  story  of  Wagner's  life,  explained  his  artistic  aims, 
given  the  history  of  each  of  his  great  works,  examined  its 
literary  sources,  shown  how  Wagner  utilized  them,  surveyed 
the  musical  plan  of  each  drama,  and  set  forth  the  meaning  and 
purpose  of  its  principal  ideas.  The  volume  has  been  prepared 
with  great  care  and  no  little  labor,  and  is  not  intended  to  be 
critical,  but  is  designed  to  be  expository.  It  aims  to  help  the 
Wagner-lover  to  a  thorough  knowledge  and  understanding  of 
the  man  and  his  works. 

"  An  exposition  rather  than  a  criticism  of  Wagner's  art,  for 
in  Wagner's  case  it  is  peculiarly  true  that  any  biographical 
study  of  the  man  is  inseparable  from  an  explanation  of  his 
works.  Mr.  Henderson's  book  is  intended  to  help  the  lover 
of  Wagner  to  a  thorough  knowledge  and  understanding  both 
of  the  man  and  his  works.  Nothing  in  the  English  language, 
at  least,  has  ever  so  fully  covered  the  subject." — /Review  of 
Reviews. 


G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 

New  York  London 


/' 


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